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in  2011  with  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/harpersencyclop01loss1 


HARPER'S     ENCYCLOPAEDIA 

of 

UNITED    STATES    HISTORY 

From    458    a.d.    to     1902 


BASED  UPON  THE  PLAN  OF 

BENSON  JOHN   LOSSINQ,  LL.D. 

SOMETIME     EDITOR     OF    "THE     AMERICAN    HISTORICAL    RECORD  "  AND     AUTHOR    OF 
"THE  PICTORIAL  FIELD-BOOK  OF  THE  REVOLUTION  "  "THE  PICTORIAL  FIELD- 
BOOK    OF     THE     WAR     OF     1812"     ETC.,     ETC.,     ETC. 

WITH   SPECIAL   CONTRIBUTIONS    COVERING   EVERY  PHASE  OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  AND 
DEVELOPMENT  BY  EMINENT  AUTHORITIES,  INCLUDING 

JOHN  FISKE.  WOODROW  WILSON,  Ph.D.,    LL.D. 

THE  AMERICAN  HISTORIAN  PROF.  OF  JL'RISPRUDENCE  AT  PRINCETON 

WM.  R,  HARPER,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.D.  GOLDWIN  SMITH,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PROF.  OF  HISTORY  UNIV.  OF  TORONTO 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  Ph.D.     MOSES  COIT  TYLER,  LL.D. 

PROF.  OF  HISTORY  AT  HARVARD  PROF.  OF  HISTORY  AT  CORNELL 

JOHN  B.  MOORE.  EDWARD  G.  BOURNE,  Ph.D. 

PROF.  OF  INTERNATIONAL  LAIV  AT  COLUMBIA  PROF.  OF  HISTOR  Y  AT   YALE 

JOHN  FRYER,  A.M.,  LL.D.  R.  J.  H.  GOTTHEIL,  Ph.D. 

PROF.  OF  LITERATURE  AT  UNIV.  OF  CALIFORNIA  PROF.  OF  SEMITIC  LANGUAGES  AT  COLUMBIA 

WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.  ALFRED  T.  MAHAN,  D.C.L..  LL.D. 

U.S.  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION  ^      CAPTAIN  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  (Retired) 

ETC.,   ETC.,  ETC.,  ETC. 

WITH     A     PREFACE     ON     THE     STUDY     OF     AMERICAN     HISTORY     BY 

WOODROW  WILSON,  Ph.D,,  LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR    OF 

"a     HISTORY     OF    THE    AMERICAN    PEOPLE"     ETC.,    ETC. 

WITH  ORIGINAL  DOCUMENTS,  PORTRAITS,  MAPS,  PLANS,  b'c. 

COMPLETE  IN  TEN  VOLUMES 
VOL.  I 


HARPER    &    BROTHERS    PUBLISHERS 
NEW    YORK  =  1902  =  LONDON 


f  I 


94  13 


Copyright,  1901,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 

^/l  rights  reserved. 


WRITERS    ON    SPECIAL   SUBJECTS 


Historians  and  Scholars 

LYMAN  ABBOTT,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Author,  and  Editor  of  The  Outlook,  New 

York. 
EDWARD  GAYLORD  BOURNE,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity, 
RICHARD  T.  ELY,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Political  Economy  at 

the  University  of  Wisconsin. 
FREDERICK  WILLIAM  FARRAR,  Dean  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
JOHN  FISKE,  Former  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Harvard  University, 

Author  of  "  American  Political  Ideas,"  etc. 
JOHN  FRYER,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Literature  at  the  University 

of  California. 
CARDINAL    GIBBONS,  the    Head  of    the    Roman    Catholic    Church    in 

America. 
WASHINGTON  GLADDEN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
EDWIN  LAWRENCE  GODKIN,  A.M.,  D.C.L.,  Former  Editor  of  the  New  York 

Evening  Post. 
RICHARD  J.  H.  GOTTHEIL,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  at 

Columbia  University. 
WILLIAM  R.  HARPER,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.D.,  President  of  the  University 

OF  Chicago. 
ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  PH.D.,  PROFESSOR  OF  History  at  Harvard 

University. 
JOSIAH  GILBERT  HOLLAND,  Editor  and  Author. 
THE  MOST  REVEREND  JOHN  IRELAND.  Archbishop  of  St.  Paul. 
JOHN  B.  MOORE,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  International  Law  and  Diplomacy 

at  Columbia  University. 
GOLDWIN  SMITH,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  History  at  the  University 

of  Toronto. 
MOSES  COIT  TYLER,  A.M.,  L.H.D.,  LL.D.,  FORMER  Professor  of  History 

AT  Cornell  University. 
WOODROW  WILSON,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Princeton  University. 


Statesmen  and  Publicists 

JAMES  G.  BLAINE,  Former  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States. 

HENRY  SHERMAN  BOUTELL,  A.M.,  Member  of  Congress  from  Illinois. 

WILLIAM  M.  EVARTS,  Former  United  States  Senator  from  New  York. 

JOHN  W.  FOSTER,  LL.D.,  Former  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United 
States. 

WILLIAM  E.  GLADSTONE,  Former  Prime  Minister  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland. 

BENJAMIN  HARRISON,  Former  President  of  the  United  States. 

GEORGE  FRISBIE  HOAR,  LL.D ,  United  States  Senator  from  Massachu- 
setts. 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE,  United  States  Senator  from  Massachusetts. 

JOHN  TYLER  MORGAN,  United  States    Senator  from  Alabama, 

JUSTIN  S.  MORRILL,  Former  United  States  Senator  from  Vermont. 

EDWARD  J.  PHELPS,  LL.D.,  Former  United  States  Minister, to  the  Court 
OF  St.  James. 

THOMAS  B.  REED,  Former  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

WILLIAM  F.  WHARTON,  Former  Assistant  Secretary  of  State  of  the 
United  States. 

HENRY  WHITE,  Secretary  of  the  American  Embassy  to  Great  Britain. 

HIS  EXCELLENCY  WU  TING  FANG,  Chinese  Minister  to  the  United  States. 


Scientists  and  Specialists 


OSCAR  P.  AUSTIN,  Chief  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics. 
A.  E.  BOSTWICK,  Superintendent  of  the  Circulating  Branch  of  the 

New  York  Public  Library. 
THOMAS  C.  CLARKE,  Past  President  of  the  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 
CHARLES  H.  CRAMP,  Head  of  the  Ship-Building  Firm  of  William  Cramp 

AND  Sons. 
JOHN  HANDIBOE,  Journalist. 
WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the 

United  States. 
JOHN  P.  HOLLAND,  the  Inventor  of  the  Holland  Submarine  Boat. 
W.  H.  HOTCHKISS,  Chairman  Executive  Committee  of  the  International 

Association  of  Referees  in  Bankruptcy. 
RAMON  REYES  LALA,  the  Filipino  Author  and  Lecturer. 
SIR  HIRAM  STEVENS  MAXIM,  C.E.,  M.E.,  the  Inventor   of  the  Maxim 

Gun. 
HERBERT  PUTNAM,  LiTT.D.,  Librarian  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 

States. 
HARRY  PERRY  ROBINSON,  Editor  of  the  Railway  Age. 
HAMLIN  RUSSELL,  Political  Economist. 
ELIZABETH  CADY  STANTON,  Author  and  Essayist. 


FREDERICK  W.  TAYLOR,  Secretary  of  the  Farmers'  Institute  Managers. 
ELIHU   THOMSON,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Electrician,  Chevalier  and  Officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor. 


Men  of  Action 


LORD  CHARLES  BERESFORD,  C.B.,  Rear-Admiral  R.N.,  Author  of  "  The 
Break-Up  of  China." 

J.  H.  GIBBONS,  Lieutenant  United  States  Navy,  a  Writer  on  Naval  Sub- 
jects. 

FRANCIS  V.  GREENE,  Major-General  late  United  States  Volunteers. 

ALFRED  T.  MAHAN,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Captain  United  States  Navy  (Retired). 

NELSON  A.  MILES,  Lieutenant-General  U.S.A.,  Commanding  United 
States  Army. 


Ill 


CONTRIBUTIONS    BY    SPECIALISTS 


Historical  Essays 

AMERICA'S  SHARE  IN  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY,  by  Dean  Farrar. 

AN  APPRECIATION  OF  THE  LIFE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  CHARLES  SUM- 
NER, BY  George  F.  Hoar,  United  States  Senator  from  Massa- 
chusetts. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  MODERN  CRITICISM, 
BY  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  A.M.,  L.H.D.,  LL.D.,  Former  Professor  of  Amer- 
ican History  at  Cornell. 

DEMOCRACY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  AVoODROW  Wilson,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
President  of  Princeton  University. 

LIFE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  WILLIAM  HENRY  SEWARD,  BY  RicHARD  Grant 
White. 

MANIFEST  DESTINY,  BY  Professor  John  Fiske. 

THE  BUDDHIST  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  BY  HUI  SHEN,  BY  John  Fryer, 
A.M.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Literature  at  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

THE  CAPTURE  OF  FORT  WILLIAM  AND  MARY,  by  Ballard  Smith. 

THE  FEDERAL  UNION,  BY  Professor  John  Fiske. 

THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY,  by  Albert  Bushnell  Hart, 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History  at  Harvard  University. 

THE  TOWN  MEETING,  BY  Professor  John  Fiske. 


Political 

AN    ANGLO-AMERICAN    UNDERSTANDING,    by     Rev.    Lyman     Abbott, 

D.D.,  LL.D. 
ANNEXED  TERRITORY,  by  Benjamin  Harrison,  Former  President  of  the 

United  States. 
CHINA  AND  THE  POWERS,  by  Lord  Charles  Beresford,  Rear-Admiral 

Royal  Navy  of  Great  Britain. 
CHINESE-AMERICAN  RECIPROCITY,  by  His  Excellency  Wu  Ting  Fang, 

Chinese  Minister  to  the  Unitkd  States. 

iv 


CONSULAR  SERVICE,  by  Henry  White,  Secretary  of  the  Embassy  at 
London,  and  by  William  F.  Wharton,  Former  Assistant  Secretary 
OF  State. 

FREE  TRADE,  BY  the  Rt.  Hon.  William  Ewart  Gladstone,  Former  Prime 
Minister  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

FREE  TRADE  AND  PROTECTION,  BY  JUSTIN  Smith  Morrill,  Former  United 
States  Senator  from  Vermont. 

PROTECTION  OR  FREE  TRADE,  BY  JAMES  G.  BLAINE,  Former  Secretary 
of  State  of  the  United  States. 

THE  ALASKAN  BOUNDARY  QUESTION,  by  John  B.  Moore,  LL.D.,  Profess- 
or OF  International  Law  and  Diplomacy  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. 

THE  BERING  SEA  ARBITRATION,  BY  JOHN  W.  Foster,  Former  Secretary 
OF  State. 

THE  FEDERAL  CONTROL  OF  ELECTIONS,  by  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  United 
States  Senator  from  Massachusetts. 

THE  FEDERAL  ELECTION  BILL,  BY  Thomas  Brackett  Reed,  Former  Speak- 
er OF  the  House  of  Representatives. 

THE  NICARAGUA  CANAL,  by  John  Tyler  Morgan,  United  States  Senator 
FROM  Alabama. 

THE  NICARAGUA  CANAL,  by  Thomas  B.  Reed,  Former  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives. 

THE  STATES  AND  THE  POPULAR  VOTE  IN  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTIONS,  BY 
John  Handiboe,  Journalist. 

THE  SUPREME  COURT,  BY  Edward  J.  Phelps,  LL.D.,  Former  Minister  to 
THE  Court  of  St.  James. 

UNITED  STATES  COLONIAL  CIVIL  SERVICE,  BY  Edward  Gaylord  Bourne, 
Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History  in  Yale  University. 

THE  UNITED  STATES  SENATE,  by  Ex-Senator  William  A*  Peffer 

THE  SPEAKER  OF  THE  HOUSE,  BY  Gen.  A.  W.  Greely. 

HOW  THE  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES  DOES  BUSINESS,  BY  THOMAS 
Brackett  Reed,  Ex-Speaker. 


Educational 

AMERICAN  PUBLIC  EDUCATION,  by  Doctor  Josiah  Gilbert  Holland. 

ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  WiLLiAM  T.  Harris, 
Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

FREE  PUBLIC  LIBRARIES,  BY  Herbert  Putnam,  Litt.D.,  Librarian  of 
Congress. 

NEW  YORK  PUBLIC  LIBRARY,  BY  A.  E.  BosTwiCK,  OF  the  New  York  Pub- 
lic Library. 

THE  CARE  OF  DEPENDENT  CHILDREN,  BY  Henrietta  Christian  Wright. 

UNIVERSITY  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  WiLLlAM  R.  HARPER, 
Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.D.,  President  of  the  University  of  Chicago. 


Military  and  Ndva.1 


NARRATIVE  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  MANILA  BAY,  by  Ramon  Reyes  Lala. 
NARRATIVE  OF  THE  NAVAL   BATTLE  OF  SANTIAGO,   BY    Henry  Cabot 

Lodge,  United  States  Senator  from  Massachusetts. 
NAVAL  SHIPS,  BY  Alfred  T.  Mahan,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Captain  United  States 

Navy  (Retired). 
THE  BATTLE  OF  SAN  JUAN,  by  President  Roosevelt. 
THE  BUILDING  AND  MAINTAINING  OF  WAR-SHIPS  ON  THE  GREAT  LAKES, 

BY  Henry  Sherman  Boutell,  Member  of  Congress  from  Illinois. 
THE    GREAT  LAKES  AND  THE  NAVY,   by    Lieutenant    J.    H.   Gibbons, 

U.S.N. 
THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS,  by  Major-General  F.  V.  Greene. 
THE  SPANISH- AMERICAN  WAR,  BY  Lieutenant-General  Nelson  A.  Miles, 

U.  S.  A.  Commanding. 


Scientific 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY,    by    Professor    Elihu 

Thomson,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Chevalier  and  Officer  of  the  Legion  of 

Honor. 
ENGINEERING   IN    THE    UNITED   STATES,   by  Thomas  C.  Clarke,  Past 

President  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 
EXPLOSIVES  FOR  LARGE  GUNS,  by  Sir  Hiram  Stevens  Maxim,  Inventor 

OF  the  Maxim  Gun. 
INVENTION  OF  THE  STEAMBOAT,  by  Chancellor  Robert  R.  Livingston, 

WITH  Letters  by  Robert  Fulton. 
THE  HOLLAND  SUBMARINE  BOAT,  BY  JOHN  P.  Holland  Inventor  of  the 

Holland  Submarine  Boat. 


Industrial  and  Economic 

A  CENTURY  OF  COMMERCE,  BY  0.  P.  Austin,  Chief  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Statistics. 

AMERICAN  VERSUS  FOREIGN  NEWSPAPERS,  by  E.  L.  Godkin,  A.M.,  D.C.L. 

BANKRUPTC^^  by  Hon.  W.  H.  Hotchkiss,  Chairman  of  the  Executive 
Committee  of  the  International  Association  of  Referees  in  Bank- 
ruptcy. 

BIMETALLISM,  by  William  M.  Evarts,  Former  United  States  Senator 
FROM  New  York. 

FARMERS'  INSTITUTES,  BY  Frederick  W.  Taylor,  Secretary  of  the 
Farmers'  Institute  Managers. 

PAUPERISM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  by  Richard  T.  Ely,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  Political  Economy  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

vi 


THE  INDIAN  PROBLEM,  BY  Rev.  Lyman  Abbott,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

THE  NAVIGATION  ACTS.— A  Treatise  on  the  Causes  which  Led  up  to  the 

Passing  of  these  Acts  and  the  Results,  Direct  and  Indirect,  which 

THEY  Accomplished,  by  Charles  H.  Cramp. 
THE  SINGLE  TAX,  BY  Hamlin  Russell. 
THE  STATE  REGULATION  OF  RAILWAYS,  BY  H.  P.  ROBINSON,  Editor  of 

The  Railway  Age. 


Religious 


FREE  THOUGHT,  by  Professor  Goldwin  Smith,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  Author  of 
"  The  Political  History  of  the  United  States." 

JEWS  AND  JUDAISM,  by  Prof.  R.  J.  H.  Gottheil,  Ph.D. 

PROTESTANT  CHURCHES,  BY  Rev.  Washington  Gladden,  D.D. 

THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  BY  Cardinal  Gibbons,  Head  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  America. 


Vll 


ORIGINAL  DOCUMENTS,  TREATIES,  JOURNALS, 
PROCLAMATIONS,  AND  NARRATIVES  FROM 
ORIGINAL    SOURCES 


Original  Documents 


MAGNA  CHARTA,  Text  of  the  Charter  Between  King  John  and  His  Bar- 
ons, IN  I215,   WHICH  IS  THE  BASIS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  RIGHTS. 
THE  DUTCH  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE  ON  JULY  26,  1581. 
THE  PETITION  OF  RIGHTS  AND  LIBERTIES.  1628. 
THE  GRAND  REMONSTRANCE,  1641.    A  Protest  by  the  House  of  Commons 

AGAINST   THE   ACTS   OF   CHARLES   I. 

THE  AGREEMENT  OF  THE  PEOPLE,  1647.  An  Agreement  Settled  in 
1648  IN  England  Limiting  Power  of  Rulers  and  Members  of  Par- 
liament. 

INSTRUMENT  OF  GOVERNMENT,  1653.  Act  of  Parliament  making  Crom- 
well Protector  of  England. 

THE  BILL  OF  RIGHTS,  1689,  DECLARING  THE  Rights  of  Individuals  and 
Defining  the  Power  of  the  King  of  England. 

QUEEN  ELIZABETH'S  CHARTER  TO  SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH  FOR  DISCOV- 
ERY AND  COLONIZATION  IN  AMERICA. 

THE  STAMP  ACT,  1765. 

THE  ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION,  1775.  The  First  Union  of  the  Colo- 
nies. 

THE  MECKLENBURG  DECLARATION.  A  Declaration  of  Independence 
OF  England  said  to  have  been  Made  by  Citizens  of  North  Carolina 
Prior  to  the  Declaration  of  1776. 

THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

ARTICLES  OF  CAPITULATION,  Yorktown,  178 i. 

THE  ORDINANCE  OF  1787.  Passed  by  Congress,  Freeing  the  Northwest 
Territory  from  Slavery,  etc. 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

THE  VIRGINIA  RESOLUTIONS  OF  1798. 

THE  KENTUCKY  RESOLUTIONS  OF  1798. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  CONFEDERACY.    Complete  Text. 

viii 


THE  CUBAN  CONSTITUTION  OF  1901.  The  Decree  of  Autonomy  and  Doc- 
umentary History  of  Negotiations  Preceding  the  War  with 
Spain. 

Journals  and  Narratives 

THE  NORTHMEN'S  VOYAGES  TO  VINLAND.  First  Narrated  in  the 
"Hausbok,"  Written  about  1305. 

AMERICUS  VESPUCIUS.  The  Journal  of  His  Voyages  to  America,  with 
Details  of  His  First  Sight  of  Land. 

CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS.  JOURNAL  of  His  First  Voyage  to  and  Dis- 
covery OF  America. 

CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS.  His  Report  to  King  Ferdinand  and  Queen 
Isabella  of  His  Second  Voyage,  with  the  Replies  of  their  Majes- 
ties TO  His  Requests. 

FERDINAND  COLUMBUS.  Narrative  of  His  Father's  Voyages  to  America. 

VERRAZZANO.    His  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to  North  America,  1524. 

CABEZA.  Journal  of  His  Trip  Through  New  Mexico  during  the  Year  1528. 

CORONADO.  Relation  of  His  Journey  in  1540  Through  What  is  Now  the 
Southwestern  Part  of  the  United  States. 

PHILIP  AMIDAS.  Journal  of  His  Voyages  to  Virginia  in  1584  and  His 
Observations  on  the  New  Land. 

JOURNAL  OF  HENRY  HUDSON'S  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  HUDSON  RIVER,  by 
Robert  Juet. 

CORTEZ'S  ACCOUNT  SENT  TO  CHARLES  V.  OF  HIS  JOURNEY  THROUGH 
MEXICO. 

THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  NEW  SWEDEN,  BY  Rev.  I.  Acrelius,  1638. 

THE  FIRST  GERMAN  SETTLEMENTS  IN  PENNSYLVANIA,  BY  FRANCIS 
Daniel  Pastorius,  Esq.,  1683. 

GOVERNOR  HUTCHINSOxN'S  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  BOSTON  TEA-PARTY. 

LAFAYETTE.  His  Narrative  of  the  American  Revolution  Covering 
THE  Period  while  He  was  in  America. 

GEORGE  ROGERS  CLARK.  Narrative  of  His  Capture  of  Vincennes  in 
1779,  from  His  Memoirs. 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON.  Account  of  Meriwether  Lewis's  Life  and  Ex- 
pedition.    (Lewis  and  Clark.) 

THE  ASCENT  OF  FREMONT'S  PEAK.  1842,  by  John  C.  Fremont. 

ADMIRAL  DAVID  PORTER'S  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  SINKING  OF  THE  "  ALBE- 
MARLE," BY  William  B.  Gushing. 


Treaties^  Proclamations t  Billst  and  Papers 

TEXT  OF  THE  ALASKAN  BOUNDARY  TREATY  CONVENTION,  1834.  BE- 
TWEEN England,  Russia,  and  the  United  States,  and  the  Modus 
Vivendi  of  i8qq. 


THE  CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY.  Treaty  Involving  the  Control  of 
AN  Isthmian  Canal  between  North  and  South  America. 

TREATY  OF  WASHINGTON  IN  RELATION  TO  ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 

THE  TREATY  WITH  SPAIN,  December  io,  1898,  ENDING  THE  SPANISH- 
AMERICAN  WAR. 

SAMOA:  TREATY  OF  WASHINGTON  ANNEXING  THE  SAME,  December 
2,  1899. 

TREATY  OF  THE  COURT  OF  INQUIRY  ON  INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION, 
1899-1901. 

THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  PRESIDENT  Harrison's  Message,  Senator 
Foster's  Letters,  and  the  Treaties  of  1893  and  1897,  together 
with  the  Resolutions  of  Annexation  in  1898. 

ALIEN  AND  SEDITION  LAWS  OF  1798. 

JOINT  RESOLUTION  OF  CONGRESS  ANNEXING  TEXAS,  July  4,  1845. 

TEXAS  ORDINANCE  AND  JOINT  RESOLUTION,  1845. 

FERNANDO  WOOD'S  MESSAGE  SUGGESTING  THE  SECESSION  OF  NEW 
YORK   CITY,  1861. 

THE  FORCE  BILL  OF  1871. 

THE  EDMUNDS  AND  THE  EDMUNDS-TUCKER  ACTS  AGAINST  MORMONISM, 

1882   AND    1887. 

THE  IMMIGRATION  ACT  OF  1891.  Limiting  Immigration  by  an  Educational 
AND  Financial  Test. 

THE  DINGLEY  TARIFF  OF  1897. 

THE  GOLD  STANDARD  ACT,  1900.  Act  of  Congress  Establishing  Gold 
Standard  after  the  Defeat  of  the  Democratic  Silver  Plat- 
form. 

NATURALIZATION  LAWS  IN  ALL  THE  STATES. 

THE  LAWS  OF  THE  STATES  RELATING  TO  THE  ELECTIVE  FRANCHISE. 

STATE  LAWS  ON  EXEMPTION  FROM  TAXATION. 

DIVORCE  LAWS.  Legislation  upon  this  Subject  Throughout  the  States 
AND  Territories  of  the  Union. 

THE  LETTERS  OF  JOHN  BROWN.  GIVING  IN  His  Own  Words  His  Views  and 
Creed. 

JEFFERSON  DAVIS'S  DOCTRINE  OF  STATE  RIGHTS. 

THE  GRANT-LEE  CORRESPONDENCE,  INVOLVING  THE  TERMS  OF  SUR- 
RENDER OF  THE  CONFEDERATE  ARMY,   1865. 

THE  IMPEACHMENT  PROCEEDINGS  AGAINST  PRESIDENT  JOHNSON. 

JOHN  A.  LOGAN  ON  THE  CASE  OF  GENERAL  FITZ-JOHN  PORTER. 

GENERAL  GRANT  ON  THE  CASE  OF  GENERAL  FITZ-JOHN  PORTER. 

GENERAL  McCLELLAN'S  ACCEPTANCE  OF  THE  NOMINATION  TO  THE 
PRESIDENCY. 

ADMIRAL  SAMPSON'S  AND  ADMIRAL  SCHLEY'S  REPORTS  ON  THE  NAVAL 
BATTLE  OF  SANTIAGO. 

GENERAL  MERRITT.    Report  on  the  Capture  of  the  City  of  Manila. 

GENERAL  MacARTHUR.  Proclamation  to  the  Filipinos,  Promulgated 
in  1900. 


THE  LAST  PROCLAMATION  AND  THE  UNCONDITIONAL  SUBMISSION   OF 

AGUINALDO. 
MAJOR  ANDRE.    PoEM.  "  Cow  Chace."    Written  in  Ridicule  of  General 

Wayne  at  Elizabethtown,  1780. 
VENEZUELA    ARBITRATION   AWARD,  Oct.  3,  1899. 
BILLS  VETOED   BY  THE   PRESIDENTS,  1792-1898. 
THE  WHEELER   COMPROiVlISE,  1875. 
THE   FUGITIVE   SLAVE   LAW,  1850. 
THE   OSTEND   MANIFESTO. 
FRANCIS  HOPKINS.    Poem,  "  The  Battle  of  the  Kegs."    A  Mock-Heroic 

Poem  called  forth  by  an  Episode  of  the  Revolution. 
THE  HAY-PAUNCEFOTE  TREATY,  1902. 


XI 


EPOCH-MAKING    ORATIONS    AND    ADDRESSES 


JAMES  OTIS'S  SPEECH  AGAINST  WRITS  OF  ASSISTANCE,  1761. 

JOHN  HANCOCK'S  ARRAIGNMENT  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  1774. 

PATRICK  HENRY'S  "LIBERTY  OR  DEATH"  SPEECH,  1775. 

EDMUND  BURKE'S  ORATION  ON  CONCILIATION  OF  THE  COLONIES  IN  1775. 

FISHER   AMES'S   SPEECH    IN    FAVOR  OF    JAY'S    TREATY,  in  Congress, 

April  2?>,  1795. 
JOSIAH  OUINCY.    Address  on  the  Embargo,  1808. 
JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMSS  EULOGY  OF  LAFAYETTE. 
GENERAL  HENRY  LEE.    FUNERAL  ORATION  ON  GEORGE  Washington. 
ROBERT  YOUNG  HAYNE'S  SPEECH  ON  FOOTES  RESOLUTION  ON  SECES- 
SION, 1830. 
DANIEL  WEBSTER'S  REPLY  TO  HAYNE. 
WENDELL  PHILLIPS'S  ADDRESS  ON  THE  FREEDOM  OF  THE  PRESS  IN  1837, 

AND  THE  WAR  FOR  THE  UNION,   1861. 
JUBILEE  OF  THE  CONSTITUTION,  1839.    Delivered  by  John  Ouincy  Adams. 
THOMAS  HART  BENTON.    Speech  on  the  Annexation  of  Texas  in  1844. 
THOMAS  CORWIN.    Oration  on  the  War  with  Mexico,  against  Voting 

Funds  to  Carry  It  On. 
CALHOUN'S  SPEECH  ON  THE  RIGHT  OF  SECESSION. 

HENRY  CLAY'S  ORATION  ON  THE  CONSEQUENCES  OF  SECESSION,  1850. 
LOUIS  KOSSUTH.    Speech  in  Faneuil  Hall  in  1852,  during  His  Famous 

Visit  to  the  United  States. 
CHARLES  SUMNER'S  PROTEST  AGAINST  SLAVERY,  MAY  25,  1854- 
STEPHEN  A.  DOUGLAS'S  SPEECH  ON  THE  KANSAS-NEBRASKA  BILL. 
PRESTON    SMITH    BROOKS'S    DEFENCE    OF    HIS    ATTACK    ON    CHARLES 

SUMNER. 
CHARLES  SUMNER,  Address  by.    The  Crime  Against  Kansas. 
THEODORE  PARKER,  Address  by.    The  Dangers  of  Slavery. 
JEFFERSON  DAVIS.    INAUGURAL  Address  to  the  Confederate  States 

IN  1861. 
BENJAMIN  F.  BUTLER.    Farewell  to  the  Citizens  of  New  Orleans  in 

1862. 
ALEXANDER  H.  STEPHENS.    Oration  at  Savannah  on  SLA%rERY  as  the 

Corner-Stone  of  the  Confederacy. 

xii 


STEPHEN  A.  DOUGLAS'S  SPEECH  OPENING  THE  FAMOUS  LINCOLN-DOUG- 
LAS DEBATE. 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN'S  REPLY  TO  STEPHEN  A.  DOUGLAS. 

HENRY  WARD  BEECHER'S  SPEECH  AT  LIVERPOOL  ON  SLAVERY,  1863. 

EDWARD  EVERETT.  Oration  on  the  Opening  of  the  National  Cemetery 
AT  Gettysburg,  1863. 

GEORGE  BANCROFT.   Famous  Oration  on  the  Death  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

HORACE  GREELEY.    Acceptance  of  the  Presidential  Nomination  in  1872. 

ROSCOE  CONKLING.  Renomination  of  General  Ulysses  S.  Grant  for 
A  Third  Term  in  the  Presidency. 

WILLIAM  LLOYD  GARRISON.  Oration  on  the  Lessons  of  Independence 
Day,  Delivered  July  4,  1876. 

L.  Q.  C.  LAMAR'S  ADDRESSES  ON  THE  SILVER  BILL  OF  1878  AND  THE  RACE 
PROBLEM  OF  1876. 

CHARLES  FRANCIS  ADAMS.  Speech  on  the  Anniversary  of  Indepen- 
dence Day  and  of  the  Battle  of  Gettysburg. 

WILLIAM  MAXWELL  EVARTS.  Speech  on  Bimetallism,  at  the  Paris 
Conference  in  1881. 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  CURTIS.  Oration  on  the  Evils  of  the  Spoils  System, 
delivered  1881. 

JAMES  G.  BLAINE.    Oration  on  James  A.  Garfield,  February  27,  1882. 

HENRY  W.  GRADY.  Oration  on  the  New  South,  Delivered  in  New  York, 
1886. 

ROBERT  G.  INGERSOLL.    Eulogy  on  Thomas  Paine. 

JOHN  JAMES  INGALLS.    Eulogy  on  Senator  Benjamin  H.  Hill. 

HENRY  CABOT  LODGE.    Speech  on  Restriction  of  Immigration,  1891. 

CHAUNCEY  MITCHELL  DEPEW.    Washington  Centennial  Oration. 

WILLIAM  JENNINGS  BRYAN.  Oration  on  "  The  Cross  of  Gold,"  ^t  the 
Chicago  Democratic  Convention  of  1896. 

JUSTIN  SMITH  MORRILL.    Speech  on  the  Remonetization  of  Silver,  1898. 

JOHN  TYLER  MORGAN.    Speech  on  the  Nicaragua  Canal. 

ARCHBISHOP  IRELAND.     Lafayette  and  America.     July  4,  1900. 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT.    Address  in  Minneapolis,  September  2,  1901. 

WILLIAM  McKINLEY.     Address  in  Buffalo,  September  5,  1901. 

JOHN  COTTON'S  SERMON,  "  GOD'S  PROMISE  TO  HIS  PLANTATIONS." 

PROTEST  AGAINST  TAXATION,  1764,  by  Samuel  Adams. 

STEPHEN  HOPKINS'S  GRIEVANCES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES,  1765. 

RIGHTS  OF  THE  COLONISTS,  1772,  BY  Samuel  Adams. 

BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN'S  VINDICATION  OF  THE  COLONIES,  i775- 

THE  FIRST  PRAYER  IN  THE  CONGRESS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.     De- 

LIVERED    BY   DOCTOR   DUCHIE. 

ALEXANDER  HAMILTON'S  REPORT  ON  THE  COINAGE  IN  1791- 
EDWARD  LIVINGSTON'S  PLEA  FOR  THE  ABOLITION  OF  CAPITAL  PUNISH- 
MENT. 
THE  DEFECTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ARTICLES  OF  CONFEDERATION, 
BY  Richard  Rush. 

xiii 


JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER,    Narrative  of  the  Anti-Slavery  Con- 
vention, 1833. 
THE  NEWBURG  ADDRESS  AND  WASHINGTON'S  REPLY,  1783. 
ROBERT  CHARLES  WINTHROP.    Centennial  Oration,  1876, 
ALEXANDER  STEPHENS.    Savannah  Address,  1861. 
JAMES  WILSON.    Vindication  of  the  American  Colonies,  1775. 


XIV 


PRESIDENTIAL  MESSAGES  AND  PROCLAMATIONS 


GEORGE    WASHINGTON.     Farewell   Address,    containing   the    Germs 

OF  WHAT  afterwards   BECAME   KNOWN  AS   THE   MONROE   DOCTRINE. 

First  and  Second  Inaugural  Addresses. 

Several  Addresses  to  the  Churches  in  the  United  States. 

Letters  on  the  Constitution  to  Jay,   Madison,   Knox,   Patrick 

Henry,  etc. 

JOHN  ADAMS.    MESSAGE  ON  the  Threatening  Attitude  of  France,  May 

i6,  1797 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON.    First  Lnaugural  Address. 
JAMES  MADISON.    Famous  Message  on  British  Aggressions. 

Message  on  the  Treaty  of  Peace,  February  15,  1815. 

Proclamation  Declaring  War  against  England. 

JAMES  MONROE.    Message  to  Congress,  December  2.2.  1822,  declaring 

WHAT  IS   KNOWN  AS  THE  MONROE   DOCTRINE. 

JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS.    MESSAGE  TO  the  Senate  on  a  Pan-American  Union. 

Address  on  the  Jubilee  of  the  Constitution,  1826. 

ANDREW  JACKSON.  Proclamation  in  Relation  to  the  Question  of  Nul- 
lification. 

MARTIN  VAN  BUREN.    Message  on  the  Panic  of  1837. 

WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON.    Inaugural  Address  at  Washington,  1841. 

JOHN  TYLER.  Message  to  Congress  concerning  the  Boundary -Line 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Message  on  Negotiations  with  Great  Britain  on  the  United  States 

Northern  Boundaries. 

Message  on  the  Annexation  of  Texas,  April  22,  1844. 

JAMES  K.  POLK.    Special  Message  in  Regard  to  the  Mexican  War. 

Inaugural  Address  delivered  at  Washington,  1845. 

ZACHARY  TAYLOR.    Message  on  the  Central  American  States,  March 

1850.    (On  Nicaragua  and  Panama  Canals.) 

Message  concerning  the  Status  of  California,  New  Mexico,  and 

Texas  (June  23,  1850). 

MILLARD  FILLMORE.    MESSAGE  ON  the  Texas  Boundary  Controversy, 

1850. 
FRANKLIN  PIERCE.    Special  Message  on  Kansas,  1856. 


JAMES  BUCHANAN.  Message  to  Congress  on  the  Prospects  of  Civil 
War. 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN.  Proclamation  Freeing  All  the  Slaves  in  the 
United  States. 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN.    Address  Delivered  at  the  Cooper  Institute,  i860. 

First  and  Second  Inaugural  Addresses,  and  the  Speech  at  Gettys- 
burg. 1865. 

ANDREW  JOHNSON.    Answer  to  the  Articles  of  Impeachment,  1868. 

ULYSSES  S.  GRANT.    Defence  of  General  Fitz-John  Porter. 

First  Inaugural  Address,  1869.    Last  Message  to  Congress,  1876. 

Address  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  1876. 

RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES.    INAUGURAL  ADDRESS  AT  Washington,  1877. 

Message  on  Military  Interference  in  Elections. 

JAMES  A.  GARFIELD.    Inaugural  Address  at  Washington,  1881. 

Address  on  the  Western  Reserve. 

CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR.  Message  Vetoing  the  Chinese  Immigration  Bill 
in  1882. 

GROVER  CLEVELAND.  PROCLAMATION,  September  27,  1894,  of  Amnesty 
TO  THE  Mormons. 

Tariff  Message  of  1887,  and  Message  on  the  Venezuelan  Boun- 
dary Question,  1895. 

BENJAMIN  HARRISON.    Inaugural  Address  Delivered  at  Washington, 


Washington  Centennial  Address,  1889. 

WILLIAM    McKINLEY.     SECOND  Letter  of  Acceptance,  1900,  reviewing 
THE  History  of  the  United  States  from  1896  to  1900. 

Second  Inaugural  Address  at  Washington,  1901. 

THEODORE  ROOSEVELT.    Message  to  Congress,  December  3,  1901. 


XVI 


SPECIAL    TOPICS 


NEW  NETHERLANDS.— The  Beginning  and  Growth  of  the  Colony. 

THE  AMERICAN  INDIAN.— Legislation  Governing  Indians. 

THE  PANAMA  CANAL.— Attempts  that  have  been  made  to  Pierce  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama. 

LABOR  ORGANIZATIONS.  —  The  History  and  Development  of  Labor 
Unions  and  their  Work. 

CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA.— GENERAL  Sketch  of  the  Compo- 
sition OF  THE  Confederacy. 

COMMERCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.— The  Birth,  Growth,  and  Present 
State  of  our  Commerce  (with  Tables). 

ABOLITION  AND  THE  ABOLITIONISTS. 

ACQUISITION  OF  TERRITORY. 

ARCTIC  EXPLORATIONS. 

THE  CABINETS  OF  THE  PRESIDENTS  SINCE  1789. 

THE  CENSUS  OF  1900  (with  Comparative  Tables). 

AMERICA'S  PART  IN  THE  SUGGESTED  PARTITION  OF  CHINA. 

DIPLOMATIC  SERVICE   OF   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

THE  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FROM  1791  TO  1901. 

WASHINGTONI  AN  A. 

MONETARY  REFORM.— The  Indianapolis  Conference. 

RELIGION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (with  Tables). 

CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR,  1775-83. 

CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  EVENTS  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

THE  WAR  WITH  SPAIN— A  COIVIPLETE  CHRONOLOGY.  Sampson's  and 
Schley's  Reports  on  the  Naval  Battle  of  Santiago. 

CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  PHILIPPINE  INSURRECTION. 

ARMY. — A  Chronologically  Classified  Statement  of  the  Birth  and 
Growth  of  the  Army  of  the  Colonies  and  of  the  United 
States. 

NAVY.— Chronological  Sketch  of  the  American  Navy,  from  Revolu- 
tionary Times  to  the  Present  Day,  with  a  List  of  all  the  Ves- 
sels in  the  United  States  Navy  Arranged  by  Classes. 

PRESIDENTIAL   ELECTIONS,  1789-1901.— Popular  and  Electoral  Votes. 

PRESIDENTIAL  ADMINISTRATIONS,  1789-1901. 

xvii 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  IN  THE  iJNITED  STATES. 

PLATFORMS  OF  THE  MINOR   POLITICAL   PARTIES. 

LIST  OF  THE  HIGHER  OFFICIALS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FEDERAL 
GOVERNMENT— EXECUTIVE,  LEGISLATIVE,  AND  JUDICIAL.  1902. 

AMERICAN  LEARNED  SOCIETIES.— A  LiST  OF  ALL  the  Most  Important. 

AMERICAN  LABOR  ARBITRATION  (National  Civic  Federation).— A  His- 
tory OF  THE  Movement  and  a  List  of  all  the  Members. 

TARIFF  LEGISLATION,  1789-1900. 

TREATIES   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES. 

UNITED  STATES.— Each  of  the  States  and  Territories  of  the  Union  is 
Treated  in  a  Separate  Article,  with  a  Chronology  of  the  Chief 
Events  from  its  First  Discovery  or  Settlement  In  each  Case 
this  Article  has  been  Verified  by  the  Governor  of  the  State  or 
Territory,  His  Representative,  or  the  Historical  Society. 

In  Addition  to  these,  there  is  a  Chronology  of  the  United  States  from 
1492  TO  1902,  AND  A  Preliminary  List  of  the  Early  Discoverers  ^nd 
Explorers. 

CONFEDERATE  STATES  OF  AMERICA.— GIVING  the  Names  of  all  the 
Members  of  the  Provisional  Congress,  the  Senators  of  Each 
State,  the  Full  List  of  Generals  above  the  Rank  of  Brigadier- 
Generals,  and  many  Important  Lists  and  Statistics. 


XVlll 


LIST     OF     PLATES 


President  John  Adams Frontispiece 

President  J.  Q.  Adams      Facing  page    44 

The    Fleet   of   Columbus   Approaching    the    New 

World 

After  the  Surrender  at  Appomattox 

President  C.  A.  Arthur 

The  Boston  Massacre,  March  5,  1770 

Major-General  Jacob  Brown 

President  James  Buchanan 

Viewing  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill 


116 

188 
222 
380 
412 
432 
444 


MAPS 

united  States,  Showing  Acquisition  of  Territory.  Facing  page    16 
Alaska' ' "        "     78 


PREFACE 

THE  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  AMERICAN  HISTORY 

By  Woodrow  Wilson,    Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  Jurisprudence  and  Politics  at  Princeton  University 


The  study  of  American  history  has  changed  its  whole  tone  and  aspect 
within  a  generation.  Once  a  plain  and  simple  tale, — though  heroic  withal, — 
of  a  virgin  continent  discovered  in  the  West,  new  homes  for  the  English 
made  upon  it,  a  new  polity  set  np,  a  new  nation  made  of  a  sudden  in  the  hot 
crucible  of  war,  a  life  and  a  government  apart, — a  thing  isolated,  singular, 
original,  as  if  it  were  the  story  of  a  separate  precinct  and  parish  of  the  great 
world, — the  history  of  the  United  States  has  now  been  brought  at  last  into 
perspective,  to  be  seen  as  what  it  is,  an  integral  portion  of  the  general  history 
of  civilization;  a  free  working-out  upon  a  clear  field,  indeed,  of  selected 
forces  generated  long  ago  in  England  and  the  old  European  world,  but  no 
irregular  invention,  no  histrionic  vindication  of  the  Eights  of  Man.  It  has 
not  lost  its  unique  significance  by  the  change,  but  gained,  rather,  a  hundred- 
fold both  in  interest  and  in  value.  It  seemed  once  a  school  exercise  in 
puritan  theory  and  cavalier  pride ;  it  seems  now  a  chapter  written  for  grown 
men  in  the  natural  history  of  politics  and  society,  a  perfect  exposition  of 
what  the  European  civilization  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
was  to  produce  in  the  nineteenth  century.  What  formerly  appeared  to  be 
only  a  by-product  of  the  creative  forces  of  society  is  now  clearly  enough  seen 
to  be  the  epitome  of  a  whole  age.  We  see  it  all,  now  that  America,  having 
come  out  of  her  days  of  adolescence  and  preparation,  has  taken  her  place 
among  the  powers  of  the  world,  fresh  and  still  in  her  youth,  but  no  stranger 
among  the  peoples, — a  leader,  rather,  and  pace-maker  in  the  wide  field  of 
affairs. 

The  history  of  the  United  States  is  modern  history  in  broad  and  open 
analysis,  stripped  of  a  thousand  elements  which,  upon  the  European  stage, 
confuse  the  eye  and  lead  the  judgment  astray.    It  spans  a  whole  age  of  the 

xxi 


PREFACE 

world's  transformation,  from  the  discoveries,  the  adventure,  the  romance  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  with  its  dreams  of  unbounded  wealth  in  the  far  Indies 
and  marvels  at  the  ends  of  the  earth,  to  the  sober  commerce  and  material 
might  of  the  twentieth,  with  its  altered  dreams,  of  a  world  mastered,  if  not 
united,  by  the  power  of  armed  fleets  patrolling  it  from  end  to  end,  in  the 
interests  of  peace  and  European  and  American  trade. 

At  its  outset  American  history  discloses  a  novel  picture  of  men  out  of  an 
old  world  set  upon  the  coasts  of  a  new  to  do  the  work  of  pioneers,  without 
suitable  training  either  of  thought  or  hand, — men  schooled  in  an  old  civiliza- 
tion, puzzled,  even  daunted,  by  the  wilderness  in  which  they  found  them- 
selves as  by  a  strange  and  alien  thing,  ignorant  of  its  real  character,  lacking 
all  the  knowledge  and  craft  of  the  primitive  world,  lacking  everything  but 
courage,  sagacity,  and  a  steadfast  will  to  succeed.  As  they  pushed  their 
gigantic  task  they  were  themselves  transformed.  The  unsuitable  habits  of 
an  old  world  fell  away  from  them.  Their  old  blood  bred  a  new  stock,  and 
the  youth  of  the  race  to  which  they  belonged  was  renewed.  And  yet  they 
did  not  break  with  the  past,  were  for  long  scarcely  conscious  of  their  own 
transformation,  held  their  thoughts  to  old  channels,  were  frontiersmen  with 
traditions  not  of  the  frontier,  traditions  which  they  cherished  and  held  very 
dear,  of  a  world  in  which  there  were  only  ancient  kingdoms  and  a  civiliza- 
tion set  up  and  perfected  time  out  of  mind.  Their  muscles  hardened  to  the 
work  of  the  wilderness,  they  learned  woodcraft  and  ranged  the  forests  like 
men  with  the  breeding,  the  quick  instincts,  the  ready  resource  in  time  of 
danger  of  the  Indian  himself,  and  yet  thought  upon  deep  problems  of  re- 
ligion, pondered  the  philosophy  of  the  universities,  were  partisans  and  fol- 
lowers of  statesmen  and  parties  over  sea,  looked  to  have  their  fashions  of 
dress  sent  to  them,  with  every  other  old-world  trapping  they  could  pay  for, 
by  the  European  ships  which  diligently  plied  to  their  ports.  Nowhere  else, 
perhaps,  is  there  so  open  and  legible  a  record  of  the  stiffness  of  thought  and 
the  flexibility  of  action  in  men,  the  union  of  youth  and  age,  the  dominion  of 
habit  reconciled  with  an  unspoiled  freshness  of  bold  initiative. 

And  with  the  transplantation  of  men  out  of  the  old  world  into  a  wilder- 
ness went  also  the  transplantation  of  institutions, — with  the  same  result. 
The  new  way  of  life  and  association  thrust  upon  these  men  reduced  the  com- 
plex things  of  government  to  their  simples.  Within  those  untouched  forests 
they  resumed  again,  as  if  by  an  unconscious  instinct,  the  simple  organization 
of  village  communities  familiar  to  their  race  long  centuries  before,  or  here 
and  there  put  palisades  about  a  group  of  huts  meant  to  serve  for  refuge 
and  fortress  against  savage  enemies  lurking  near  at  hand  in  the  coverts,  and 
lived  in  their  "  hundreds  "  again  under  captains,  to  spread  at  last  slowly  into 
counties  with  familiar  sheriffs  and  quarter-sessions.    It  was  as  if  they  had 


PREFACE 

brought  their  old-time  polity  with  them,  not  in  the  mature  root  nor  even  in 
the  young  cutting,  but  in  the  seed  merely,  to  renew  its  youth  and  yield  itself 
to  the  influences  of  a  new  soil  and  a  new  environment.  It  was  drawn  back 
to  its  essential  qualities,  stripped  of  its  elaborate  growth  of  habits,  as  they 
themselves  were.  All  things  were  touched,  as  it  were,  by  the  light  of  an 
earlier  age  returned.  The  study  of  American  history  furnishes,  as  a  conse- 
quence, materials  such  as  can  be  found  nowhere  else  for  a  discrimination 
between  what  is  accidental  and  what  is  essential  in  English  political  practice. 
Principles  developed  by  the  long  and  intricate  processes  of  the  history  of  one 
country  are  here  put  to  experimental  test  in  another,  where  every  element  of 
life  is  simplified,  every  problem  of  government  reduced  to  its  fundamental 
formula.  There  is  here  the  best  possible  point  of  departure,  for  the  student 
who  can  keep  his  head  and  who  knows  his  European  history  as  intimately  as 
he  knows  his  American,  for  a  comparative  study  of  institutions  which  may 
some  day  yield  us  a  sane  philosophy  of  politics  which  shall  forever  put  out 
of  school  the  thin  and  sentimental  theories  of  the  disciples  of  Eousseau. 

This  is  the  new  riches  which  the  study  of  American  history  is  to  afford  in 
the  light  that  now  shines  upon  it:  not  national  pride  merely,  nor  merely  an 
heroic  picture  of  men  wise  beyond  previous  example  in  building  States,  and 
uniting  them  under  a  government  at  once  free  and  strong,  but  a  real  under- 
standing of  the  nature  of  liberty,  of  the  essential  character  and  determining 
circumstances  of  self-government,  the  fundamental  contrasts  of  race  and 
social  development,  of  temper  and  of  opportunity,  which  of  themselves  make 
governments  or  mar  them.  It  may  well  yield  us,  at  any  rate,  a  few  of  the 
first  principles  of  the  natural  history  of  institutions. 

The  political  history  of  America  was  the  outcome  of  a  constitutional 
struggle  which  concerned  Englishmen  in  England  no  less  deeply  than  it 
concerned  Englishmen  in  the  colonies,  a  struggle  whose  motives  were  com- 
pounded both  of  questions  of  conscience  and  of  questions  of  civil  liberty,  of 
longings  to  be  free  to  think  and  of  longings  to  be  free  to  act.  And  English- 
men on  the  two  sides  of  the  sea  were  not  wholly  divorced  in  the  issue  of  that 
struggle.  Not  America  alone,  but  the  power  to  rule  without  principle  and 
restraint  at  home  as  well,  was  once  for  all  cut  off  from  the  crown  of  England. 
But  there  was  sharp  contrast,  too,  between  the  effects  wrought  in  England 
and  the  effects  wrought  in  America.  On  one  side  the  sea  an  ancient  people 
won  their  final  battle  for  constitutional  government ;  on  the  other  side  a  new 
people  was  created, — a  people  set  free  to  work  out  a  new  experience  both  in 
the  liberty  of  its  churches  and  in  its  political  arrangements,  to  gain  a  new 
consciousness,  take  on  a  distinctive  character,  transform  itself  from  a  body 
of  loosely  associated  English  colonies  into  a  great  commonwealth,  not  Eng- 
lish nor  yet  colonial  merely,  but  transmuted,  within  little  more  than  a 

xxiii 


PREFACE 

generation,  into  a  veritable  nation,  marked  out  for  an  independent  and 
striking  career. 

At  the  Eevolution  the  American  States  did  hardl}'^  more  than  disengage 
themselves  from  the  English  dominion.  Their  thoughts,  their  imagina- 
tions, were  still  held  subject  to  policy  and  opinion  over  sea.  By  the 
close  of  the  War  of  1812,  these  last,  impalpable  bonds  were  also  thrown  off. 
American  statesmen  had  got  their  freedom  of  thought,  and,  within  a  genera- 
tion, were  the  leaders  of  a  nation  and  a  people  apart.  One  has  only  to 
contrast  the  persistent  English  quality  and  point  of  view  of  the  English 
colonies  of  to-day,  self-governing  communities  though  most  of  them  are, 
which  have  led  their  own  lives  for  generations  together  under  parliaments 
and  ministers  of  their  own  free  choosing,  with  the  distinctive  character  of  the 
United  States  to  realize  how  much  of  the  history  of  nations  is  spiritual,  not 
material,  a  thing,  not  of  institutions,  but  of  the  heart  and  the  imagination. 
This  is  one  of  the  secrets  American  history  opens  to  the  student,  the  deepest 
of  all  secrets,  the  genesis  of  nationality,  the  play  of  spirit  in  the  processes 
of  history. 

Of  course  the  present  separateness  and  distinctive  character  of  the  United 
States  among  the  nations  is  due  in  part  to  the  mixture  of  races  in  the  make- 
up of  their  people.  Men  out  of  every  European  race,  men  out  of  Asia,  men 
out  of  Africa  have  crowded  in,  to  the  bewilderment  alike  of  the  statesmen 
and  of  the  historian.  An  infinite  crossing  of  strains  has  made  a  new  race. 
And  yet  there  is  a  mystery  here  withal.  Where,  when,  in  what  way,  have  our 
institutions  and  our  life  as  a  people  been  turned  to  new  forms  and  into  new 
channels  by  this  new  union  and  chemistry  of  bloods?  There  has  been  no 
break  in  our  constitutional  development.  Nothing  has  been  done  of  which 
Ave  can  confidently  sa}^,  This  Avould  not  have  been  done  had  we  kept  the  pure 
Saxon  strain.  All  peoples  have  come  to  dwell  among  us,  but  they  have 
merged  their  individuality  in  a  national  character  already  formed;  have 
been  dominated,  changed,  absorbed,  W^e  keep  until  now  some  of  the  char- 
acteristic differences  of  organization  and  action  transplanted  to  this  conti- 
nent when  races  were  separate  upon  it.  W^e  single  out  the  Dutch  element  in 
the  history  of  New  York,  the  French  element  in  the  history  of  Louisiana, 
the  Spanish  influence  in  the  far  West.  But  these  things  remain  from  a  time 
when  Dutch  and  French  and  Spanish  had  their  seats  and  their  power  apart 
and  were  independent  rivals  for  the  possession  of  the  continent.  Since  they 
were  fused  they  have  given  us  nothing  which  we  can  distinguish  as  their  own. 
The  French  who  have  come  to  us  since  that  final  settlement  on  the  heights 
of  Quebec  have  contributed  nothing  distinctive  to  our  civilization  or  our 
order  of  government.  The  Dutch  who  have  been  immigrants  amongst  us 
since  New  Netherlands  became  New  York  have  no  doubt  strengthened  our 


PEEFACE 

stock,  but  they  have  adopted  our  character  and  point  of  view.  No  foreign 
stock  long  keeps  its  identity  in  our  affairs. 

The  fact  should  a  little  daunt  those  who  make  much  of  physical  heredity 
and  speak  of  the  persistence  of  race  characteristics  as  a  thing  fixed  and  inva- 
riable, if  they  are  to  apply  their  theory  to  communities  which  are  dominated 
by  one  and  the  same  national  idea,  and  fused  to  make  a  common  stock.  It 
is  where  races  act  separately  that  they  act  in  character  and  with  individual 
distinction.  In  this  again  the  history  of  the  United  States  demonstrates 
the  spiritual  aspects  of  political  development.  Nations  grow  by  spirit,  not 
by  blood ;  and  nowhere  can  the  significant  principle  of  their  growth  be  seen 
more  clearly,  upon  a  more  fair  and  open  page,  than  in  the  history  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  this  principle  which  throws  a  light  as  if  of  veritable 
revelation  upon  the  real  nature  of  liberty,  as  a  thing  bred,  not  of  institutions 
nor  of  the  benevolent  inventions  of  statesmen,  but  of  the  spiritual  forces  of 
which  institutions  themselves  are  the  olTspring  and  creation.  To  talk  of 
giving  to  one  people  the  liberties  of  another  is  to  talk  of  making  a  gift  of 
character,  a  thing  built  up  by  the  contrivance  of  no  single  generation,  but  by 
the  slow  providence  which  binds  generations  together  by  a  common  training. 

From  whatever  point  of  view  you  approach  it,  American  history  gives 
some  old  lesson  a  new  plainness,  clarification,  and  breadth.  It  is  an  off- 
shoot of  European  history  and  has  all  its  antecedents  on  the  other  side  of 
the  sea,  and  yet  it  is  so  much  more  than  a  mere  offshoot.  Its  processes  are 
so  freshened  and  clarified,  its  records  are  so  abundant  and  so  accessible, 
it  is  spread  upon  so  wide,  so  open,  so  visible  a  field  of  observation,  that  it 
seems  like  a  plain  first  chapter  in  the  history  of  a  new  age.  As  a  stage  in  the 
economic  development  of  modern  civilization,  the  history  of  America  consti- 
tutes the  natural,  and  invaluable,  subject-matter  and  book  of  praxis  of  the 
political  economist.  Plere  is  industrial  development  worked  out  with  in- 
comparable logical  swiftness,  simplicity,  and  precision, — a  swiftness,  sim- 
plicity, and  precision  impossible  amidst  the  rigid  social  order  of  any  ancient 
kingdom.  It  is  a  study,  moreover,  not  merely  of  the  make-up  and  setting 
forth  of  a  new  people,  but  also  of  its  marvellous  expansion,  of  processes  of 
groAvth,  both  spiritual  and  material,  hurried  forward  from  stage  to  stage 
as  if  under  the  experimental  touch  of  some  social  philosopher,  some  political 
scientist  making  of  a  nation's  history  his  laboratory  and  place  of  demon- 
stration. 

The  twentieth  century  will  show  another  face.  The  stage  of  America 
grows  crowded  like  the  stage  of  Europe.  The  life  of  the  new  world  grows 
as  complex  as  the  life  of  the  old.  A  nation  hitherto  wholly  devoted  to  do- 
mestic development  now  finds  its  first  task  roughly  finished  and  turns  about 
to  look  curiously  into  the  tasks  of  the  srreat  world  at  large,  seeking  its  special 


PREFACE 


part  and  place  of  power.  A  new  age  has  come  which  no  man  may  forecast. 
But  the  past  is  the  key  to  it;  and  the  past  of  America  lies  at  the  centre  of 
modern  history. 


^7'75>-»TrcrV%^i.-t^ 


Princeton,  New  Jersey,  September  9,  1901. 


The 
American   School   oi  Historical  Writers 

By  Albert  Bushnell  Hart, 

Professor  of  American  History  at  Harvard  University,  and  author  and  editor  of 
many  works  on  American  History 


American  History  is  fortunate  not  only  in  the  romantic  setting  of  its 
earlier  periods,  and  in  the  succession  of  great  events,  momentous  to  man- 
kind, but  quite  as  much  in  the  interest  of  Americans  to  record  and  to  de- 
scribe the  development  of  their  own  country.  Before  the  reader  and  the 
student  can  come  into  contact  with  his  ancestors,  a  cohort  of  men  must  clear 
away  the  obscuring  noteless  facts,  and  must  leave  standing  the  men  and 
women  of  might  and  influence  in  the  history  of  the  United  States.  Now 
hundreds  of  chroniclers,  scores  of  zealous  investigators,  and  a  throng  of 
secondary  writers  have  taken  part  in  the  work  of  making  their  country  known 
to  itself. 

Looking  over  the  whole  field  of  American  historiography,  it  is  easy  to 
recognize  a  succession  of  literary  impulses;  first  come  the  narratives  of  such 
discoverers  and  explorers  as  Ohamplain,  written  with  many  different  pur- 
poses, but  much  alike  in  the  freshness  and  life  which  they  put  into  their 
story.  A  few  years  later,  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  arise  a 
group  of  writers  of  whom  Winthrop  is  a  type,  builders  of  commonwealths, 
who  have  left  us  a  heritage  of  wisdom  on  the  conditions  of  colonization. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  we  find-  conscious  historians 
piecing  together  traditions  and  records,  and  trying  to  see  the  meaning  and 
proportions  of  previous  events;  they  reach  from  Cotton  Mather  to  Hutch- 
inson. Just  after  the  devolution,  a  new  national  self -consciousness  led  to 
several  efforts  to  tell  at  some  length  the  history  of  that  great  struggle.  The 
beginnings  of  the  literary  period  of  American  history,  about  1830,  included 
new  and  ambitious  attempts  to  compress  the  whole  history  of  the  country 
into  one  systematic  work ;  in  this  period  George  Bancroft  is  the  most  signifi- 
cant name.  Since  the  Civil  War  a  new  school  of  historians  has  arisen,  for 
'^  xxvii 


HISTORICAL    WRITEIIS 

the  most  part  choosing  -limited  periods  and  treating  them  intensively;  of 
these  Henry  Adams  is  a  type. 

At  the  outset  must  be  made  clear  the  distinction  between  the  recorders  of 
events  and  the  critical  analytic  Avriters :  the  first,  men  like  Columbus,  are  al- 
ways a  part  of  the  event  which  they  describe ;  while  the  second  may  look  back- 
ward from  a  distance  of  centuries,  as  did  John  Fiske;  but  at  both  extremi- 
ties of  our  national  history  we  find  some  writers  who  combine  first-hand 
and  contemporary  knowledge  with  the  power  to  see  the  spirit  animating  the 
body  politic;  such  were  Bradford  almost  three  centuries  ago,  and  Eopes  and 
Yon  Hoist  to-day.  To  enumerate  all  the  good  servants  of  America  in  either 
category  is  impossible ;  but  the  best  and  the  tj^pical  may  be  selected. 

The  first  discoverers  and  explorers  not  only  laid  the  foundation  on  which 
later  generations  of  writers  have  built;  they  also  left  us  narratives  which, 
in  directness,  simplicity,  and  elevation  of  thought,  make  them  comparable 
with  Herodotus  and  the  Venerable  Bede.  What  may  be  called  the  first  school 
of  American  historians  is  made  up  of  those  who  themselves  felt  the  sting 
of  the  salt  spray;  heard  the  breakers  beating  upon  mysterious  shores;  saw  the 
painted  savages  come  down  to  view  the  great  white-winged  monsters  from 
which  came  forth  a  race  of  white  men  of  incalculable  wealth  and  unearthly 
powers;  smelt  the  land  odors  from  uncleared  forests;  and  brought  home 
pearls  and  beavers  and  savage  captives.  The  letters  of  Columbus,  despite 
some  ignoble  boasting  and  a  certain  sordidness  which  ill  became  so  great  a 
man,  were  memorials  of  a  splendid  achievement  worthy  of  handing  down 
to  his  children's  children.  So  the  narratives  of  Gomara  and  Pizarro  on  the 
conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru  give  an  unfading  picture  of  the  harsh,  con- 
quering race,  and  of  that  heroic  spirit  through  which  a  handful  overcam^e 
a  multitude.  The  Gentleman  of  Elvas  somehow  appeals  to  the  native  Amer- 
ican sense  of  humor  when  he  tells  us  how  De  Soto  was  hemmed  in  between 
the  Mississippi  and  his  enemies;  "and  on  both  sides  there  were  many  Ind- 
ians, and  his  power  was  not  now  so  great,  but  that  he  had  need  to  help  himself 
rather  by  flight  than  by  force." 

The  narratives  of  the  first  English  explorers  have  the  same  quality  of 
virility,  intensity,  and  undaunted  spirit.  Doubtless  Sir  Francis  Drake  was  a 
gentleman  who  could  make  a  good  deal  of  trouble  to-day  on  a  twenty-knot 
ship  in  the  midst  of  an  enemy's  commerce,  and  he  would  hardly  understand 
the  niceties  of  the  law  of  contraband  of  war;  but  who  can  help  enjoying 
his  rollicking  voyage  to  the  Pacific,  with  its  store  of  unctuous  enumerations 
of  plunder:  "a  silver  chalice,  two  cruets,  and  one  altar  cloth'*;  "thirteen 
bars  of  silver,  each  weighing  four  hundred  ducats,  Spanish  " ;  "  eight  llamas, 
or  sheep  of  Peru,  every  one  of  whi'^h  =bpep  had  nn  its  back  two  bags  of  leather, 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

each  bag  containing  fifty  pound  weight  of  fine  silver " ;  "a  chest  full  of 
royales  of  plate  and  goodly  stores  of  silks  and  linen  cloth  " ;  "  great  riches 
as  jewels  and  precious  stones  " ;  "  thirteen  chests  full  of  royales  of  plate, 
fourscore  pound  weight  of  gold,  and  six-and-twenty  ton  of  silver."  WTiat 
adventurous  boy  would  not  to-day  be  proud  to  share  the  life  of  such  a 
pirate,  and  to  revel  in  the  riches  of  perfidious  Spain  ? 

Nor  do  the  voyagers  have  all  the  romance  of  history  to  themselves.  While 
the  English  language  lives  will  live  honest  John  Smith,  who  has  been  so 
painfully  misunderstood  because  his  historical  novel,  although  carefully 
studied  on  the  spot  and  singularly  accurate  in  its  setting,  came  early  to  be 
accepted,  and  has  many  times  been  criticised,  as  though  it  were  sober  history. 
It  is  fortunate  for  later  generations  that  so  many  of  the  early  worthies  could 
either  handle  the  pen  themselves,  or  had  a  companion  or  scrivener  to  set 
down  in  order  the  details  of  whatever  was  strange  in  scenery,  in  inhabitants, 
in  wild  animals,  and  in  products.  Nowadays  we  do  not  realize  the  absolute 
novelty  of  the  new  world,  for  nowadays  no  part  of  the  world  is  remote, 
except  perhaps  the  Antarctic  continent.  The  sense  of  discovery  was  very 
stimulating :  men  like  Champlain  could  with  equal  ease  explore,  fight,  found 
communities,  and  write  the  most  engaging  narrative;  heroes  like  Father 
Jogues  have  left  us  not  only  a  most  complete  account  of  the  natives  of 
America,  but  an  imperishable  record  of  the  superiority  of  soul  over  such 
accidents  as  tomahawks  and  bone-breaking  gauntlets,  and  red-hot  coals. 

In  real  richness,  variety,  and  romance,  American  history  is  full,  even  when 
we  compare  it  with  the  contemporary  accounts  of  European  countries;  and 
we  know  actually  more  of  the  conditions,  the  standards,  and  the  social  life 
of  the  American  Indians  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  than  we 
know  of  the  life  of  the  English,  French,  or  German  peasantry  of  that  time. 
What  wonder  if  the  early  writers  were  a  little  hampered  by  the  attempt 
to  describe  a  new  barbarism  in  terms  of  an  old  civilization?  Why  should 
not  the  early  historian  make  an  "  emperor ''  out  of  a  naked  savage  who  had 
at  least  the 'physical  power  to  sweep  the  Europeans  off  the  new  continent  if 
he  chose  ?  Was  it  not  natural  that  "  kings  "  and  "  princesses  "  and  "  noble- 
men "  should  stalk  out  of  lodges  that  really  held  unclean  and  untrust- 
worthy savages?  To  Virginia,  to  New  Amsterdam,  to  New  England,  the 
Indians  were  a  mighty  military  power,  often  superior  in  battle,  and  all  but 
victorious  in  the  great  campaign  which  lasted  more  than  a  hundred  years. 
If  the  red  man  had  had  the  musket,  and  the  white  man  the  bow  and  arrow, 
we  should  to-day  be  writing  the  history  of  the  United  States  "  as  the  lion 
would  have  painted  it."  In  these  contemporary  narratives,  many  of  them 
interfused  with  fancy,  and  few  recognizing  the  real  squalor,  degradation, 
and  sinfulness  of  savage  life,  we  have  a  great  cycle  of  historical  material 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

told  in  the  simplest  historical  fashion ;  and  this  is  the  first  school  of  writers 
of  American  history. 

As  soon  as  English  colonization  actually  begins,  we  find  a  second  group 
of  writers  of  whom  two,  Bradford  and  Winthrop,  stand  pre-eminent;  men 
who  recorded  the  annals  of  the  time  in  the  full  faith  that  we  to-day  should 
carefully  read  them,  and  should  find  disclosed  in  them  the  soul  of  the  earliest 
commonwealths.  It  is  of  great  significance  that  throughout  the  colonies, 
and  especially  in  New  England,  there  were  highly  educated  men  capable 
of  leaving  a  record,  reasonably  accurate,  and  phrased  in  the  big,  broad, 
rugged  English  of  the  time.  If  one  of  the  objects  of  the  historian  is  to  dis- 
cover motives,  what  can  be  more  significant  than  Bradford's  long  and  ana- 
lytic account  of  the  reasons  for  the  foundation  of  Pl3rmouth  plantation  ?  The 
opening  words  of  the  "  Of  Plimoth  Plantation ''  seem  like  the  stately  gate- 
way to  an  epic.  "  And  first  of  the  occasion  and  inducements  thereunto,  the 
which  that  I  may  truly  unfold  I  must  begin  at  the  very  root  and  rise  of  the 
same.  The  which  I  shall  endeavor  to  manifest  in  a  plain  style  with  sincere 
regard  unto  the  simple  truth  in  all  things,  at  least  as  near  as  my  slender 
judgment  can  attain  the  same."  In  this  manuscript,  covering  the  period 
1608-1645,  so  carefully  written,  so  long  preserved,  used  by  Prince,  Hubbard, 
Cotton  Mather,  and  Hutchinson,  to  disappear,  and  to  come  to  light  again 
in  the  palace  of  the  Bishop  of  London  at  Fulham,  almost  in  our  own  day — 
in  this  precious  memorial,  we  have  the  first  attempt  at  a  consciously  reasoned 
history  of  America.  Bradford  tells  only  that  part  which  he  knew;  he  de- 
pended upon  his  own  memory  and  the  immediate  communications  of  his 
friends;  but  the  book  is  a  remarkable  account  of  what  we  now  call  the  con- 
stitutional history  of  the  community.  Indeed,  there  is  much  in  Bradford 
to  reward  the  student  of  mankind,  the  sociologist,  the  economist,  the  lawyer, 
the  ecclesiastical  historian,  and  the  lover  of  picturesque  narrative.  Hero 
Wfc  have  the  foundations  of  an  English  colony  and  the  growth  of  its  polity, 
the  slow  building  of  the  walls  of  a  government  which  was  at  the  same  time  a 
municipality;  here  we  read  of  Indian  wars,  stratagems,  powwows,  and  peace- 
makings; here  is  the  record  of  an  important  experiment  in  communism, 
ending  like  all  such  experiments  in  the  final  parceling  out  to  individuals 
of  such  territory  and  property  as  was  left.  We  learn  something  of  what 
emigrants'  food  and  quarters  were  on  board  ship,  while  crossing  the  Atlantic : 
we  have  an  insight  into  fisheries  and  agriculture  and  trade,  and  interest  and 
profit  at  "  the  rate  of  cento  per  cento  "  ;  and  in  the  midst  of  affairs  we  have 
the  splendid  story  of  calm,  resolute,  unshrinking  men,  slowly  piecing  together 
a  political  community  and  preparing  the  way  for  the  later  United  States. 

The  other  great  historical  writer  of  this  period,  John  Winthrop,  is  far  less 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

systematic  and  argumentative.  An  annalist  and  yet  possessed  of  a  keen 
sense  of  selection,  in  the  midst  of  much  that  is  trivial  and  some  things  that 
reveal  the  intense  Puritan  curiosity  about  things  better  left  undisturbed, 
he  still  deals  in  the  main  with  the  imposing  problems  of  free  government. 
The  staples  of  his  history  are  the  interplay  of  man  against  man,  of  class 
with  class,  the  rivalries  of  the  grave  magistracy  with  the  pushing  General 
Court;  the  final  compromise  by  which  a  legislature  of  two  houses  was  organ- 
ized in  Massachusetts.  In  his  story  of  the  period  from  1630  to  1648,  he 
gives  us  not  simply  crude  materials,  but  a  description  of  the  farthermost 
bases  of  American  political  ideas,  as  worked  out  on  American  soil. 

Bradford  and  Winthrop  are  by  no  means  the  only  men  of  that  period 
who  deal  with  events  as  the  warp  and  woof  of  a  systematic  narrative.  Cap- 
tain Edward  Johnson,  in  his  Wonder  WorJcing  Providence  of  Sion's 
Saviour,  published  in  1654,  essays  what  he  calls  a  History  of  New  Eng- 
land, from  those  beginnings  "  when  England  began  to  decline  in  religion 
like  lukewarm  Laodicea,"  till  "  these  soldiers  of  Christ  first  stood  on  this 
western  end  of  the  world."  But  Johnson  and  other  writers  of  similar 
worthy  purposes  had  neither  the  literary  skill  nor  the  sense  of  continuity 
for  which  Bradford  and  Winthrop  are  remarkable.  ISTo  others  left  a  well- 
founded  and  well-knit  narrative  extending  over  so  many  years.  No  others 
felt  so  clearly  that  they  were  both  upbuilders  and  recorders  of  their  own 
upbuilding  . 

Eor  the  inner  life  of  most  of  the  New  England  settlements  besides  Plym- 
outh and  Massachusetts,  there  is  a  painful  dearth  of  contemporary  narrative. 
The  histories  of  Ehode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  New  Hampshire  have  to  be 
pieced  out  of  scattered  and  minute  references  in  journals  and  public  records. 
It  is  much  the  same  in  the  middle  and  southern  colonies;  except  for  the 
vivacious  accounts  of  the  settlers  of  the  Jerseys  and  Pennsylvania,  written 
by  Gabriel  Thomas  and  others,  there  is  hardly  any  contemporary  history 
of  the  middle  colonies,  though  much  material  for  history.  On  the  founda- 
tions of  Virginia  and  ]\raryland  there  are  interesting  contemporary  notices 
by  Strachey,  John  Smith,  Wingfield,  White,  and  others;  but  no  man  writes 
with  the  feeling  that  he  is  drawing  ont  the  real  meaning  of  the  events  which 
he  describes,  for  the  use  of  later  generations ;  no  man  foresees  the  oak  which 
is  to  spring  from  his  acorn.  The  separate  history  of  the  Carolinas  came 
much  later  and  must  be  collated  from  many  scattered  narratives.  When 
Georgia  was  founded  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  historical  sense  was  more 
developed,  and  of  that  colony  there  are  several  excellent  contemporary  ac- 
counts. 

We  must  leap  across  more  than  half  a  century  from  the  end  of  Bradford 


HISTORICAL    WBITERS 

and  Winthrop's  histories  to  reach  a  third  school  made  "up  of  local  historians 
and  annalists,  most  of  whom  have  now  become  simply  material  for  later 
writers.  Of  these  the  first  and  the  worst  is  Cotton  Mather,  whose  magnum 
opus  is  the  Magnalia  Christi  Americana,  or  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
New  England,  first  published  in  1703.  It  would  be  hard  to  cap  this  sm- 
gular  production  for  whimsicality,  variety  of  contents,  and  treatment;  it 
is  everything  except  histor3^  To  Cotton  Mather's  mind  nothing  came  amiss : 
tradition,  rumor,  gossip,  memory,  experiences,  every-day  facts,  were  all 
equally  put  to  his  service.  So  far  as  a  naturally  keen  and  well-practised 
memory  could  go,  he  sounded  and  verified  these  various  sources,  but  it  was 
not  in  his  mind  to  reject  a  statement  because  he  could  not  show  it  to'  be 
probably  true.  The  make-up  of  the  book  is  a  monument  to  the  perverted 
learning  of  the  time.  Anagrams,  prefatory  poems,  attestations,  introductory 
poems,  general  introductions,  epitaphs,  old  sermons  pitchforked  in,  little 
biographies,  contemporary  letters,  squibs,  polemic  pamphlets,  dialogues, 
prophecies,  the  last  dying  speeches  of  criminals,  wonderful  prodigies,  and 
"  remarkables  "  of  Indian  wars — all  was  fish  that  came  to  Mather's  net ; 
and  it  is  one  of  the  tasks  of  the  present-day  historian  to  delve  in  the  many 
fonts  of  type  of  this  ponderous  book  in  order  to  discover  how  much  is  truth, 
how  much  prejudice,  and  how  much  downright  error. 

Contemporary  with  Mather  is  the  first  really  good  local  history,  Beverley's 
History  of  Virginia,  published  about  1705 ;  and  it  is  worth  noting  that  Bev- 
erley had  in  his  mind  the  modern  conception  that  history  includes  a  view 
of  the  social  conditions  and  standards  of  the  time.  He  makes  it  his  business 
not  only  to  describe  the  foundings  of  the  commonwealth  of  Virginia,  for 
Avhich  he  had  to  depend  on  material  made  by  others,  but  also  to  tell  us  of  the 
products,  the  social  institutions,  the  education,  and  the  labor  system  of  his 
time.  Here  we  have  really  the  first  example  of  an  American  history,  written 
not  from  personal  experiences,  or  from  the  memory  of  those  who  had  gone 
through  such  experiences,  but  from  printed  and  even  written  records,  or  at 
least  from  a  restatement  of  such  printed  narratives  as  he  could  find. 

Beverley  set  an  example  which  unfortunately  was  followed  by  few  writers 
of  his  century.  To  be  sure  there  are  some  other  agreeable  books  of  the  same 
kind:  Smith's  History  of  New  Jersey,  published  in  1765:  William  Smith's 
History  of  New  YorTc,  written  in  the  eighteenth  century,  though  not  pub- 
lished till  many  years  later;  Stith's  Virginia  (to  1624),  published  in  1747; 
and  several  ecclesiastical  histories  of  merit,  especially  ISTeal  and  Backus. 
But  these  writers  are  independent  of  each  other,  are  local  and  had  but  a 
limited  circle  of  readers.  One  man  deserves  to  be  specially  noticed  because 
he  made  it  his  task  to  accumulate  small  details,  and  was  the  first  to  estab- 
lish many  of  the  accepted  conventions  of  American  history.     Thomas  Prince, 

xxxii 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

in  the  preparation  of  his  Annals,  published  from  1736  to  1755,  made  a 
collection  of  documents  which  served  him  as  the  basis  for  a  chronological 
conspectus  of  the  history  of  New  England,  which,  unluckily,  reached  only 
to  1633.  Like  his  follower,  Abiel  Holmes,  he  has  long  since  been  forgotten, 
except  by  specialists;  the  work  of  both  Prince  and  Holmes  was  that  of 
laying  rough  stones  which  are  hidden  out  of  sight  by  the  finished  structure. 
The  first  general  historian  of  America  upon  the  model  of  the  three  great 
contemporary  English  writers,  Hume,  Eobertson,  and  Gibbon,  was  Thomas 
Hutchinson  in  his  History  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  An  official,  a  man  of  prop- 
erty, of  high  connections,  much  experiences  in  town  and  colonial  government, 
he  began  to  publish  in  176-1.  His  second  volume  was  published  three  years 
later,  when  the  storm-cloud  of  the  devolution  was  already  gathering.  A 
third  volume,  which  includes  the  unhappy  history  of  the  pre-revolutionary 
controversies,  did  not  appear  till  long  after  his  death.  In  Hutchinson  as  in 
Prince,  we  have  a  study  of  historical  sources,  though  very  limited  in  kind; 
he  seems  scarcely  to  have  loiown  that  there  were  manuscript  records  of  the 
lower  house  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  and  his  history  is  directly 
founded  on  private  papers  and  the  records  of  the  governor  and  council. 
^¥ha.t  is  really  important  in  Hutchinson  is  his  attempt  to  write  a  history 
in  a  narrative  form,  covering  a  century  and  a  half,  which  should  deal  with 
events  in  their  right  proportions,  and  in  which  he  should  also  apply  the  same 
methods  of  judgment  and  segregation  to  a  period  within  which  he  had 
himself  lived.  Nobody  now  reads  Hutchinson  for  his  style,  and  his  account 
of  early  Massachusetts  is  long  since  surpassed,  but  the  experience  of  the 
trained  public  man  gives  a  permanent  value  to  his  conclusions,  and  his  is  dis- 
tinctly a  genuine  historian's  work. 

Among  the  evidences  of  a  quickened  national  consciousness  was  the  growth 
of  a  new  school  of  historians  immediately  after  the  Eevolution.  Among 
them  were  several  notable  historians  of  a  single  commonwealth — Proud's 
Pennsylvania,  Trumbull's  Connecticut,  Burk's  Virginia,  and — far  the  best 
of  them  all — Belknap's  New  Hampshire.  At  the  same  time  arose  several 
conscientious  and  hard-working  writers,  who  wrought  upon  the  history  of 
their  country,  taking  into  view  not  a  colony  nor  a  section,  but  the  whole 
nation;  and  they  also  conceived  the  modern  idea  of  choosing  a  limited  field 
and  treating  it  with  thoroughness  and  in  detail.  Of  these  the  most  notable 
are  Ramsay,  Mercy  Warren,  and  Timothy  Pitkin.  Dr.  Eamsay,  whose  book, 
published  in  1811,  describes  much  of  the  military  side  of  the  Eevolution, 
and  includes  an  invaluable  discussion  of  the  effects  of  that  great  struggle 
on  the  political  and  social  life  of  Americans.  ]\Tercy  Warren  was  the  first 
woman  to  publish  a  narrative  history,  which,  however  one-sided,  was  written 


HISTORICAL    WRITEIIS 

by  an  eye-witness,  and  tliat  eye-witness  a  woman  of  high  education  and  great 
spirit.  It  was  this  able  person,  called  by  her  friends  the  Marcia  of  the 
American  Eevolution,  who  ventured  to  attack  the  great  John  Adams  and 
accused  him  of  leaning  towards  monarchism.  Better  than  all  the  others 
is  honest  Pitkin,  whose  history,  published  in  1828,  covers  with  clearness  and 
insight  the  history  of  the  foundation  of  the  American  republic  from  1763 
to  1797,  with  a  few  foot-notes  referring  to  the  scanty  sources  available  at  that 
time.  Pitkin  had  a  strong  liking  for  statistics,  and  his  books  remained  until 
up  to  a  few  years  ago  almost  the  only  well-thought  discussion  of  the  political 
and  economic  conditions  of  the  colonies,  as  a  background  for  a  discussion  of 
the  causes  of  the  Eevolution. 

Besides  these  important  studies  of  material  at  first-hand,  the  great  libra- 
ries contain  many  so-called  histories  of  the  United  States,  published  in  the 
first  third  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  habit  of  the 
x^Tew  England  country  clergy  to  combine  with  the  country  newspapers  to 
produce  a  history;  the  parson  furnished  scissors,  paste,  and  circumambient 
rhetoric,  and  produced  a  manuscript  chiefly  out  of  extracts  from  his  prede- 
cessors; the  printer  set  it  up  on  the  off  days  when  the  week's  paper  was 
printed  and  copy  for  the  next  had  not  3^et  appeared.  This  process,  not  un- 
known in  later  and  wiser  generations,  adds  nothing  to  American  histori- 
ography and  needs  no  further  description. 

Although  up  to  1830  there  had  appeared  no  account  of  the  development 
of  America  which  is  now  read  as  a  classic,  and  still  less  any  first-hand  Amer- 
ican history  of  a  foreign  country — the  foundations  were  laying  upon  which 
historians  might  safely  build.  During  the  whole  time  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Eevolution  down,  materials  were  being  collected  and  made  available, 
without  which  the  work  of  Hildreth  and  Bancroft  would  have  been  impos- 
sible. It  is  the  happy  fortune  of  America  that  the  great  men  of  the  revo- 
lutionary period  either  kept  copies  of  their  letters  or  wrote  such  important 
documents  that  they  were  preserved  by  those  Avho  received  them.  In  the 
letters  of  Washington  and  Franklin,  of  John  Jay,  of  Jefferson,  of  Madison, 
of  Monroe,  and  a  score  of  other  revolutionary  worthies,  we  find  the  true 
spirit  of  their  times,  and  in  1791,  Dr.  Jeremy  Belknap,  himself  the  author 
of  the  excellent  history  of  Kew  Hampshire,  founded  in  Boston  the  Massa- 
chusetts Historical  Society,  the  first  in  time  of  a  long  series  of  public-spirited 
organizations,  whose  aim  it  has  been  to  collect  memorials  which  would  other- 
wise perish,  and  to  put  them  in  permanent  form  for  later  generations. 

Our  ancestors  have  always  been  rather  tenacious  of  public  records,  partly 
because  of  the  importance  of  such  evidence  in  settling  questions  of  property, 
and  partly  from  an  instinctive  feeling  that  what  they  were  doing  was  worth 
remembrancing.     It  is  this  sense  of  doing  something  worth  while  which 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

finds  expression  in  the  famous  resolutions  of  the  Cambridge  town  meeting 
in  1'765 :  "  that  this  vote  be  recorded  in  the  town  book  that  the  children  yet 
unborn  might  see  the  desire  their  ancestors  had  for  their  freedom  and  hap- 
piness." Accident,  neglect,  the  T^evolutionary  War,  caused  the  loss  of  many 
precious  records,  especially  in  the  South,  but  enough  remained  to  make  an 
almost  inexhaustible  mine  for  the  antiquary  and  investigator.  Three  dif- 
ferent influences  were  brought  to  bear  side  by  side  with  each  other  to  effect 
the  publication  of  historical  material:  the  historical  societies;  the  state  gov- 
ernments, in  many  cases  animated  by  the  societies;  and  the  strong  historical 
spirit  of  a  few  investigators.  Of  these  latter,  the  chief  is  Jared  Sparks,  who 
published  his  edition  of  the  Writings  of  Washington  in  1836,  followed  by  his 
Franklin's  Works,  and  by  his  Correspondence  of  the  American  Revolution; 
he  also  established  a  series  of  brief  biographies,  all  of  them  edited  and 
several  written  by  Mr.  Sparks.  It  is  hard  to  overestimate  the  influence  of 
this  man,  endued  as  he  was  with  an  immense  capacity  to  take  advantage  of 
his  great  opportunities.  According  to  the  historical  canons  of  his  time 
he  was  a  most  intelligent  editor;  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  correct  the  mis- 
takes of  grammar  or  expression  in  the  originals  before  him,  so  that  he  might 
more  clearly  bring  out  the  sense ;  and  it  wounded  him  that  the  Father  of  his 
Country  should  misspell.  Sparks's  editions,  therefore,  overlay  the  originals 
with  literary  shellac  and  varnish,  but  he  does  not  conceal  the  original  grain. 
Himself  a  conscientious  investigator,  a  careful  historical  writer,  he  combines 
within  his  own  achievements  three  historical  triumphs:  he  opened  up  great 
evidences  of  truth;  he  was  the  first  exemplar  of  the  co-operative  method  of 
writing  history ;  and  he  was  himself  no  mean  author. 

Upon  the  foundations  thus  laid,  and  infused  with  that  lively  national 
spirit  which  began  to  be  distinctly  felt  after  the  War  of  1813,  there  now 
appears  a  writer  who  had  a  combination,  almost  unexampled  in  America 
up  to  that  time,  of  an  historian's  qualities:  ambition,  training,  wealth,  social 
connections,  political  experience,  and  an  intense  desire  to  write  a  history 
of  his  country  from  its  earliest  beginnings  down  to  the  end  of  his  own  time. 
That  man  was  George  Bancroft,  who,  beginning  his  self-imposed  task  about 
1830,  in  1883  was  still  systematically  engaged  on  it.  A  whole  cycle  of 
national  history  had  passed  by  between  the  beginning  and  end  of  his  work, 
and  his  fifty  years  of  labor  was  enough  only  to  bring  him  from  the  discovery 
of  America  down  to  the  adoption  of  the  federal  Constitution  in  1788. 

Here  at  least  was  a  difl^erent  conception  of  history,  so  different  from  those 
who  preceded  him  that  he  became  the  founder  of  a  new  school.  Besides  a 
capacity  for  vast  labor,  Bancroft  created  a  machinery  for  the  assembling 
of  material  up  to  that  time  unknown  in  America :  he  sent  all  over  the  world 


HISTORICAL    WmTERS 

for  transcripts  of  documents ;  he  collected  a  valuable  library ;  as  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  under  Polk,  he  had  opportunities  for  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  archives  of  the  federal  government;  he  wrote  patiently,  and  repeat- 
edly rewrote  his  own  work,  which  in  its  most  elaborated  form  includes 
twelve  good-sized  volumes.  That  Bancroft  is  to-day  rather  the  companion 
of  the  scholar  than  of  the  patriot  reader  is  not  strange;  he  began  and 
carried  on  his  work  in  the  midst  of  an  atmosphere  of  what  may  be 
called  professional  history;  his  intellectual  predecessor  was  Robertson; 
his  intellectual  compeers  were  Macaulay  and  Prescott.  He  wrote  to  be  read 
and  chose  the  style  which  most  attracted  readers  half  a  century  ago;  he 
wrote  to  justify  his  fathers  for  the  Revolution,  and  his  mind  was  quicker  to 
grasp  the  grievances  of  the  colonies  than  the  difficulties  of  the  English  ad- 
ministration. A  sincere  and  honest  man  whose  public  service  has  been  enor- 
mous, Bancroft  is  now  neglected  by  readers,  and  his  example  is  avoided  by 
writers.  It  is  unfortunate  for  Bancroft's  permanent  fame  that  a  considerable 
part  of  his  work  has  no  foot-notes ;  his  reason  was  that  other  people  followed 
him  on  his  authorities,  without  giving  him  credit;  he  thus  cut  off  not  only 
a  means  of  checking  his  conclusions,  but  also  a  useful  aid  to  inquirers.  Ban- 
croft has  often  been  charged  with  rearranging  and  docking  his  quotations. 
His  habit  of  referring  to  many  materials  available  only  in  his  own  collection 
of  transcripts  makes  it  difficult  to  examine  this  charge,  but  where  he  refers 
to  printed  materials  he  does  not  seem  consciously  to  have  altered  the  sense  of 
a  quotation  by  omission  or  transposition. 

Side  by  side  with  Bancroft  is  a  writer  much  less  known  and  much  less 
appreciated,  who  nevertheless  has  deserved  well  of  his  countrymen — Richard 
Hildreth,  who  attempted  the  same  task  as  Bancroft,  and  in  six  volumes,  the 
last  of  them  published  in  1856,  brought  down  his  history  from  the  earliest 
colonial  times  to  1820.  In  many  respects  Hildreth  more  nearly  approaches 
to  the  modern  standard  of  the  historian  than  any  one  who  preceded  or  accom- 
panied him.  He  has  such  a  grasp  of  facts  and  so  well  knows  how  to  assemble 
them,  and  to  discriminate  among  them,  that  almost  any  event  of  large  im- 
portance that  has  happened  in  our  history  is  mentioned  in  his  volumes.  He, 
too,  had  his  thesis  to  prove;  strongly  federalist  in  sympathy,  his  later  vol- 
umes are  to  a  considerable  degree  a  justification  of  the  Hamiltonian  theory 
of  government ;  and  like  Bancroft,  he  does  not  see  fit  to  append  those  foot- 
notes which  are  a  restraint  upon  a  writer,  an  opportunity  to  examine  his 
ground,  and  a  useful  equipment  for  later  investigators. 

Only  one  other  general  history  of  the  United  States  in  the  period  from 
1830  to  1860  need  be  mentioned  here.  Tucker's  History  of  the  United 
States,  published  in  1857  and  covering  the  period  from  1774  to  1841,  is  the 
only  work  of  the  kind  written  by  a  Southern  man.     Just  why  most  of  the 

xxxvi 


HISTORICAL    WmTERS 

history-writing  down  to  the  Civil  War  was  done  by  New  England  men  is 
not  easy  to  discover;  traditional  interest  in  history,  good  libraries,  the  in- 
fluence of  a  live  State  historical  society,  the  nearness  of  a  book-buying  public, 
the  close  connection  between  literary  and  public  life — these  are  some  of  the 
reasons.  Tucker  aimed  to  look  at  our  history  from  a  different  angle,  but  he 
has  little  of  the  method  or  style  of  the  trained  historian,  he  does  not  attract 
the  reader,  and  is  less  quoted  than  his  careful  work  deserves. 

So  far,  most  of  the  interest  of  American  writers  had  been  given  to  their 
own  country ;  it  was  a  mark  of  a  growth  in  cosmopolitanism  when  two  writers 
chose  for  their  themes  fields  of  European  history,  though  in  both  cases  there 
was  a  connection  with  American  history  in  its  wider  aspects.  Prescott  chose 
first  the  Spaniards  in  America,  and  then  the  Spanish  monarchy  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  In  his  time  he  was  considered  one  of  the  safest  as  well  as 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  historical  writers.  Brilliant  he  is,  and  he  chose 
for  his  theme  the  romantic  period  which  connected  European  civilization 
with  the  earliest  phases  of  American  history.  His  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
his  Conquest  of  Peru,  his  Conquest  of  Mexico,  his  Charles  V.,  his  Philip  II.. 
published  during  the  two  decades  from  1837  to  1858,  were  read  with  interest 
and  enthusiasm  by  scholars,  business  men,  and  school-boys,  just  as  Macaulay 
was  read  at  the  same  time  both  in  England  and  America.  In  every  way  he  is 
a  notable  figure,  this  man  almost  blind,  working  patiently  year  after  year  in 
his  Boston  library  and  slowly  committing  to  the  press  his  beautifully  written 
volumes,  which  are  still  among  our  best  historical  works,  although  the  meth- 
ods of  the  author  and  his  Judgment  of  his  sources  are  no  longer  accepted  as 
final. 

Motley  came  a  little  later,  chose  a  similar  theme,  but  without  a  direct  con- 
nection with  American  history.  His  Dutch  Republic,  his  United  Nether- 
lands, his  John  of  Barneveld,  have  been  sources  of  inspiration  to  thousands 
of  readers;  and  if  the  maturer  student  now  searches  them  in  vain  for  any 
insight  into  the  organization  of  the  marvellous  military  people  whom  he 
described;  if  he  finds  little  about  their  colonics  and  nothing  about  their  gov- 
ernment; if  he  learns  not  the  source  of  their  wealth,  nor  the  secret  of  their 
national  persistence,  he  does  get  a  striking  picture  of  the  heroism  of  the  later- 
day  Athenians  contending  against  the  Persians  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Motley  was  really  not  an  historian,  but  a  describer  of  mighty  historic  deeds. 

Motley  began  to  publish  in  1856,  and  continued  long  after  the  Civil 
War,  but  he  belongs  to  the  ante-bellum  school,  and  that  school,  notwithstand- 
ing its  great  services,  had  as  yet  treated  history  only  in  partial  fnshion.  Ma- 
terials were  collected  and  much  learning  was  expended  in  explaining  and  an- 
notating them  and  in  brief  articles  and  papers  founded  upon  them.  Upon 
the  other  side,  several  ambitious  attempts  had  been  made  to  give  in  one  con- 


HISTORICAL    WRITEIIS 

spectus  an  account  of  what  was  most  noteworthy  in  the  whole  history  of  the 
nation.  A  school  of  biographers  had  also  arisen,  some  of  whom  had  pub- 
lished elaborate  works  like  the  painfully  minute  Eives's  Madison;  or  history 
was  grouped  about  the  life  of  one  individual  as  in  Marshall's  Washington, 
or  Irving's  Columhus.  As  yet,  however,  there  was  little  grouping  of  great 
masses  of  related  facts  in  monographs,  and  few  examples  of  historians  who 
took  a  brief  period  as  their  whole  field. 

For  some  years  after  the  Civil  War,  Motley  and  Bancroft  were  still  the 
noted  American  historians,  and  the  development  of  a  new  spirit  in  history 
is  due  first  of  all  to  the  achievements  of  another  writer,  whose  work,  though 
begun  long  before,  was  ended  only  in  1885.  Francis  Parkman  is  the  greatest 
of  all  the  writers  who  have  ever  made  America  their  theme  or  have  written 
as  American  scholars,  and  his  greatness  depends  upon  three  qualities  rarely 
brought  together  in  one  man ;  he  was  a  matchless  investigator,  a  man  of  the 
most  unflinching  tenacity,  and  somehow  he  knew  how  to  write  so  that  men 
loved  to  read  him.  His  method  was  that  of  the  special  field,  long  enough  in 
his  case,  but  narrow  in  geographical  dimensions.  He  wrote  upon  what  he 
himself  called  "  the  history  of  the  woods,"  upon  the  century  and  a  half  of 
hostile  contact  between  the  French  colonists  and  the  English  colonists,  ac- 
centuated by  the  fierce  savages  who  were  between  them. 

Back  of  the  romance  of  history  was  the  romance  of  Parkman's  own  life. 
One  of  the  most  unassuming  and  modest  men  who  ever  lived,  he  went  on  his 
way  without  seeming  to  know  that  he  was  a  hero;  but  in  an  autobiographical 
fragment,  drawn  up  in  1868,  he  has  revealed  the  inner  man.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  had  formed  the  splendid  plan  of  his  history,  all  of  which  he 
lived  to  complete,  and  while  still  a  young  man  he  made  that  adventurous 
overland  trip  to  Oregon,  which  is  faithfully  commemorated  in  his  Oregon 
Trail,  published  in  1851,  an  account  of  a  journey  intended  to  give  him  an 
"  inside  view  of  Indian  life."  He  returned  with  a  physique  naturally  feeble, 
further  weakened  by  the  hardships  of  the  prairie,  and  resulting  in  a  state 
which  he  describes  as  follows :  "  The  conditions  were  threefold :  an  extreme 
weakness  of  sight,  disabling  him  even  from  writing  his  name  except  with 
eyes  closed;  a  condition  of  the  brain  prohibiting  fixed  attention  except 
at  occasional  and  brief  intervals;  and  an  exhaustion  and  total  derange- 
ment of  the  nervous  S3^stem,  producing  of  necessity  a  condition 
of  mind  most  unfavorable  to  effort."  After  1851,  he  says  that  there 
had  not  been  "  any  waking  hour  when  he  has  not  been  in  some  degree 
conscious  of  the  presence  of  the  malady " ;  although  later  "  the  con- 
dition of  the  sight  has  so  far  improved  as  to  permit  reading,  not  exceeding, 
on  an  average,  five  minutes  at  a  time.  .  .  .  By  reading  that  amount  and 


\  HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

then  resting  for  an  equal  time,  this  alternative  process  could  generally  be 
continued  foi;  about  half  an  hour,  then,  after  a  sufficient  interval,  it  would  be 
repeated,  even  three  or  four  times  in  the  course  of  the  day."  It  was  thus 
that  large  parts  of  his  literary  monument  were  prepared ;  and  the  difficulties 
but  enhanced  the  result,  for  they  make  it  evident  that  it  is  not  the  fascination 
of  the  subject,  nor  the  pleasure  of  breaking  new  ground,  nor  the  careful  prep- 
aration of  material  that  fix  Parkman  as  the  greatest  of  all  American  his- 
torians, but  the  soaring  spirit,  which  had  its  message  to  tell  and  could  not  be 
fettered. 

Parkman  is  a  kind  of  bridge  between  the  older  and  the  newer  school  of  his- 
torians, for  he  began  with  the  same  traditions  as  Bancroft  and  Hildreth, 
and  he  furnished  a  model  and  an  impetus  for  Henry  Adams,  McMaster, 
Winsor,  Ehodes,  and  Eoosevelt.  Before  describing  the  more  recent  group  of 
writers,  most  of  them  still  living,  it  is  necessary  to  show  what  an  awakening 
came  over  the  country  in  historical  matters  during  and  after  the  Civil  War. 
If  it  be  true  that  interest  in  athletic  sports  and  open-air  life  is  to  be  traced 
from  the  Virginia  and  Georgia  campaigns,  it  is  equally  true  that,  just  as  in 
the  post-revolutionary  period,  the  country  awoke  after  1865  to  a  new  sense 
of  the  dignity  and  importance  of  its  own  history  and  institutions.  This  con- 
sciousness took  form  in  various  directions:  first,  in  the  systematic  training 
of  young  men  to  be  writers  and  teachers  of  history ;  second,  in  the  appearance 
of  a  new  literature  of  carefully  wrought  monographs,  resembling  though 
usually  superior  to  the  German  doctors'  dissertations ;  and  third,  in  the  devo- 
tion of  their  lives  to  historical  writing  by  a  new  series  of  historians. 

Most  of  the  elder  historical  schools  in  America  from  the  days  of  Bradford 
and  Winthrop  down  to  Hildreth  and  Palfrey  were  made  up  of  college-bred 
men;  and  most  of  the  writers  are  grouped  about  one  little  New  England 
college.  Winthrop  was  a  founder  of  Harvard ;  Hutchinson,  a  graduate,  Ban- 
croft, Hildreth,  Parkman,  Belknap,  Prescott,  Motley,  were  its  sons;  Jared 
Sparks,  its  president.  And  yet  that  college  made  no  effort,  and  no  other 
college  made  efi'ort,  to  train  young  men  in  historical  methods,  and  very  little 
was  done  to  instruct  them  in  historical  data.  Each  successful  writer  was 
his  own  teacher,  and  handed  down  few  traditions.  In  several  of  the  colleges 
were  intelligent  and  highly  educated  men,  who  taught  history  by  hearing 
formal  recitations  from  a  dull  text-book ;  but  the  creative  and  inspiring  side 
of  teaching  commonly  went  into  mental  and  moral  philosophy. 

Early  in  the  seventies  arose  two  fishers  of  men,  Charles  Kendall  Adams 
in  the  University  of  ]\Iichigan,  and  Henry  Adams  in  Harvard  University, 
and  about  the  same  time  began  a  new  system  of  graduate  instruction  in  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  where  for  twenty-five  years  Herbert  B.  Adams  was 


HISTORICAL    WmTERS 

the  inciter  of  historical  teachers  and  writers.  All  these  men,  and  others  who 
speedily  followed  them,  made  it  their  task,  not  only  to  inform  their  students, 
but  also  to  make  them  searchers  for  truth.  Henry  Adams  had  the  habit  on 
the  first  day  of  the  term  of  deliberately  frightening  out  of  his  course  all  but 
the  most  eager  and  undaunted  students;  and  from  the  residuum  he  built 
up  an  enthusiastic  company  of  able  young  men.  He  edited  and  published 
a  volume  of  essays  on  Anglo-Saxon  Law,  prepared  under  his  guidance  by 
students  whose  names  have  since  been  attached  to  many  more  formal  works; 
but  he  grew  tired  of  enforcing  historical  truths  through  other  people,  and  he 
withdrew  to  the  ten  years'  labor  of  preparation  of  his  masterpiece.  Charles 
Kendall  Adams,  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  introduced  with  some  useful 
modifications  the  German  seminary  method,  and  he  also  sent  out  students 
imbued  with  his  methods,  to  be  college  professors  and  presidents.  This 
was  also  the  method  steadily  and  effectively  applied  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and 
the  young  men  trained  there  have  been  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
country. 

In  1877,  Justin  Winsor  came  to  Harvard,  and  so  long  as  he  lived  he  was 
the  greatest  force  for  historical  learning  in  his  university.  This  remarkable 
man  in  many  ways  resembled  Sparks ;  he  was  a  great  organizer,  and  as  libra- 
rian of  the  Boston  Public  Library'-  and  of  the  Harvard  College  Library  fur- 
nished models  to  the  world  of  libraries  in  which  the  main  purpose  was  to 
have  books  used.  As  an  editor  and  historical  writer  he  has  left  three  series 
and  various  independent  volumes;  but  one  of  his  greatest  services  to  learning 
was  his  untiring  interest  in  the  yoimg  men  and  young  women,  students  of 
history,  who  came  under  his  influence.  Himself  a  man  of  method  and  ac- 
customed to  deal  with  great  masses  of  material  and  to  draw  from  them  his 
conclusions,  he  infused  into  all  those  who  came  into  contact  with  him  the 
spirit  of  scientific  historical  work.  Perhaps  ]\Ir.  Winsor's  chief  claim  to 
eminence  in  his  craft  was  his  profound  acquaintance  with  practical  bibli- 
ographjr,  not  only  a  knowledge  of  books,  but  a  consciousness  of  what  books 
are  important,  a  power  of  discrimination ;  and  upon  the  period  of  American 
history  from  discovery  to  the  War  of  1812,  his  Narrative  and  Critical  His- 
tory is  an  example  of  broad  scholarship  applied  with  high  intelligence  to 
the  service  of  science.  Although  he  gave  but  few  college  courses,  Mr.  Win- 
sor was  in  effect  a  teacher  and  a  trainer,  as  well  as  a  librarian  and  an  author, 
and  he  drew  into  his  co-operative  labors  the  most  ardent  young  men. 

Mr.  Winsor's  labors  were  to  a  large  degree  monographic.  He  secured 
from  various  other  people  short  studies  of  episodes  and  movements,  all 
founded  upon  a  minute  study  of  sources,  and  each  annotated  by  the  author 
and  supplemented  by  Mr.  Winsor's  own  nnfatliomable  learning,  with  precise 

xl 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

references  to  the  original  material.  Similar  monographic  work  has  for 
twenty  years  been  going  on  all  over  the  country  and  particularly  in  the  ■uni- 
versities. Following  the  example  of  Johns  Hopkins,  other  universities  after 
1880  founded  special  graduate  schools  and  developed  systematic  instruction 
and  preparation  looking  towards  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  The  i^edgiing  doctors 
were  expected  to  write  theses,  and  their  results,  in  most  cases  printed,  con- 
stituted a  new  stratum  in  the  historical  materials  of  America.  In  many 
instances  they  were  published  in  separate  volumes,  like  Woodrow  Wilson's 
Congressional  Government;  others  were  grouped  in  various  series,  of  which 
the  oldest  is  the  Johns  Hopkins  Studies,  comprising  a  volume  every  year 
since  1883,  and  thus  has  been  furnished  an  opportunity  of  reaching  the  world 
on  a  subject  which  did  not  stimulate  the  ordinary  publisher,  or  commend 
itself  to  the  magazine  editor. 

Later,  other  institutions  took  up  the  system:  Columbia  University,  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  the  University  of  Michigan,  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  the  University  of  Nebraska,  Cornell  University,  Brown  Univer- 
sity, Harvard  University,  and  other  institutions  have  taken  the  responsibility 
for  the  publication  of  single  or  grouped  studies,  often  representing  the  well- 
directed  labor  of  several  years.  Here  many  historical  writers  who  have  later 
blossomed  out  into  more  general  literary  work  have  tried  their  prentice 
hands;  here  young  men  and  young  women  have  the  opportunity  to  put  upon 
record  evidence  of  their  power  to  deal  with  historical  subjects,  an  evidence 
often  of  much  service  to  them  through  the  etfect  which  it  may  have  upon  the 
mind  of  the  college  presidents  and  other  grandees  who  have  the  power  to  hold 
out  the  golden  sceptre.  In  such  monographs  the  residuary  results,  drawn 
from  the  distilling  of  great  masses  of  otherwise  undigested  material,  are 
made  available  for  other  writers.  The  stream  of  such  publications  goes  on 
unceasingly,  and  their  character  tends  to  improve  as  the  opportunities  for 
study  and  for  direction  from  older  men  increase.  The  better  writers  out- 
grow their  doctor's  theses,  and  sometimes  wonder  that  their  judgments  were 
ever  so  crude;  but  the  result  is  an  opening  up  of  fields  of  great  importance 
which  had  long  remained  unfilled. 

For  example,  until  a  few  years  ago  there  was  nowhere  to  be  found  any 
account,  based  upon  the  sources,  of  Presidential  elections,  of  the  Speakership 
of  the  House  of  Eepresentatives,  or  of  the  Senate,  or  of  the  veto  power,  or  of 
Congressional  committees,  or  of  the  actual  system  for  nomination  for  office ; 
the  student  of  American  institutions  has  now  the  benefit  of  careful  studies  in 
all  these  subjects :  and  it  is  worth  noting  that  within  this  field  of  practical 
politics  some  of  the  best  work  of  collecting  and  generalizing  from  the  scat- 
tered materials  has  been  done  by  women.  Twenty  years  ago  there  was 
almost  nothing  in  the  way  of  careful,  first-hand  studies  of  the  slavery  ques- 

xli 


HISTOKICAL    WRITERS 

tion;  now  we  have  able  monograpns  on  various  individual  commonwealtlis, 
on  fugitive  slaves,  on  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  the  slave-trade, 
and  on  the  underground  railroad — nearly  every  one  a  result  of  scientific 
study  under  the  direction  or  impetus  of  college  teachers. 

The  system  of  monographs  has  done  much  to  make  the  conditions  and  the 
merits  of  historical  writing  widely  known.  Where  half  a  century  ago  one 
man  knew  how  to  write  an  acceptable  historical  narrative,  forty  persons  have 
now  had  some  experience.  One  of  the  influences  which  has  done  much  to 
stimulate  investigation  in  limited  topics  has  been  the  American  Historical 
Association,  founded  in  1884.  In  its  two  functions  of  holding  meetings  at 
which  younger  men  are  brought  into  association  with  older  writers,  and  of 
printing  an  annual  report  in  which  shorter  or  longer  papers  may  be  printed 
and  distributed  to  an  impatient  world,  the  Association  has  made  the  path 
of  young  writers  easier;  and  its  list  of  presidents  has  included  most  of  the 
foremost  historical  writers  of  the  time. 

The  most  widely  known  and  most  useful  series  of  monographs,  a  revival 
of  Sparks^s  idea  of  brief  biographies  by  experts,  is  the  widely  read  American 
Statesman  Series,  which  is  edited,  and  of  which  several  volumes  have  been 
written  by  John  T.  Morse,  Jr.  Similar  to  it  in  scope  are  the  American  Men 
of  Letters,  Makers  of  America,  Beacon  Biographies  and  other  like  combina- 
tions, all  in  principle  an  attempt  to  tell  the  story  of  a  brief  period  through 
the  lives  of  public  men  who  stood  for  a  dominant  idea. 

Under  modern  conditions  one  of  the  measures  of  the  interest  in  a  science 
is  the  kind  of  journals  which  are  created  to  represent  it.  In  many  respects 
the  publications  of  the  various  state  and  local  historical  societies  have  for 
more  tban  a  century  been  sober  periodicals;  besides  the  more  special  issues 
of  Collections,  such  societies  annually  print  Transactions,  or  Records  which 
contain  briefer  and  less  imposing  matter,  and  in  several  cases,  as  for  ex- 
ample the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society,  this  publication  has  not  only 
the  character  but  the  form  of  a  magazine.  From  the  founding  of  Carey's 
American  Museum,  in  1787,  and  especially  after  the  establishment  of  the 
North  American  Review,  in  1815,  there  has  always  been  a  medium  for  his- 
torical articles,  often  elaborate  enough  to  be  monographs.  ISTot  till  1857 
was  there  a  periodical  devoted  entirely  to  history;  Dawson's  Historical  Mag- 
azine, which  kept  up  a  respectable  existence  till  1875.  Then  followed  the 
Magazine  of  American  History  from  1877  to  1896. 

These  were  both  private  enterprises,  which  were  able  to  get  very  little  aid 
and  comfort  from  the  established  historical  writers  of  the  time,  and  they 
received  little  that  was  significant  from  the  new  race  of  monographists.  In 
1895,  a  journal  was  founded  under  the  title  of  the  American  Historical 
Review,  with  the  express  purpose  of  uniting  scattered  historical  forces,  of 

xlii 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

dealing  with  all  fields  and  phases  of  history,  and  of  offering  an  opportunity 
for  the  publication  of  the  result  of  the  latest  scholarships.  Through  a  re- 
lation established  with  the  x\merican  Historical  Association  in  1898,  the 
circulation  and  influence  of  this  review  were  much  increased,  and  history 
remains  one  of  the  few  great  fields  of  learning  in  America  on  which  rival 
■universities  have  not  established  rival  and  struggling  journals. 

The  illustrated  magazines  of  the  time,  and  the  political  reviews  also  give 
scope  for  historical  articles,  often  of  great  excellence,  by  able  hands,  and  in 
many  cases  drawn  out  into  a  series  which  eventually  becomes  a  book.  No 
historical  writer,  young  or  old,  need  suffer  for  a  medium  through  which  to 
make  his  conclusions  known,  provided  he  really  has  conclusions  worth  draw- 
ing; and  in  the  pages  of  the  special  and  general  periodicals  future  writers 
of  history  will  find  a  fund  of  valuable  materials. 

The  connection  of  history  with  universities  has  had  some  admirable 
effects;  among  them  has  been  an  intimate  relation  between  the  profession 
of  teaching  history  and  the  profession  of  writing  history.  The  American 
historians  of  half  a  century  ago  were,  with  few  exceptions,  litterateurs^  men 
of  private  station  and  of  private  means,  who  gave  up  a  large  part  of  their 
lives  to  historical  writing  for  the  love  of  scholarly  occupation  and  the  hope 
of  fame.  The  collection  of  materials  was  a  tedious  and  expensive  task ;  they 
were  the  men  who  had  the  time  and  money  to  travel  afar,  in  order  to  get  the 
proper  horizon,  and  to  make  some  acquaintance  with  other  countries  and 
languages.  In  the  Sparks  manuscripts,  in  the  Parkman  manuscripts  and 
the  Bancroft  manuscripts,  are  many  extracts  copied  from  records  not  avail- 
able in  print.  A  man  sat  down  to  write  a  history  as  he  now  sits  down  to 
found  a  review,  with  ambition  as  a  frontlet  and  with  money  in  his  pocket. 
Sometimes  good  Uncle  Sam  gave  them  a  diplomatic  position  in  which  they 
might  pursue  thpir  investigations ;  thus  Prescott  was  made  Minister  to  Spain, 
Motley  to  the  Netherlands,  Bancroft  to  Germany. 

The  growth  of  scientific  instruction  in  history  has  developed  a  new  race 
of  historical  writers  who  have  gone  forth  to  supersede  the  older  type ;  among 
the  present  best-known  American  writers  upon  history,  McMaster  is  a  pro- 
fessor in  a  university,  Schouler  is  a  lecturer  in  a  university,  Charles  Francis 
Adams  is  a  most  ardent  overseer  of  a  college,  John  Fiske  was  once  an  in- 
structor in  history  in  a  college  and  a  college  librarian.  Von  Hoist  was  a  pro- 
fessor, Moses  Coit  Tyler  was  a  professor,  and  Winsor  was  a  college  librarian. 
This  academic  connection  is  the  more  striking  when  we  remember  that  in 
pure  literature  the  most  noted  writers  to-day  have  mostly  come  up  outside 
university  precincts  and  are  little  associated  with  college  life. 

Some  reasons  for  the  taking  up  of  formal  history  by  college  men  are  ob- 
vious; since  the  scientific  basis  of  history  has  become  recognized,  history  is 
D  xliii 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

more  likely  to  be  undertaken  by  those  who  have  had  a  scientific  training 
and  a  scientific  opportunity.  From  the  other  direction,  the  publication 
of  an  excellent  history  often  leads  to  a  call  which  for  the  rest  of  a  man's  days 
connects  him  with  some  college:  thus  McMaster's  first  volume  led  to  his 
transference  from  an  instructorship  in  mathematics  to  a  professorship  in 
American  history.  It  has  become  a  tradition  that  the  university  professor 
of  history  ought  to  have  part  of  his  time  for  literary  duties,  and  he  often  has 
the  use  of  superior  libraries.  Perhaps  the  best  explanation  is  simply  that 
preparation  for  classes  and  preparation  for  publication  run  on  all  fours  with 
each  other;  and  the  enthusiasms  of  both  pursuits  are  alike. 

All  explanations,  however,  fail  to  account  for  the  fact  that  among  the 
many  American  teachers  of  ancient,  mediaeval,  continental,  and  English 
history,  hardly  a  single  one  is  at  work  on  a  magnum  opus  in  his  own  field; 
so  far,  text-books,  brief  histories,  or  an  account  of  an  episode,  are  all  that 
have  been  exhibited.  While  Doyle  and  Lecky  and  Trevelyan  place  them- 
selves among  the  best  writers  on  American  affairs,  what  American  professor 
has  undertaken  a  history  of  England,  or  of  any  part  of  it,  as  a  life-long  task  ? 
The  few  considerable  pieces  of  such  work  do  not  come  from  the  universities 
at  all:  Henry  C.  Lea  is  a  publisher;  Hannis  Taylors  England,  James  Breck 
Perkins's  France,  Tom  Watson's  bizarre  France,  a  kind  of  etherealized 
Georgia,  are  written  by  hard-working  lawyers  or  politicians;  William  R. 
Thayer  has  made  Italian  history  his  theme,  and  Professor  Charles  M. 
Andrews  is  author  of  a  history  of  modern  Europe;  while  Professor  Sloane's 
best-known  work  is  his  Napoleon;  they  alone  of  American  historians  of 
Europe  are  in  close  touch  with  universities. 

Two  remarkable  exceptions  must  be  noted  to  the  general  rule,  that  the  more 
noted  living  writers  of  history  are  given  up  to  American  history.  Captain 
Mahan  has  so  far  chosen  to  write  chiefly  on  the  naval  history  of  Great 
Britain;  but  aside  from  the  interest  of  the  trained  naval  officer  in  that 
country  which  has  taught  the  world  most  about  figliting  at  sea,  he  has  really 
in  mind  a  principle  of  national  polity  which  he  thinks  his  countrymen  ought 
to  keep  in  mind;  he  is  an  American  writing  for  the  instruction,  first  of  all, 
of  America,  and  then  of  all  mankind.  Plenry  C.  Lea,  in  his  studies  of  eccle- 
siasticism,  and  especially  in  his  History  of  the  Inquisition,  has  shown  a  rare 
cosmopolitan  spirit. 

In  general  it  is  safe  to  sa}''  that  the  chief  interest  of  American  historical 
writers  is  in  the  affairs  of  their  own  countr}'-,  and  almost  all  the  living  writers 
give  themselves  up  to  a  distinct  and  limited  area.  Perhaps  no  competent 
scholar  will  ever  write  a  complete  history  of  i\merica  from  the  sources;  the 
last  attempt  was  Winsor's.  and  he  was  unable,  even  by  his  skilful  use  of  the 
co-operative  method,  to  get  much  beyond  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 

xliv 


"HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

century.  Each  man  now  assumes  that  he  may  begin  on  the  foundations  laid 
by  somebody  else.  John  Fiske  has,  in  his  own  method,  traversed  the  ground 
of  Bancroft  and  Hildreth,  to  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  Edward 
Eggleston  has  chosen  the  era  of  commonwealth  building.  James  Schouler 
has  written  a  history  in  six  volumes,  extending  from  the  end  of  the  Eevolu- 
tion  to  the  end  of  the  Civil  War.  Professor  McMaster  has  chosen  the  same 
beginning,  and  appears  to  look  forward  to  about  the  same  date  for  his  end. 
Ehodes  has  chosen  to  begin  at  1850,  long  enough  before  the  Civil  War,  so 
that  he  may  make  plain  the  reason  for  that  titanic  struggle,  and  he  expects 
to  bring  the  work  down  to  a  point  near  the  present  day.  Henry  Adams  chose 
the  sixteen  years,  1801-1817,  from  the  inauguration  of  Jefferson  to  the  end 
of  Madison's  administration,  and  having  finished  that  period  has  apparently 
abandoned  further  historical  writing. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  article  to  enumerate  all  the  good  writers 
in  or  on  America,  for  the  aim  is  to  describe  tendencies  and  not  men;  and 
prophecies  as  to  what  is  to  be  accomplished  by  the  fledglings  would  only 
cause  distrust  in  the  prophet's  judgment.  It  is,  however,  safe  to  say  that, 
through  a  long  process  of  development,  in  which  the  recorders  of  history  and 
the  critics  of  historical  events  have  united  to  bring  together  a  vast  body  of 
materials,  we  have  now  reached  a  point  where  there  is  a  permanent  body 
of  active,  highly  trained,  ambitious  writers  of  history  who,  with  the  aid  of 
the  monographers,  the  patient  earth-worms  who  prepare  soil  to  bear  fruit, 
constitute  what  may  not  unreasonably  be  called  the  American  School  of  His- 
torical Writing. 

One  of  the  leading  spirits  in  this  favored  present  was  the  late  John  Fiske. 
Gibbon  is  like  the  march  of  an  army :  legion  after  legion,  cohort  after  cohort, 
trumpets  fanfaring  at  regular  intervals,  horses  cavalcading,  all  glowing  in 
shining  armor;  perhaps  Fiske  might  be  compared  to  a  holiday  procession, 
men  singers  and  women  singers,  both  young  men  and  maidens,  flutes,  harps, 
and  psalteries,  and  children  dancing  in  the  rear.  There  is  a  wholesome, 
sunny  serenity  about  his  volumes;  he  does  not  go  very  deeply  into  the  Welt- 
schmerz,  but  he  tells  the  story  so  that  he  who  runs  may  read.  His  books 
are  the  books  of  the  prosperous  man,  who  likes  to  see  the  evidence  of  healthy 
growth  in  his  country. 

Perhaps  illustration  may  be  clearer  than  statement  on  this  point. 

Five  living  writers  of  American  history  stand  out  plainly  as  the  present 
heads  of  their  craft :  Herman  von  Hoist,  Henry  Adams,  Henry  C.  Lea,  Alfred 
T.  Mahan,  and  James  Ford  Ehodes;  what  they  do  is  the  best  that  is  now 
being  done. 

Von  Hoist  has  finished  his  labor  of  thirty  years,  on  what  is  substantially 
a  history  of  the  slavery  contest  from  1838  to  1860.     He  fights  the  battle 


HISTORICAL    WRITERS 

over  again,  for  he  loves  intensity.  His  chief  service  has  been  to  bring  home 
to  Americans  the  inevitableness  of  a  contest,  after  the  traditional  principles 
of  free  government  were  so  violently  contradicted  by  slavery.  A  good  hater, 
a  powerful  hitter,  Von  Hoist  has  done  much  to  break  in  pieces  the  con- 
ventional apotheosis  of  our  public  men,  and  to  lead  us  to  see  the  real  elements 
of  the  Civil  War. 

Henry  Adams  seems  to  have  given  up  historical  writing;  a  man  of  in- 
dependent fortune,  he  likes  to  diverge  around  the  world  and  to  give  sage 
advice  to  young  politicians.  He  need  never  put  pen  to  paper  again  in  order 
to  assure  his  reputation  as  one  of  the  world's  great  historical  narrators.  It 
is  his  forte  to  be  at  the  same  time  scientific,  careful,  and  imaginative,  to 
penetrate  the  intricacies  of  complex  characters,  to  seize  the  spirit  of  bygone 
times;  his  is  the  study  of  motive,  the  discerning  of  guiding  principles  of 
national  character.  He  has  almost  a  lordly  disregard  of  his  own  foot-notes ; 
he  gives  a  reference,  not  because  he  feels  the  need  of  a  backer,  but  because 
he  has  so  many  reserves  that  he  may  give  them  or  withhold  them  as  he 
pleases.  His  style,  less  absorbing  than  Parkman's,  is  equally  limpid,  almost 
equally  effective. 

Henry  C.  Lea  has  chosen  a  theme  apparently  remote  from  our  participa- 
tion :  his  three  great  works  are  histories  of  the  monastic  orders,  of  torture, 
and  of  the  Inquisition.  Steady,  sane,  infinitely  painstaking,  resolute,  and 
impartial,  he  is  a  model  of  the  careful  habits  of  the  business  man  applied 
to  the  ascertaining  of  historical  truth ;  his  books  are  interesting,  they  are  just, 
they  are  permanent.  In  interest  of  subject,  in  insight  of  investigation,  in 
the  power  to  reach  and  state  conclusions,  and  in  style,  he  stands' among  the 
best  of  American  historical  writers,  and  exemplifies  the  value  of  the  study 
of  other  peoples  and  their  civilization. 

Captain  Mahan  is  the  only  American  military  or  naval  officer  to  win  dis- 
tinction as  an  historical  writer.  His  theme  in  all  his  books  is  the  Sea  Power, 
the  strength  of  the  naval  country:  to  impress  that  power  on  the  reader  he 
masses  his  argument  and  illustrations;  and  he  has  carried  the  world;  he  has 
altered  the  purposes  of  mankind. 

Ehodes  is  the  latest  knight  to  besiege  the  enchanted  castle  of  literary  fame, 
and  he  is  the  only  one  of  the  four  who  reveals  the  intellectual  forces  that  lie 
outside  the  colleges;  only  a  short  time  a  college  student,  never  a  college 
teacher,  brought  up  to  business  in  a  bustling  Western  city,  he  has  wooed  both 
Lady  Fortune  and  the  muse  of  history,  and  both  have  smiled  upon  him.  His 
most  characteristic  merits  are  his  care,  his  impartiality,  his  clear  and  read- 
able style,  and,  above  all,  his  ability  to  discover  the  ruling  motives  of  a  people 
in  a  time  of  passionate  stress. 

The  impression  made  upon  the  observer  of  historical  writing  is  hopeful. 

xlvi 


HISTORICAL    WRITEIIS 

Our  greatest  historian,  Parkmaii;  lives  only  in  his  imperishable  books;  bnfc 
leaving  him  out,  there  has  never  been  an  American  historian  equal  to  the  best 
living  writers  in  training,  in  conception  of  what  historical  research  means, 
in  discrimination,  in  insight,  or  in  genuine  historical  style.  Where  are  the 
poets  to  replace  Lowell  and  Longfellow  and  A¥hittier?  Where  are  the  es- 
sayists to  equal  Emerson  ?  Where  the  novelists  to  measure  height  with  Haw- 
thorne? Yet  in  historical  writing  the  authors  of  the  golden  age  give  way  to 
the  present  American  School  in  popularity  among  readers,  and  in  usefulness 
to  scholars;  and  perhaps  some  day  a  new  generation  of  authors  may  arise  to 
whom  the  historians  of  this  quarter-century  will  give  God-speed. 


<^^tV>s<  ^--vWl  <jf^ 


HARPERS'  ENCYCLOPJEDIA 


UNITED    STATES    HISTORY 


Al,  a  symbol  used  in  the  record  of 
American  and  foreign  shipping  and  in 
Lloyd's  Register  of  British  and  Foreign 
^hipping,  in  rating  vessels  for  insurance. 
Al  is  the  highest.  Hence  Al  is  used  of 
the  highest  mercantile  credit,  and,  collo- 
quially, Al  is  first-class,  first-rate. 

A.  B.  Plot.     See  page  11. 

Abbadie,  M.  d',  royal  governor;  born 
about  1710;  came  to  America  in  1763  to 
take  charge  of  a  variety  of  business  inter- 
ests that  King  Louis  XV.  had  established 
in  New  Orleans,  and  also  to  exercise  the 
authority  of  military  commander  of  the 
province.  Owing  to  the  sale  of  Louisiana 
to  Spain,  he  was  directed  in  1764  to  turn 
over  his  command  to  a  Spanish  official. 
He  was  a  man  of  noble  impulses,  had  pro- 
tected the  Indians,  caused  the  masters  to 
treat  their  slaves  more  kindly,  and  in 
many  ways  had  endeared  himself  to  the 
people  of  the  province.  The  surrender  of 
his  command  to  those  whom  he  regarded 
as  enemies  grieved  him  so  seriously  that 
he  died  Feb.  4,  1765.  See  Louisiana; 
New  Orleans. 

Abbe,  Cleveland,  jueteorologist :  born 
in  New  York,  Dec.  3,  1838.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
Y'^ork  in  1857 ;  studied  astronomy  with 
Brunnow  at  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  and  with 
Gould  at  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  and,  after 
serving  four  years  in  the  United  States 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  he  became 
director  of  the  Cincinnati  Observatory 
ijU  1868.     The  value  of  his  local  weather 

I.— A  1 


reports  induced  the  United  States  govern- 
ment to  establish  a  weather  bureau.  He 
was  appointed  meteorologist  to  the  United 
States  Signal  Service  {q.  v.)  in  1871, 
and  in  1879  became  meteorologist  to  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  {q.  v.) . 

Abbett,  Leon,  statesman ;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  8,  1836;  removed 
to  New  Jersey  in  1859;  member  of  the 
State  Assembly  1869-70,  and  Senate 
1875-78;  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey, 
1883  and  1889;  appointed  judge  of  the 
New  Jersey  Supreme  Court  in  1893.  He 
died  in  Jersey  City,  Dec.  4,  1894. 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin,  painter;  born 
in  Philadelphia,  April  1,  1852;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  and  in  1871  entered  the  publish- 
ing house  of  Harper  &  Brothers,  for  which 
he  went  to  England  in  1878.  He  became 
widely  noted  for  his  book  illustrations, 
and  in  1890  exhibited  his  first  painting, 
A  May  Day  Morning.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1898,  of 
the  Royal  Water  Color  Society  in  London, 
and  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in 
1902.  He  was  an  American  juror  on 
painting  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 
The  last  of  his  notable  works  in  the 
United  States  was  the  design  of  a  series 
of  paintings  illustrating  the  Holy  Orail 
for  the  walls  of  the  new  Public  Library 
in  Boston.  In  March,  1901,  he  was  com- 
missioned by  King  Edward  VII.  to  paint 
the  scene  of  his  coronation  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey. 


ABBOT— ABBOTT 


Abbot,  Benjamin,  educator;  born, 
1702.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1788.  Phillips  Academy,  Exeter,  N.  H., 
M-as  conducted  by  him  until  1838.  Among 
his  pupils  were  George  Bancroft,  Lewis 
Cass,  Edward  Everett,  John  G.  Palfry, 
Jared  Sparks,  and  Daniel  Webster.  He 
died  in  ]<:xeter,  N.  H.,  Oct.  25,  1849. 

Abbot,  Ezra,  theologian ;  born  in  Jack- 
son, Me.,  April  28,  1819.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Bowdoin  College  in  1840,  became 
associate  librarian  at  Harvard  College  in 
1856,  and  from  1872  till  his  death  was 
Professor  of  New  Testament  Literature 
and  Interpretation  at  the  Cambridge 
Divinity  School.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  American  Committee  of  New  Testa- 
ment Revisers,  was  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  American  edition  of  Smith's  Bible  Dic- 
tionary, and  published  numerous  works  in 
Biblical  criticism.  He  was  especially  distin- 
guished in  the  line  of  Greek  scholarship.  He 
died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  March  21,  1884. 

Abbot,  Henry  Larcom,  military  en- 
gineer; born  in  Beverly,  Mass.,  Aug.  13, 
1831.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1854,  entered 
the  Corps  of  Engineers,  in  which  he 
reached  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  was  re- 
tired in  1895.  In  the  Civil  War  he  com- 
manded the  siege  artillery  of  the  armies 
operating  against  Richmond,  designed  the 
systems  of  submarine  mine  defences  and 
of  mortar  batteries  for  the  government, 
and  was  brevetted  major-general  of  volun- 
teers and  brigadier-general  U.  S.  A.  After 
his  retirement  he  designed  the  new  harbor 
at  Manitowoc,  Wis.,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Technical  Committee  of  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Co.  His  publications  in- 
clude ^iege  Artillery  in  the  Campaign 
Against  Richmond;  Experiments  to  De- 
velop a  System  of  Submarine  Mines;  and 
Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi, 
the  last  in  co-operation  with  General 
Humphreys.  He  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  Harvard,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber  of  many   scientific   societies. 

Abbot,  Joel,  naval  officer ;  born  in 
Westford,  Mass.,  Jan.  18,  1793;  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  at  the  begimiing 
of  the  War  of  1812;  served  first  on  the 
frigate  President,  and  next  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain  with  Commodore  Macdonough,  who 
when  he  asked  Abbot  if  he  Avere  ready  to 
die   for    his   country   received   the   reply: 


"  Certainly,  sir ;  that  is  what  I  came  into 
the  service  for."  He  was  then  ordered  to 
enter  the  British  lines  as  a  spy  and  de- 
stroy a  number  of  spars  which  had  been 
stored  at  Sorel.  For  his  success  in  this 
dangerous  exploit  and  for  his  bravery  in 
the  engagement  at  Cumberland  Head  on 
Sept.  11,  1814,  he  received  a  sword  of 
honor  from  Congress  and  was  commis- 
sioned a  lieutenant.  He  was  given  charge 
of  the  pirate  ship  Mariana  in  1818;  pro- 
moted commander  in  1838;  and  in  the 
following  year  was  given  command  of  the 
Boston  navy-yard.  During  Commodore 
Perry's  expedition  to  Japan  in  1852  Abbot 
commanded  the  Macedonian,  and  later  was 
appointed  flag-officer  of  the  squadron.  He 
died  in  Hong-Kong,  China,  Dec.  14,  1855. 

Abbott,  Benjamin  Vaughan,  legal 
writer;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  4, 
1830.  He  was  graduated  at  the  New  York 
University  in  1850;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  two  years  afterwards;  and,  after  en- 
gaging in  general  practice  with  his  broth- 
er Austin  for  several  years,  applied  him- 
self to  a  compilation  of  works  on  legal 
subjects.  Alone,  or  in  conjunction  with 
his  brother,  he  compiled  nearly  100 
volumes  of  digests,  reports,  legal  treatises, 
and  other  allied  works,  including  Dic- 
tionary of  Terms  in  American  and  Eng- 
lish Jurisprudence,  'National  Digest,  and 
a  revison  of  the  United  States  Statutes. 
He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  17,  1890. 

Abbott,  Charles  Conrad,  naturalist; 
born  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  June  4,  1843. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  Medical  De- 
partment of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1865;  spent  several  years  in  mak- 
ing a  valuable  collection  of  archaeological 
specimens,  which  he  presented  to  the  Pea- 
body  Museum  at  Cambridge,  Mass.;  and 
was  an  assistant  in  that  institution  in 
1876-89.  Among  his  publications  are  The 
Stone  Age  in  Neiv  Jersey;  A  Naturalist's 
Rambles  About  Home;  several  volumes  on 
bird  life,  and  a  number  of  novels. 

Abbott,  Edw^ard,  fourth  son  of  Jacob 
Abbott,  was  born  July  15,  1841;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  the  City  of 
New  York  in  1860.  During  1862  and 
1S63  he  was  connected  with  the  Sanitary 
Commission  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
?Ie  was  a  Congregational  minister  from 
1863  to  1878,  when  he  entered  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church.     Among  his  pub- 


ABBOTT 


lished  writings  are  Paragraph  Histories 
of  the  Revolution;  Revolutionary  Times; 
United  States,  etc. 

Abbott,  Horace,  manufacturer;  born 
iu  Sudbury,  Mass.,  July  29,  1806.  He 
built  the  first  rolling-mill  in  the  United 
States,  and  supplied  the  armor  plates  for 
the  Monitor,  Roanoke,  Agamenticus,  Mo- 
nadnock,  etc. 

Abbott,  Jacob,  writer  for  youth;  born 
in  Hallowell,  Me.,  Nov.  14,  1803.  He  was 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1820,  and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1825. 
From  1825  to  1829  he  was  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in 
Amherst  College.  He  chose  the  pursuit 
of  literature  in  the  attractive  and  useful 
field  of  affording  instruction  to  the  young. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  his  almost  200 
volumes  printed  was  The  Young  Chris- 
tian, issued  the  year  '  of  his  gradu- 
tion  at  Andover.  His  books  are  remark- 
able for  their  wealth  of  information,  their 
absolute  purity  of  tone  and  expression, 
and  for  their  wonderful  attractiveness  for 
the  young  of  both  sexes.  Few  men  have 
done  so  much  for  the  intellectiial  and 
moral  training  of  the  young  for  lives  of 
usefulness  as  Jacob  Abbott.  His  interest 
in  young  people  never  abated  through  a 
long  and  laborious  life.  His  later  years 
were  spent  upon  the  old  homestead  at 
Farmington,  Me.,  significantly  called  "  Few 
Acres,"  for  its  area  of  land  was  small  and 
it  was  cultivated  and  adorned  by  the  hands 
of  its  owner.     Here  he  died,  Oct.  31,  1879. 

Abbott,  John  Ste\'ens  Cabot,  histo- 
rian; born  in  Brunswick,  Me.,  Sept.  18, 
1805 ;  brother  of  Jacob ;  Avas  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1825,  and  at  Andover 
Seminary;  was  ordained  as  a  Congrega- 
tional minister  in  1830,  and  held  several 
pastorates  in  Massachusetts  till  1844, 
after  which  he  applied  himself  wholly  to 
literature.  Among  his  notable  works  are 
The  French  Revolution  of  1789;  The  His- 
tory of  Napoleon  Bonaparte ;  Napoleon  at 
St.  Helena;  The  History  of  Napoleon  III.; 
The  History  of  the  Civil  War  in  America; 
A  Romance  of  Spanish  History;  and  The 
History  of  Frederick  II.,  called  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  died  in  Fair  Haven,  Conn., 
June  17,  1877. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  clergyman  and  editor ; 
born  in  Eoxbury,  Mass.,  Dec.  18,  1835; 
third  son  of  Jacob;  was  graduated  at  the 


University  of  the  City  of  New  York  in 
1853;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  there,  and 
for  a  time  practised  in  partnership  with 
his  brothers  Benjamin  Vaughan  and  Aus- 
tin. Subsequently  he  studied  theology 
with  his  uncle,  John  Stevens  Cabot,  and 
was  ordained  as  a  Congregational  minister 
in  1860.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Freed- 
men's  Commission  in  1865-68;  became  edi- 
tor of  the  "  Literary  Record  "  in  Harper's 
Magazine,  and  conductor  of  the  Illus- 
trated Christian  Weekly ;  and  for  a  time 
was  associated  with  Henry  Ward 
Beecher  (g.  V.)  in  the  editorship  of  The 
Christian  Union.  In  1888  he  succeeded 
Mr.  Beecher  as  pastor  of  Plymouth 
Church,  Brooklyn.  In  1898  he  resigned 
and  took  full  editorial  charge  of  The 
Outlook,  formerly  The  Christian  Union. 
Among  his  publications  is  A  Dictionary  of 
Religious  Knowledge.  See  Indian  Prob- 
lem, The. 

An  Anglo-American  Understanding. — 
Dr.  Abbott  in  1898  suggested  the  follow- 
ing as  the  basis  of  an  Anglo-American  un- 
derstanding: 

The  American  people  wisely  attach  great 
importance  to  Washington's  "  Farewell 
Address,"  and  give  deserved  weight  to  his 
counsels.  Not  one  of  those  counsels  has 
been  more  influential  and  more  safe-guard- 
ing than  his  admonition  to  his  country- 
men to  avoid  entangling  alliances  with 
European  nations.  Yet  Americans  must 
not  forget  that  changes  wrought  by  human 
progress  make  inapplicable  in  one  century 
advice  which  was  Avise  in  the  preceding 
century;  that  if  there  be  peril  to  a  nation 
in  recklessly  advancing  along  strange 
paths  to  an  unknown  future,  there  is  also 
danger  to  a  nation  in  fastening  itself  too 
firmly  to  its  past  traditions,  and  refusing 
to  itself  permission  to  recognize  changes 
of  conditions  which  necessitate  changes  of 
policy.  It  is  because  Spain  adheres  to  the 
traditions  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
England  has  from  time  to  time  departed 
from  those  traditions,  using  them  as  a 
guide  towards  the  future,  not  as  a  prohibi- 
tion to  progress,  that  Spain  has  sunk  from 
a  first-class  to  a  fourth-class  power,  while 
England  still  remains  a  leader  among  the 
nations  of  the  world. 

When  Washington  issued  his  "  Farewell 
Address,"  the  United  States  was  a  feeble 


ABBOTT,     LYMAN 


nation,  coniposod  of  thirteen  colonies,  just 
emancipated  from  foreign  domination.  It 
look  as  many  weeks  to  go  from  the  north- 
ern to  the  southern  border  of  this  nation 
as  it  now  taJces  days.  The  States  had  not 
yet  been  welded  into  a  united  nation,  and 
were  separated  from  one  another  not  only 
by  time  and  distance,  but  by  jealousy  and 
rivalry.  The  union  of  the  States  had  not 
passed  beyond  the  experimental  stage.  The 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  was  still 
on  trial.  All  west  of  the  Alleghanies  was 
an  untrodden,  and  for  the  most  part  un- 
known, wilderness.  The  population,  even 
along  the  seaboard,  was  scanty;  the  cities 
were  few  and  small ;  there  was  no  com- 
merce and  little  manufactures.  In  1809 
Jefferson  presented  to  the  country  his 
ideal  on  the  subject  of  manufactures  and 
commerce :  "  Manufactures  sufficient  for 
our  consumption,  of  what  we  raise  the  raw 
material  (and  no  more)  ;  commerce  suffi- 
cient to  carry  the  surplus  produce  of  agri- 
culture beyond  our  own  consumption,  to  a 
market  for  exchanging  it  for  articles  we 
cannot  raise  (and  no  more)."  A  vast  and 
little  -  known  and  little  -  travelled  ocean 
separated  us  from  Europe.  Under  these 
circumstances  to  engage  in  European 
strifes,  to  aid  France  against  Great  Brit- 
ain, to  concern  ourselves  with  the  balance 
of  power,  to  undertake,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, to  promote  the  battles  of  democracy 
in  the  old  world,  to  assume  to  judge  that 
our  as  yet  unproved  institutions  were  the 
best  for  countries  other  than  our  own,  and 
to  rush  into  the  hazard  of  a  foreign  war 
by  the  unrestrained  expression  of  our  sym- 
pathies with  democratic  uprisings  Avould 
have  been  foolish  indeed.  These  were  the 
entangling  alliances  against  which  Wash- 
ington admonished  his  countrymen,  and 
we  may  say  that  his  admonition  against 
such  entangling  alliances  it  were  well  for 
us  to  heed,  if  necessity  should  arise,  even 
now. 

But  since  Washington's  "  Fai-ewell  Ad- 
dress "  the  world  has  moved,  and  America 
has  moved  most  rapidly  of  all  the  world. 
It  takes  us  little,  if  any,  longer  to  cross 
from  our  eastern  seaboard  to  Europe's 
western  seaboard  than  from  our  easterrt  to 
our  western  boimdary.  The  cable  enables 
us  to  converse  with  Liverpool  as  readily 
as  with  Chicago  or  San  Francisco.  The 
prices  of  wheat  in  Liverpool  determine  the 


prices  in  our  produce  exchanges.  Com- 
merce, though  unfortunately  under  foreign 
flags,  is  carrying  the  produce  of  our  coun- 
try into  all  the  markets  of  the  world. 
Our  manufacturers  compete  with  those  of 
the  oldest  civilizations.  The  question 
whether  we  can  establish  a  currency  of 
our  own,  disregardful  of  the  financial 
standards  of  the  civilized  world,  has  been 
raised  and  answered  emphatically  in  the 
negative.  Our  territory  has  extended  un- 
til it  nearly  equals  in  dimensions  that  of 
the  old  Roman  Empire  in  its  palmiest 
days.  Our  population  has  not  only  in- 
creased in  numbers,  but  become  hetero- 
geneous in  character.  We  are  no  longer 
an  Anglo-Saxon  colony,  emerging  into 
statehood.  We  are  Scandinavian,  Ger- 
man, Hungarian,  Pole,  Austrian,  Italian, 
French,  and  Spanish ;  all  the  nations  of 
the  earth  are  represented,  not  only  in  our 
population,  but  in  our  suffrages.  What- 
ever interests  Norway  and  Sweden,  Hol- 
land and  Belgium,  Germany,  Italy,  France, 
or  England,  interests  our  people,  because 
from  these  countries  respectively  multi- 
tudes of  our  people  have  come.  Mean- 
while, our  growth,  and  still  more  the  test 
to  which  we  have  been  subjected  by  foreign 
war  and  by  civil  war,  have  done  much  to 
demc-nstrate  the  stability  of  institutions 
which,  a  hundred  years  ago,  were  purely 
experimental  and  largely  theoretical. 
Other  lands  have  caught  inspiration  from 
our  life;  the  whole  progress  of  Europe  has 
been  progress  towards  democracy — whether 
in  England,  Spain,  Italy,  Austria-Hungary, 
Germany,  France,  or  Scandinavia.  The 
difference  in  the  history  of  these  national- 
ities, during  the  nineteenth  century,  has 
been  a  difference  not  in  the  direction  in 
which  their  life  has  tended,  but  in  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  has  moved.  The 
yoke  of  Bourbonism  is  broken  forever;  the 
Holy  Alliance  will  never  be  reformed. 
Politically,  socially,  industrially,  and  even 
physically,  the  United  States  and  Europe 
have  been  drawn  together  by  the  irresist- 
ible course  of  events. 

We  are  identified  with  the  civilized 
world,  interested  in  its  problems,  con- 
cerned in  its  progress,  injured  in  its  dis- 
asters, helped  by  its  prosperities.  The 
time  has  therefore  passed  when  the  United 
States  can  say,  "  We  are  sufficient  unto 
ourselves;  we  will  go  our  way;  the  rest  of 


ABBOTT,     LYMAN 


the  world  may  go  its  way."  The  question 
is  not,  '■  Shall  we  avoid  entangling  al- 
liances?" We  are  entangled  with  all  the 
nations  of  the  globe;  by  commerce,  by 
manufactures,  by  race  and  religious  affilia- 
tions, by  popular  and  political  sympathies. 
The  question  for  us  to  determine  is  not 
whether  we  shall  live  and  work  in  fellow- 
ship with  European  nations,  but  whether 
we  shall  choose  our  fellowship  with  wise 
judgment  and  definite  purpose,  or  whether 
we  shall  allow  ourselves  to  drift  into  such 
fellowships  as  political  accident  or  the 
changing  incidents  of  human  history  may 
direct. 

I  am  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  urge  on 
American  citizens  the  former  course.  I 
believe  that  the  time  has  come  when  we 
ought,  as  a  nation,  to  recognize  the  fact 
that  we  are  not  merely  an  American  na- 
tion, but  a  world  nation ;  when  we  ought 
to  take  our  place,  with  clear  and  definite 
understanding  that  we  are  doing  so,  among 
the  nations  of  the  world;  when  we  ought 
to  form  clearly  to  ourselves  our  national 
purpose,  and  seek  such  affiliations  as  will 
promote  that  purpose.  It  is  for  this  rea- 
son that,  though  I  am,  on  principle  and 
after  much  consideration,  a  bimetallist,  I 
believe  that  the  nation  did  wisely  in  re- 
jecting the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  is 
doing  wisely  in  attempting  to  conform  its 
currency  to  the  currency  of  the  other  com- 
mercial nations  of  the  globe.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  I  think  Mr.  Blaine  proved 
himself  statesmanlike  in  his  organization 
of  a  Pan-American  Congress,  although  its 
immediate  results  appear  to  have  been 
comparatively  insignificant.  It  is  for  this 
reason  I  think  the  nation  should  foster  by 
appropriate  measures  every  attempt  to 
imite  the  New  World  with  the  Old, 
whether  by  cable,  for  the  transmission  of 
intelligence,  or  by  commercial  lines  for 
the  transmission  of  the  products  of  our 
industry  and  our  mails.  It  is  for  this 
reason  I  think  we  ought  to  seize  the  op- 
portunity offered  to  us  to  constitute  a  per- 
manent tribunal  to  which  international 
questions  might  be  referred,  as  of  course, 
for  settlement,  and  especially  ought  to 
have  seized  the  opportunity  for  the  or- 
ganization of  such  a  tribunal  for  the  de- 
termination of  national  questions  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  It 
is  for  this  reason  I  urge  the  establishment 


of  a  good  understanding  between  the 
United  States  and  England,  in  the  hope 
that  in  time  it  will  grow  to  a  more  formal 
alliance — civic,  commercial,  and  industrial, 
rather  than  naval  or  military — and  yet  an 
alliance  that  will  make  us,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  our  international  life,  one  people, 
though  not  politically  one  nation.  There 
are  three  reasons  which  suggest  the  wis- 
dom of  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  such  good  understanding  and  the  hope 
of  such  possibly  more  formal  alliance  with 
our  kin  beyond  the  sea. 

1.  Though  our  commercial  interests  are 
not  identical  with  those  of  Great  Britain, 
our  commercial  principles  are.  England 
and  the  United  States  are  competitors  and 
rivals  in  the  markets  of  the  world;  but 
commerce  is  full  of  demonstration  of  the 
fact  that  men  may  be  competitors  and 
rivals  and  yet  friends  and  allies.  What  is 
true  of  men  is  true  of  nations.  All  that 
tlie  people,  either  of  England  or  the  United 
States,  ask,  is  a  free  field  and  no  favors. 
We  have  proved  ourselves  quite  competent 
to  compete  with  any  nation,  if  only  the 
chance  for  competition  is  offered  us. 
The  great  amorjjhous,  ill-organized  empire 
of  China  is  dropping  to  pieces;  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  Japan,  are  all  seek- 
ing ports  of  entry  through  which  to  push, 
by  commercial  enterprises,  the  products  of 
their  industry  upon  people  hitherto  so  lit- 
tle civilized  as  to  want  but  little.  In  this 
competition  between  foreign  nations,  Eng- 
land and  Japan  have  stood,  apparently 
alone,  for  a  free  and  untrammelled  com- 
merce. If  the  official  statements  in  Par- 
liament may  be  trusted,  England  has  won 
by  diplomacy  this  commercial  freedom, 
which  perhaps  Germany,  and  almost  cer- 
tainly Russia,  would  have  been  disinclined 
to  grant.  It  is  impossible  that  there  is 
no  need  for  us  to  join  formally  in  a  com- 
mercial alliance  with  Japan  and  Great 
Britain  to  insist  upon  this  principle  of  un- 
trammelled commerce;  but  if  we  need  not 
do  so,  it  is  only  because  there  is  force 
enough  in  England  to  secure  it  without 
our  aid.  In  the  endeavor  to  secure  it,  Eng- 
land is  entitled  not  only  to  our  sympathy, 
but  to  the  expression  of  our  sympathy. 
She  is  entitled  not  only  to  our  good  wishes, 
but  to  our  moral  support.  The  United 
States  is  quite  as  much  interested  as  Eng- 
land in  the  opening  of  trade  with  China, 


ABBOTT,    LYMAN 


if  not  even  jnore  interested.  Our  western 
sea-coast  is  as  yet  undeveloped;  our  eastern 
trade  is  yet  in  its  infancy.  When  the  un- 
numbered millions  of  China  shall  wake  up, 
when  they  shall  begin  to  feel  the  vivifying 
influence  of  civilization,  when  they  begin 
to  demand  railroads  and  telegraphs,  bicy- 
cles and  buggies,  elevators  and  electric 
lights,  cars  for  their  streets,  mills  for  their 
water-courses,  agricultural  implements  for 
their  farms,  carpets  for  their  floors,  pianos 
and  cabinet  organs  for  their  boys  and  girls, 
^in  short,  the  conveniences  and  comforts 
of  modern  civilization  for  their  awakening 
population,  it  will  be  alike  our  interest, 
our  right,  and  our  duty  to  have  a  free  op- 
portunity to  share  in  the  work  of  provid- 
ing them  with  this  equipment  of  a  higher 
life.  What  is  so  evident  respecting  China 
that  the  dullest  of  vision  may  see  it,  is 
equally,  though  as  yet  less  evidently,  true 
of  other  great  unreached  populations.  The 
United  States  is  only  less  interested  than 
Great  Britain  in  the  larger  life  of  India; 
and  in  the  civilization  of  Africa,  which 
still  seems  remote,  but  not  so  remote  as 
it  did  before  the  travels  of  Livingstone 
and  Stanley,  and  which,  when  it  comes, 
will  add  a  new  incentive  to  the  fruitful 
industry  of  our  mills,  as  well  as  of  English 
mills,  if  we  are  wise  in  our  statesmanship 
to  forecast  the  future  and  to  provide  for 
it.  If  England  and  America  join  hands 
in  a  generous  rivalry,  they  can  lead  the 
world  commercially.  On  that  road  lies 
our  highway  to  national  prosperity. 

2.  Political  advantages  as  well  as  com- 
mercial advantages  call  on  us  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  good  understanding  with 
Great  Britain,  and  to  be  ready  to  formu- 
late that  good  understanding  in  a  more 
definite  alliance  whenever  the  occasion 
shall  arise  which  necessitates  it.  The 
Cuban  revolution  and  the  consequent  em- 
broglio  with  Spain,  threatening  as  I  Avrite 
to  break  out  any  hour  into  war,  illustrate 
the  difficulty  of  avoiding  altogether  col- 
lisions with  foreign  powers.  This  is  the 
most  pressing  and  immediate  illustration, 
but  not  the  only  one.  We  have  interests 
in  Turkey  which  have  been  strangely  dis- 
regarded, though  not  overlooked.  Ameri- 
can property  has  been  destroyed,  the  peace 
of  American  citizens  disturbed  and  their 
lives  threatened.  Turkey  is  far  away,  and 
it  has  been   difficult,   perhaps   impossible. 


so  to  press  our  claims  upon  the  Porte  as  to 
secure  satisfaction  for  the  outrages  per- 
petrated with  its  connivance,  if  not  by  its 
authority.  The  injuries  to  our  commerce 
inflicted  by  Algerine  pirates,  our  long  en- 
durance of  those  injuries,  and  our  final 
naval  warfare  against  the  marine  maraud- 
ers, are  matters  of  familiar  American 
history.  With  Americans  not  only  travel- 
ling everywhere  on  the  globe,  but  settling 
and  engaging  in  business  wherever  there  is 
business  to  be  done,  no  one  can  foresee 
when  an  international  complication  may 
arise,  involving  strained,  relations  between 
ourselves  and  some  other  nationality.  It 
would  be  no  small  advantage  under  such 
circumstances  to  have  established  such  re- 
lations with  Great  Britain  that  she  would 
be  our  natural  friend,  would  give  to  us 
her  moral  support,  and  would,  perhaps,  in 
case  of  exigency,  lend  support  that  would 
be  more  than  moral.  I  am  not  considering 
in  this  article  the  practicability  of  such  a 
relationship.  I  do  not  stop  to  discuss  the 
question  whether  Great  Britain  would  be 
likely  to  enter  into  it  with  us,  or  whether 
we  should  be  likely  to  enter  into  it  with 
Great  Britain.  Writing  for  American,  not 
for  English,  readers,  I  do  not  attempt  to 
point  out  the  advantages  to  Great  Britain 
as  well  as  to  ourselves.  My  object  is 
simply  to  show  that  there  would  be  a  real, 
a  tangible,  a  practical  advantage,  one  that 
can  be  measured  in  dollars  and  cents,  in 
the  establishment  of  such  relationship  be- 
tween these  two  great  Anglo-Saxon  com- 
munities, that  they  would  be  recognized 
by  the  civilized  world  as  standing  together 
in  amity,  making  a  common  cause,  not 
against  the  rest  of  the  world,  but  in  favor 
of  one  principle  to  Avhich  they  are  alike 
committed,  and  in  which  they  are  alike 
interested — the  principle  expressed  by  the 
one  word,   liberty. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  the  United 
States  will  never  desire  to  encroach  upon 
the  territory  of  any  Eviropean  power ;  that, 
if  it  comes  into  the  peril  of  war,  it  will 
be  not  through  its  desire  to  colonize  on 
uncivilized  territory,  nor  its  desire  to  seize 
upon  some  fragment  of  civilized  territory 
belonging  to  another  nation,  but  from  its 
passion  for  liberty;  a  passion  sometimes 
exhibited  in  strong  national  sympathy  for 
a  struggling  people  such  as  the  Cubans, 
sometimes  in  the  strong  determination  to 


6 


ABBOTT,    LYMAN 


preserve  the  liberty  of  our  own  people,  as 
in  our  war  against  the  Algerine  pirates. 
If  England  and  America  were  thus  to 
stand  together  for  liberty  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  form  a  combination  which  could 
withstand  them  so  long  as  they  Avere 
moderate,  just,  and  rational  in  their  de- 
mands. 

3.  Both  the  commercial  and  the  political 
advantages  of  such  a  good  understanding, 
growing  into  a  formal  alliance  as  is  here 
suggested,  are  dependent  upon  the  moral 
advantage  to  the  world  which  would  grow 
out  of  it.  It  is  true  that  in  a  sense  the 
United  States  is  neither  a  Christian  nor 
an  Anglo-Saxon  nation.  It  is  not  officially 
Christian,  if  thereby  is  meant  a  nation 
which  gives  political  or  financial  advan- 
tage to  one  religion  or  another.  It  is  not 
Anglo-Saxon,  if  thereby  is  meant  a  nation 
which  sets  itself  to  confer  political  power 
upon  one  race  over  another.  But  though 
it  is  officially  neither  Christian  nor  Anglo- 
Saxon,  it  is  practically  both.  Its  ethical 
standai'ds  are  not  those  of  Mohammedan- 
ism or  Confucianism,  but  those  of  Chris- 
tianity. Its  ruling  force  in  the  country, 
educational,  political,  and,  on  the  whole, 
commercial,  is  not  Celtic,  nor  Sclavic,  nor 
Semitic,  nor  African,  nor  Mongolian,  but 
Anglo-Saxon.  Thus  in  its  religious  spirit, 
though  not  altogether  in  its  religious  in- 
stitutions, in  its  practical  leadership, 
though  not  in  the  constituent  elements  of 
its  population,  and  in  its  national  history 
and  the  genesis  of  its  political  institu- 
tions, the  United  States  is  of  kin  to  Great 
Britain.  The  two  represent  the  same  es- 
sential political  ideals;  they  are  both 
democratic;  they  both  represent  the  same 
ethical  ideals;  they  are  Christian;  and 
they  both  represent  the  same  race  leader- 
ship; they  are  Anglo-Saxon.  In  so  far  as 
their  conjoint  influence  dominates  the 
world,  it  will  carry  with  it  a  tendency 
towards  liberty  in  the  political  institutions 
organized,  a  tendency  towards  Christianity 
in  the  ethical  spirit  of  the  society  created, 
and  a  tendency  towards  that  energy,  that 
intelligence,  and  that  thrift  which  are  the 
characteristics  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  in 
the  life  promoted.  It  is  from  the  combina- 
tion of  these  three  elements  in  society — 
political  liberty,  Christian  ethics,  Anglo- 
Saxon  energy — that  what  we  call  civiliza- 
tion proceeds.     And  it  is  out  of  this  civ- 


ilization thus  inspired  by  Anglo-Saxon 
energy,  thus  controlled  by  Christian  ethics, 
and  thus  given  opportunity  for  growth  by 
political  liberty  that  industrial  prosper- 
ity, commercial  wealth,  and  human  earthly 
well-being  are  founded.  Thus  the  moral  ad- 
vantages of  such  a  good  understanding  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
as  is  here  suggested  are  more  important 
than  the  commercial  and  political  advan- 
tages, because  the  commercial  and  politi- 
cal advantages  are  dependent  upon  the 
moral.  It  is  indeed  impossible  to  separate 
them,  except  in  statements  and  for  the 
convenience  of  clear  thinking.  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  cannot  com- 
bine to  i^romote  the  commercial  prosperity 
of  either  nation,  or  the  political  protection 
of  the  citizens  of  either  in  communities 
less  free  than  their  own,  except  as  they 
combine  to  promote  that  world  civilization 
which  is  founded  on  political  liberty. 
Christian  ethics,  and  Anglo-Saxon  energy. 
Let  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
work  together  for  the  world's  civilization, 
and,  on  the  one  hand,  no  reactionary  forces 
can  withstand  their  combined  influence; 
and  on  the  other,  no  imagination  can  esti- 
mate the  pecuniary  and  the  political  ad- 
vantages, first  to  these  two  nations,  and 
next  to  the  whole  world,  which  would 
come  from  such  a  combination.  Whoever 
in  either  country  sows  discord  between 
the  two  is,  whether  he  knows  it  or  not, 
the  political  and  commercial  enemy  of 
both  countries,  and  the  enemy  of  the 
world's   civilization. 

Thus  far  I  have  suggested  only  "  a  good 
understanding,"  because  this  is  immedi- 
ately practicable,  yet  I  have  in  my  imagi- 
nation an  ideal  towards  which  such  a  good 
understanding  might  tend,  but  which 
would  far  transcend  anything  suggested 
by  that  somewhat  vague  phrase.  Let  us 
suppose,  then,  that  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  were  to  enter  into  an  alli- 
ance involving  these  three  elements:  first, 
absolute  reciprocity  of  tra-de ;  second,  a 
tribunal  to  which  should  be  referred  for 
settlement,  as  a  matter  of  course,  all 
questions  arising  between  the  two  na- 
tions, as  now  all  questions  arising 
between  the  various  States  of  this 
Union  are  referred  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States;  third,  a 
mutual    pledge    that    an    assault    on    one 


ABENAKES— ABERT 


sliould  be  regarded  as  an  assault  on  both, 
so  that  as  towards  other  nations  these  two 
would  be  united  as  the  various  States  of 
this  Union  stand  united  towards  all  other 
States.  Such  an  alliance  would  include 
not  only  our  own  country  and  the  British 
Isles,  but  all  the  colonies  and  dependencies 
of  Great  Britain — Canada,  Australasia, 
and  in  time  such  provinces  in  Asia  and 
Africa  as  are  under  British  domination 
and  administration.  It  would  unite  in  the 
furtherance  of  a  Christian  civilization  all 
the  Anglo-Saxon  peoples,  and  all  the  peo- 
ples acting  under  the  guidance  and  con- 
trolling influence  of  Anglo-Saxon  leaders. 
It  would  gradually  draw  into  itself  other 
peoples  of  like  minds  though  of  foreign 
race,  such  as,  in  the  far  East,  the  people 
of  Japan.  It  would  create  a  new  con- 
federation based  on  principles  and  ideas, 
not  on  tradition,  and  bounded  by  the  pos- 
sibilities of  human  development,  not  by 
geographical  lines.  It  would  give  a  new 
significance  to  the  motto  "  E  Pluribus 
Unum,"  and  would  create  a  new  United 
States  of  the  World,  of  which  the  United 
States  of  America  would  be  a  component 
part.  Who  can  measure  the  advantage  to 
liberty,  to  democracy,  to  popular  rights 
and  popular  intelligence,  to  human 
progress,  to  a  free  and  practical  Christian- 
ity, which  such  an  alliance  would  bring 
with  it?  Invincible  against  enemies,  il- 
limitable in  influence,  at  once  inspiring 
and  restraining  each  other,  these  two  na- 
tions, embodying  the  energy,  the  enter- 
prise, and  the  conscience  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race,  would  by  the  mere  fact  of 
their  co-operation  produce  a  result  in 
human  history  which  would  suppress  all 
that  present  imagination  can  conceive  or 
present  hope  anticipate.  See  Anglo- 
American  League. 

Abenakes,  or  Abnakis  ("Men  of  the 
Eastern  Land  " ) ,  a  group  of  Algonquian 
{q.  V.)  tribes  of  Indians,  originally  occu- 
pying the  territory  now  included  within 
the  State  of  Maine.  They  included  the 
Penobscot,  Norridgewock,  and  Arosgunta- 
cook  families,  and  in  the  disturbances  of 
the  day  adhered  to  the  French,  whose  mis- 
sionaries converted  most  of  them  to 
Christianity. 

Abercrombie,  James,  military  officer; 
born  at  Glassaugh,  Scotland,  in  1706.  In 
1746  he  became  a  colonel   in   the   British 


army;  was  made  major-general  in  1756, 
lieutenant-general  in  1759,  and  general  in 
1772.  He  came  to  America  in  1756,  where 
he  held  the  chief  military  command  until 
the  arrival  of  Lord  Loudoun.  After  the 
departure  of  that  officer,  Abercrombie  re- 
sumed the  command.  In  July,  1758,  he 
attacked  Ticonderoga  (q.  v.)  with  a  large 
force,  but  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of 
about  2,000  men.  He  was  succeeded  by 
General  Amherst  in  September  following; 
returned  to  England  in  1759,  and  became 
a  member  of  Parliament,  wherein  he  ad- 
vocated the  obnoxious  measures  that  led 
to  the  War  of  the  Revolution  in  1775. 
He  died  April  28,  1781,  while  Governor  of 
Stirling  Castle. 

Abercrombie,  James,  military  officer; 
son  of  Gen.  James  Abercrombie.  He 
had  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Am- 
herst, in  America,  and  was  commissioned 
a  lieutenant  in  the  British  army  in  March, 
1770.  While  leading  the  British  Grena- 
diers in  the  battle  of  Bunker  (Breed)  Hill, 
June  17,  1775,  he  was  mortally  wounded, 
dying  in  Boston  on  the  24th.  See  Bunker 
Hill. 

Abercrombie,  John  Joseph,  military 
officer;  born  in  Tennessee  in  1802;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1822.  Entering  the  1st 
Infantry,  he  was  its  adjutant  from  1825 
to  1833.  Serving  in  Florida  and  Mexi- 
co, he  was  promoted  to  brevet  lieu- 
tenant-colonel for  gallantry  in  the  battle 
of  Monterey,  Avhere  he  was  severely  wound- 
ed. He  was  commissioned  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  May,  1852,  and  colonel  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1861,  and  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general,  U.  S.  A.,  March  13,  1865.  In 
June  following  he  retired.  He  was  a  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  commanded  a  brigade  in  Patter- 
son's division  on  the  Upper  Potomac  in 
1861.  He  was  transferred  to  Bank's  divi- 
sion in  July.  Early  in  1862  he  joined  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  was  slightly 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks  {q.  v.) . 
He  died  in  Roslyn,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  3,  1877. 

Abert,  John  James,  military  engi- 
neer; born  in  Shepherd  stown,  Va.,  Sept. 
27,  1778;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
Slates  Militaiy  Academy  in  1811;  soon 
afterwards  resigned;  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar;  served  as  a  private 
soldier  in  the  defence  of  the  national  capi- 


ABINGDON— ABOLITIOISriSTS 


tal  in  the  War  of  1812,  and  in  1814  was 
re-appointed  to  the  army  as  a  topographi- 
cal engineer,  becoming  chief  of  the  corps 
in  1838.  He  was  associated  with  the  con- 
struction of  many  of  the  early  national 
works  of  engineering,  and  was  one  of  the 
organizers  of  the  National  Institute  of 
Science,  which  was  merged  into  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  (q.  v.).  He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Dec.  27,  1863. 

Abingdon,  a  town  in  Washington 
county,  Va.,  315  miles  southwest  of  Rich- 
mond. It  has  valuable  deposits  of  salt, 
iron,  and  gypsum,  and  is  noted  as  being 
the  place  from  which  the  greater  part  of 
the  salt  used  in  the  Southern  States  and 
the  Confederate  army  during  the  Civil 
War  was  obtained.  Burbridge's  division 
of  Stoneman's  cavalry  defeated  the  Con- 
federates under  Echols,  and  captured  the 
town.  Dec.  1.5,  1864. 

Abolition.  During  the  early  years  of 
our  national  history,  abolition  was  a  de- 
sire rather  than  a  purpose,  and  most 
humane  and  thinking  men,  Nortli  and 
South,  were  abolitionists.  Previous  to 
the  meeting  of  the  first  Continental  Con- 
gress, in  1774,  many  of  the  colonies  had 
made  protests  against  the  further  impor- 
tation of  slaves,  and  at  least  two  of  them, 
Virginia  and  Massachusetts,  had  passed 
resolutions  abolishing  the  traffic.  The 
Quakers,  or  Society  of  Friends,  had,  since 
1760,  made  slave-holding  and  slave-trading 
a  matter  of  church  discipline.  The  War 
for  Independence,  and  the  adoption  of  the 
Constitution,  in  1787,  which  included  the 
compromise  resolution  that  provided  for 
the  continuation  of  the  slave-trade,  by  per- 
mission, until  1808,  caused  very  little 
change  in  the  sentiment  of  the  people,  and 
all  hoped  that  in  some  way,  not  yet 
imagined,  the  gradual  and  peaceful  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  would  be  accomplished. 
In  1777,  Vermont,  not  yet  admitted  to 
the  Union,  formed  a  State  constitution 
abolishing  slavery.  Like  constitutions 
were  adopted  by  Massachusetts,  including 
Maine,  in  1780,  and  by  New  Hampshire  in 
1783.  Gradual  abolition  was  secured  by 
statute  in  Pennsylvania  in  1780,  in  Rhode 
Island  and  Connecticut  in  1784,  in  New 
York  in  1799,  and  in  New  Jersey  in  1804. 
Abolition  of  slavery  in  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory, north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the 
Mississippi,   including  the  present   States 


of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, and  part  of  Minnesota,  was  secured 
by  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  In  1807,  Con- 
gress passed  an  act  for  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade  on  Jan.  1,  1808.  Slavery  in 
part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  including 
the  present  States  of  Iowa,  Oregon,  Kan- 
sas, Nebraska,  part  of  Colorado,  and  part 
of  Minnesota,  was  abolished  by  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  (q.  v.),  whose  validity 
was  rejected  by  the  Supreme  Court  (see 
Dreu  Scott  Decision)  ;  but  the  provision 
for  abolition  was  embodied  in  the  consti- 
tutions of  these  States  as  they  were 
severally  admitted.  In  course  of  time 
gradual  abolition  took  effect  in  the  States 
which  had  adopted  it  by  statute,  and  in 
1850  slavery  as  an  institution  had  practi- 
cally disappeared  from  them.  Slavery  was 
finally  abolished  from  all  the  territory  of 
the  United  States  by  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation  of  President  Lincoln  and  the 
adoption  of  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to 
the  national  Constitution,  in  1863-65. 
See  Constitution,  National;  Emancipa- 
tion Proclamations. 

Abolitionists.  The  first  society  estab- 
lished for  promoting  public  sentiment  in 
favor  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  was 
formed  in  Philadelphia  on  April  14,  1775, 
with  Benjamin  Franklin  as  president  and 
Benjamin  Rush  as  secretary.  John  Jay 
was  the  first  president  of  a  society  for 
the  same  purpose  formed  in  New  York, 
Jan.  25,  1785,  and  called  the  "  New  York 
Manumission  Society."  The  Society  of 
Friends,  or  Quakers,  always  opposed  sla- 
very, and  were  a  perpetual  and  active  abo- 
lition society,  presenting  to  the  national 
Congress  the  first  petition  on  the  subject. 
Other  abolition  societies  followed — in 
Rhode  Island  in  1786, in  Maryland  in  1789, 
in  Connecticut  in  1790,  in  Virginia  in  1791, 
and  in  New  Jersey  in  1792.  These  societies 
held  annual  conventions,  and  their  opera- 
tions were  viewed  by  the  more  humane 
slave-holders  with  some  favor,  since  they 
aimed  at  nothing  practical  or  troublesome, 
except  petitions  to  Congress,  and  served  as 
a  moral  palliative  to  the  continuance  of 
the  practice.  The  abolition  of  the  African 
slave-trade  by  Great  Britain  in  1807,  and 
by  the  United  States  in  1808,  came  as  a 
great  relief  to  the  abolition  societies, 
which  had  grown  discouraged  by  the  evi- 
dent impossibility  of  effecting  anything  in 


ABOLITIONISTS 


the  South,  and  were  now  ready  to  accept 
this  success  as  the  limit  of  possibility  for 
the  present.  In  1801,  Thomas  Jefferson 
and  Gov.  James  Monroe,  of  Virginia, 
had  considerable  correspondence  on  the 
subject  of  colonizing  free  blacks  outside 
of  the  country.  In  the  autvimn  of  1816,  a 
society  for  this  purpose  was  organized  in 
Princeton,  N.  J.  The  Virginia  Legislat- 
ure commended  the  matter  to  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  December,  1816,  the  "  Na- 
tional Colonization  Society  "  met  in  Wash- 
ington. Its  object  was  to  encourage  eman- 
cipation by  procuring  a  lAace  outside  of 
the  United  States,  preferably  in  Africa,  to 
which  free  negroes  could  be  aided  in  emi- 
grating. Its  indirect  object  was  to  rid  the 
South  of  the  free  black  population,  which 
had  already  become  a  nuisance.  Its 
branches  spread  into  almost  every  State, 
and  for  fourteen  years  its  organization 
was  warmly  furthered  by  every  philan- 
thropist in  the  South  as  well  as  in  the 
North.  It  is  noteworthy  that,  though  the 
society  made  no  real  attack  upon  slavery, 
as  an  institution,  nearly  every  person, 
noted  after  1831  as  an  abolitionist,  was  be- 
fore that  year  a  colonizationist.  At  first 
free  negroes  were  sent  to  the  British  col- 
ony of  Sierra  Leone.  In  1820,  the  society 
tried  and  became  dissatisfied  with  Sher- 
brook  Island,  and  on  Dec.  15,  1821,  a  per- 
manent location  was  purchased  at  Cape 
Mesurado.  In  1847,  the  colony  declared  it- 
self an  independent  republic  under  the 
name  of  Liberia  (q.  v.),  its  capital  being 
Monrovia. 

It  was  in  1830  that  the  abolitionist  move- 
ment proper  began.  In  1829-30,  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  engaged  with  Benjamin 
Lundy  in  publishing  The  Genius  of  Uni- 
versal Emancipatioti,  in  Baltimore.  Gar- 
rison's first  efforts  were  directed  against 
the  Colonization  Society  and  gradual  abo- 
lition. He  insisted  on  the  use  of  every 
means  at  all  times  towards  abolition  with- 
out regard  to  the  wishes  of  slave-owners. 
The  effects  were  almost  immediately  ap- 
parent. Abolition,  with  its  new  elements 
of  effort  and  intention,  was  no  longer  a 
doctrine  to  be  quietly  and  benignantly  dis- 
cussed by  slave-owners.  On  Jan.  1,  1831, 
Garrison  began  publishing  The  Liberator, 
in  Boston;  the  New  England  Anti-Slavery 
Society  was  formed  Jan.  1,  1832;  in  1833 
Garrison    visited    England,    and    secured 

10 


from  Wilberforee,  Zachary  Macaulay,  Dan* 
iel  O'Connell,  and  other  English  abolition- 
ists, a  condemnation  of  the  colonizationists. 
In  December,  1833,  the  American  Anti-Sla- 
very Society  was  organized,  in  Philadel- 
phia, by  an  abolition  convention  of  which 
Beriah  Green  was  president  and  Lewis 
Tappan  and  John  G.  Whittier  secretaries. 
From  this  time  the  question  became  of 
national  importance.  Able  and  earnest 
men,  such  as  Weld,  May,  and  Phillips, 
journeyed  through  the  Northern  States 
as  the  agents  of  the  National  Society, 
founding  State  branches  and  everywhere 
lecturing  on  abolition,  and  were  often  met 
by  mob  violence.  In  Connecticut,  in  1833, 
Miss  Prudence  Crandall,  of  Canterbury, 
opened  her  school  for  negro  girls.  The 
Legislature,  by  act  of  May  24,  1833,  for- 
bade the  establishment  of  such  schools, 
and  imprisoned  Miss  Crandall.  Being  set 
at  liberty,  she  was  ostracized  by  her  neigh- 
bors and  her  school  broken  up.  For  a 
year  George  Thomson,  who  had  done  much 
to  secure  British  emancipation  in  the 
West  Indies,  lectured  throughout  the 
North.  He  was  mobbed  in  Boston,  and 
escaped  from  the  country  in  disguise,  in 
November,  1835.  On  Nov.  7,  1837,  Elijah 
P.  LovEjOY  iq.  v.),  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, who  had  established  an  abolition  news- 
paper in  Alton,  111.,  was  mobbed  and  shot 
to  death.  These  occurrences  did  not  cease 
entirely  until  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War,  in  1861.  In  the  South  rewards  were 
offered  for  the  capture  of  prominent  abo- 
litionists, and  a  suspension  of  commercial 
intercourse  was  threatened.  The  Southern 
States  objected  to  the  use  of  the  mails 
for  the  circulation  of  anti-slavery  litera- 
ture. A  bill  forbidding  such  use  was 
voted  on  in  Congress,  but  lost,  and  in  its 
stead  the  care  of  abolition  documents  was 
left,  with  final  success,  to  the  postmasters 
and  the  States.  The  Garrisonian  aboli- 
tionists were  always  radical.  They  criti- 
cised the  Church,  condemned  the  Consti- 
tution, refused  to  vote,  and  woman's 
rights,  free  love,  community  of  property, 
and  all  sorts  of  novel  social  ideas  were 
espoused  by  them.  In  1838  the  political 
abolitionists,  including  Birney,  the  Tap- 
pans,  Gerrit  Smith,  Whittier,  Judge  Jay, 
Edward  Beecher,  Thomas  Morris,  and 
others  seceded,  and  in  1840  organized 
the   American   and    Foreign   Anti-Slavery 


ABOVILLE— ACADEMY   OF   SCIENCES 


Society,  and  under  this  name  prosecuted 
their  work  with  more  success  than  the 
original  society.  In  1839-40  the  Liberty 
Party  (q.  v.)  was  formed,  and  in  the 
Presidential  election  of  1844  Birney  and 
Morris  received  62,300  votes,  most  of  which 
would  have  gone  to  Clay,  and  thus  made 
possible  the  election  of  Polk,  the  annexation 
of  Texas,  and  the  addition  of  an  immense 
amount  of  slave  territory  to  the  United 
States.  In  the  next  two  Presidential  elec- 
tions the  abolitionists  voted  with  the  Free- 
soil  Party  {q.  v.) ,  and  after  1856  with  the 
Eepublicans,  though  rather  as  an  auxiliary 
than  as  an  integral  part  of  the  party. 
During  the  period  18.50-60  the  most  active 
exertions  of  the  abolitionists  were  cen- 
tred in  assisting  fugitive  slaves  to  reach 
places  of  safety  in  Canada  (see  Fugitive 
Slave  Law  and  Underground  Railway  ) . 
The  result  of  the  Civil  War  (1861-65) 
was  the  total  abolition  of  slavery  in  all 
the  States.  Soon  after  the  adoption  of  the 
Thirteenth  Amendment,  the  publication  of 
The  Liberator  ceased  and  the  Anti-Slavery 
Society  dissolved,  as  natural  results. 

Aboville,  Francois  Marie,  Count  d', 
military  officer;  born  in  Brest,  France,  in 
January,  1730;  came  to  America  with  the 
rank  of  colonel  during  the  Revolutionary 
War,  and  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown  com- 
manded Rochambeau's  artillery.  In  1788 
he  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general; 
in  1792  was  commander  of  the  French 
Army  of  the  North;  and  in  1807  became 
governor  of  Brest  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general. He  supported  the  cause 
of  the  Bourbons  and  after  the  Restoration 
was  made  a  peer.    He  died  Nov.  1,  1817. 

A.  B.  Plot.  On  April  19,  1824,  Ninian 
Edwards,  a  former  United  States  Senator 
from  Illinois,  presented  an  address  to  the 
Congress,  preferring  charges  against  Will- 
iam H.  Crawford,  then  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  and  a  candidate  for  the  Presi- 
dency. The  address  was  accompanied  by 
letters,  reflecting  on  the  integrity  of  Sec- 
retary Crawford,  signed  A.  B.  The  House 
appointed  a  committee  of  seven  to  inves- 
tigate the  charges,  and  on  May  25  the 
committee  submitted  a  report  exonerating 
Secretary  Crawford.  While  on  his  way  to 
Mexico,  to  which  he  had  been  sent  on  a 
public  mission,  Mr.  Edwards  acknowledged 
the  authorship  of  the  letters  and  also  made 
new  accusations  against  Secretary  Craw- 


ford. After  the  committee  had  exonerated 
the  Secretary,  Mr.  Edwards  was  recalled 
to  substantiate  his  charges,  but  failed  to 
do  so.  This  episode  became  known  as  the 
A.  B.  Plot. 

Abraham,  Heights  or  Plains  of,  near 
Quebec,  named  from  Abraham  Martin, 
who  owned  a  piece  of  land  there  in  the 
early  times  of  the  colony.  On  this  plateau 
was  fought  a  battle  between  French  and 
English,  Sept.  13,  1759,  gaining  Canada 
for  the  English.  Both  commanders,  Mont- 
calm and  Wolfe,  were  killed,  the  latter  at 
the  moment  of  victory.  See  Canada; 
Montcalm  de  St.  Veran  ;  Wolfe,  James. 

Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
American,  an  organization  founded  in 
Boston  in  1778  for  the  encouragement  of 
arts  and  sciences;  has  published  Me- 
moirs  since  1785,  and  Proceedings  since 
184G. 

Academy  of  Design,  National,  an  art 
institution  founded  in  New  York  City  in 
1826;  originally  occupying  a  building  on 
the  corner  of  Fourth  Avenue  and  Twenty- 
third  Street,  which  was  sold  in  1895,  and 
a  new  structure  was  begun  on  Amsterdam 
Avenue  and  One  Hundred  and  Ninth 
Street.  The  academy  conducts  schools  in 
various  branches  of  the  fine  arts,  and 
holds  semi-.annual  exhibitions  at  which  a 
number  of  valuable  prizes  are  awarded. 
The  members  consist  of  academicians  and 
associates,  each  of  whom  must  be  an  artist 
of  recognized  merit.  The  associates,  who 
are  entitled  to  use  the  letters  A.N.A.  after 
their  names,  are  chosen  from  the  general 
body  of  the  artists,  and  the  academicians, 
who  may  use  N.A.,  are  elected  from  the 
associates.  Approved  laymen  may  become 
fellows  on  payment  of  a  fee.  The  schools 
are  open  to  both  sexes,  are  free,  and  open 
from  the  first  Monday  in  October  in  each 
year  till  the  1st  of  June  following. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  an  in- 
stitution in  Philadelphia,  Pa. ;  founded  in 
1812;  has  published  Journals  since  1817, 
and  Proceedings  since  1841;  and  is  noted 
for  its  very  large  collection  of  specimens 
in  natural  history. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  National,  an 
institution  incorporated  by  act  of  Con- 
gress March  3,  1863;  comprising  active 
and  honorary  members  and  foreign  asso- 
ciates. Under  the  act  of  incorporation  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  academy  to  investigate. 


11 


ACADEMY— ACADIA 


examine,  experiment,  and  report  upon  any 
subject  of  science  or  art  submitted  to  it 
by  any  department  of  the  national  gov- 
ernment, the  expense  of  such  investigations 
being  paid  from  appropriations  for  the 
purpose. 

Academy,  United  States  Military. 
See  Military  Academy. 

Academy,  United  States  Naval.  See 
Naval  Academy. 

Acadia,  or  Acadie,  the  ancient  name  of 
Nova  Scotia  iq.  v.)  and  adjacent  regions. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  visited  by  Se- 
bastian Cabot  in  1498,  but  the  first  at- 
tempt to  plant  a  settlement  there  was  by 
De  Monts,  in  1604,  who  obtained  a  charter 
from  the  King  of  France  for  making  set- 
tlements and  carrying  on  trade.  In  that 
charter  it  is  called  Cadie,  and  by  the  early 
settlers  it  was  known  as  L'Acadie.  A  set- 
tlement was  made  at  a  place  named  Port 
Eoyal  (now  Annapolis),  by  Poutrineourt, 
a  bosom  friend  of  De  Monts,  but  it  was 
broken  up  in  1613,  by  Argall,  from  Vir- 
ginia. These  French  emigrants  built  cot- 
tages sixteen  years  before  the  Pilgrims 
landed  on  the  shores  of  New  England. 
When  English  people  came,  antagonisms 
arising  from  difference  of  religion  and 
nationality  appeared,  and,  after  repeated 
struggles  between  the  English  and  French 
for  the  possession  of  Acadia,  it  was  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  1713.  But  for  many  years  not  a  dozen 
English  families  were  seen  there.  The  de- 
scendants of  the  early  French  settlers  oc- 
cupied the  land,  and  were  a  peaceable, 
pastoral  people,  who  never  .engaged  in  the 
forays  of  the  French  and  Indians  along 
the  New  England  frontiers.  They  were 
attached  to  their  fatherland  and  their 
religion,  and  they  refused  to  fight  against 
the  former  or  abjure  the  latter.  This  at- 
titude was  accorded  to  them  by  solemn 
agreements,  and  they  were  known  as 
"  French  Neutrals."  They  were  happy  in 
their  neutrality,  and  in  their  isolation 
they  formed  one  great  and  loving  family. 
Pure  in  morals,  pious  without  bigotry, 
honest,  industrious,  and  frugal,  they  pre- 
sented an   outline   picture  of  Utopia. 

When  New-Englanders  began  to  colonize 
Nova  Scotia  vigorously,  their  priests,  fired 
with  zeal  for  the  Church,  disturbed  their 
repose  by  dread  of  "  heretics  "  and  warn- 
ings not  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 


12 


Great  Britain.  "  Better,"  said  the  Jesuits, 
■'  surrender  your  meadows  to  the  sea  and 
your  treasures  to  the  flames  than,  at  the 
peril  of  your  souls,  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  British  government."  So 
the  priests,  with  which  Canada  furnished 
them,  and  on  whom  they  implicitly  relied, 
disturbed  the  peace  and  led  them  on  to 
their  ruinous  troubles.  At  one  time  they 
would  resolve  to  flee  to  Canada;  at  another 
the  love  of  their  homes  would  make  them 
resolve  to  remain.  The  haughtiness  of 
British  officers  aided  the  priests  in  foment- 
ing disaff'ection.  The  English  despised  the 
Acadians  because  they  were  helpless  in 
their  lack  of  knowledge  of  English  laws, 
and  they  were  continually  robbed  of  their 
rights  and  property  by  English  officials. 
Was  any  of  their  property  demanded  for 
the  public  service,  they  were  "  not  to  be 
bargained  with  for  payment " ;  so  the 
orders  ran.  Under  various  pretences  they 
were  continually  shorn,  yet  they  meekly 
submitted  to  the  tyranny  of  their  masters. 
The  English  officers  were  authorized  to 
punish  Acadians  for  what  they  might  deem 
misbehavior,  at  their  discretion,  and,  if 
British  troops  should  be  annoyed  by  them, 
they  might  inflict  vengeance  on  the  nearest 
Acadians  "  whether  guilty  or  not."  Final- 
ly, persuaded  by  the  French  government 
ajid  their  priests,  the  Acadians  abandoned 
nearly  all  the  peninsula,  and  settled  them- 
selves in  a  fertile  region  on  the  isthmus  be- 
tween the  northern  extreiuity  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  and  Northumberland  Strait.  The 
object  of  the  movement  was  to  make  them 
form  a  barrier  against  the  encroachments 
of  the  English.  There  the  French  built 
two  forts,  the  principal  of  which  was  Beau 
S^jour,  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  the 
isthmus  is  only  15  miles  wide.  In  June, 
1755,  a  land  and  naval  armament  came 
from  Boston,  landed  at  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  captured  the  forts,  and 
took  military  possession  of  the  country  of 
the  French  Neutrals.  Tlie  French  soldiers 
were  sent  to  Louisburg,  and  the  Acadians 
who  had  been  forced  into  the  French  ser- 
vice were  granted  an  amnesty.  They  read- 
ily took  an  oath  of  allegiance,  expected 
forbearance,  and  went  on  quietly  cultivat- 
ing their  land.  But  the  exasperation  of 
the  people  of  New  England,  because  of  the 
horrible  forays  of  the  French  and  Indians 
on  their  frontiers,  had  to  be  appeased,  and 


ACADIA 


vengeance  was  inflicted  upon  these  inno- 
cent people.  It  was  resolved  to  banish  the 
French  Neutrals  from  their  country. 
Governor  Shirley  had  proposed  it  years 
before,  in  order  to  supply  their  place  with 
Protestants;  and  the  British  government 
had  promoted  emigration  thither,  that  a 
strong  admixture  of  Protestants  might 
neutralize  the  efforts  of  the  priests  to 
make  the  Acadians  disloyal.  Now  Shir- 
ley's scheme  was  adopted,  and  General 
Winslow,  who  commanded  the  invaders, 
was  made  the  executor  of  it. 

It  was  believed  by  the  English  that  if 
the  Acadians  were  permitted  to  go  to 
Canada  or  Cape  Breton,  they  would  thus 
strengthen  the  enemies  of  the  English ; 
to  distribute  them  would  destroy  their 
strength  and  prevent  attempts  to  return. 
To  accomplish  this,  a  disgraceful  artifice 
was  employed.  The  English  authorities 
issued  a  proclamation,  ordering  "  both  old 
and  young  men,  as  well  as  all  the  lads  of 
ten  years  of  age,"  to  assemble  on  Sept.  5, 
1755,  at  designated  places.  They  obeyed. 
The  proceedings  at  one  place  afford  a  fair 
picture  of  those  at  all  others.  At  Grand- 
Pre,  418  unarmed  men  and  youths  were 
assembled,  and  marched  into  the  church. 
There  General  Winslow  told  them  they 
had  been  called  together  to  hear  the  de- 
cision of  the  King  of  England  in  regard  to 
the  French  inhabitants  of  the  province. 
"  Your  lands  and  tenements,"  he  said, 
"  cattle  of  all  kinds,  and  live-stock  of  all 
sorts,  are  forfeited  to  the  cro-^m,  and  you, 
yourselves,  are  to  be  removed  from  this 
his  province.  I  am,  through  his  Majesty's 
goodness,  directed  to  allow  you  liberty  to 
carry  off  your  money  and  household  goods, 
as  many  as  you  can,  without  discommod- 
ing the  vessels  you  go  in.  You  are  now 
the  King's  prisoners." 

Every  household  in  Grand-Pre  was  filled 
with  consternation.  At  Grand-Pre  alone 
1,923  men,  women,  and  children  were  driv- 
en on  board  British  vessels  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet.  Fully  2,000  were  thus 
expelled  from  their  homes  in  Acadia.  The 
men  and  boys  assembled  at  the  church 
went  first;  the  sisters,  wives,  and 
daughters  had  to  wait  for  other  trans- 
ports. They  marched  from  the  church  to 
the  water's  edge,  some  in  sullen  despair, 
others  with  hands  clasped  and  eyes  uplift- 
ed, praying  and  weeping,  and  others  sing- 


ing hymns,  while  on  each  side  of  the  sad 
procession  was  a  row  of  women  and  chil- 
dren on  their  knees,  imploring  blessings 
upon  the  heads  of  dear  ones.  They  were 
all  finally  distributed  in  the  various  Eng- 
lish colonies.  Many  families,  separated 
at  the  outset  by  the  cruel  arrangements 
for  their  transportation,  were  never  re- 
united ;  and  for  a  long  time  the  colonial 
newspapers  contained  advertisements  seek- 
ing information  about  fragments  of  dis- 
membered families.  They  were  dropped 
along  the  shores  of  the  English  colonies, 
from  the  Penobscot  to  the  Savannah,  with- 
out resources,  and  ignorant  of  the  lan- 
guage of  the  people  among  whom  they  were 
thrust,  excepting  in  South  Carolina,  where 
the  Huguenot  families  treated  them  with 
great  kindness.  They  abhorred  the  alms- 
house and  dreaded  service  in  English 
families.  They  yearned  intensely  for  their 
native  land  and  kindred  in  language  and 
religion.  Many  wandered  through  the 
forests  to  Canada  and  Louisiana — men, 
women,  and  children — sheltered  in  bush- 
camps  and  kindly  cared  for  by  the  Indians, 
that  they  might  rest  under  French  do- 
minion. Some  families  went  to  sea  in 
open  boats,  to  find  their  way  back  to 
Acadia ;  and,  coasting  along  the  shores  of 
New  England,  were  there  met  by  orders 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  stop  all  returning 
fugitives.  Many  touching  stories  of  par 
ents  seeking  their  children,  husbands  their 
wives,  and  lovers  their  affianced  have  been 
related.  It  is  a  sad,  sad  story  of  man's 
inhumanity  to  man. 

Even  in  their  bitter  exile  the  Acadians 
■were  subjected  to  the  hatred  and  cruelty 
of  English  officials.  When  Lord  Loudoun 
{q.  V.)  was  commander-in-chief  in  Amer- 
ica, some  of  the  Acadians  settled  in  Penn- 
sylvania ventured  to  address  a  respectful 
petition  to  him.  Offended  because  the 
document  was  in  the  French  language,  the 
Earl  seized  five  of  the  leading  men  who 
signed  the  petition,  and  who  had  been  per- 
sons of  wealth  and  distinction  in  Acadia, 
and  sent  them  to  England,  with  a  request 
that,  to  prevent  their  being  troublesome 
in  the  future,  they  should  be  consigned  to 
hard  service  as  common  sailors  in  the 
royal  navy.  The  King  seems  to  have  ap- 
proved the  measure ;  and  the  Lords  of 
Trade,  when  the  desolation  of  Acadia  was 
made  complete,  congratulated  the  profligate 


13 


ACCATJLT— ACLAND 


monarch  that  the  zeal  of  the  governor  of 
Nova  Scotia,  who  had  driven  them  away, 
had  been  "  crowned  with  entire  success." 
Exquisitely  cruel  was  the  treatment  these 
poor  people  received  at  the  hands  of  their 
conquerors.  The  method  employed  to  le- 
gally dispossess  the  Acadians  of  their  cov- 
eted lands  was  most  disgraceful.  They  had 
taken  the  oath  of  allegiance,  but  refused  to 
take  an  oath  that  they  would  bear  arms 
against  the  French  if  required,  and  prac- 
tically abjure  their  religion.  Exemption 
from  this  had  been  solemnly  promised 
them.  The  governor  of  Nova  Scotia  re- 
ferred the  matter  to  the  chief-justice  of 
the  province  as  a  technical  question  in 
law,  whether  one  who  refuses  to  take  all 
required  oaths  could  hold  lands  in  the 
British  dominions.  The  chief-justice  de- 
cided against  the  Acadians,  and  it  was 
determined  to  take  their  lands  away  from 
them  and  distribvite  them  among  the  Eng- 
lish colonists.  The  French  government 
asked  leave  for  the  Acadians  to  take  with 
them  their  effects  and  to  settle  where  they 
chose.  "  No,"  replied  their  masters,  "  they 
are  too  useful  subjects  to  be  lost;  we  must 
enrich  our  colonies  with  them."  Unfort- 
unately for  the  poor  people,  some  of  their 
best  men  presented  a  petition  to  the  gov- 
ernor at  Halifax.  He  would  not  receive 
it,  and  demanded  that  they  should  imme- 
diately take  the  oaths  required  before  the 
council.  "  We  will  do  as  our  peojsle  may 
determine,"  they  meekly  replied,  and  asked 
permission  to  return  home  and  consult 
them.  The  next  day,  perceiving  the  peril- 
ous position  of  their  people,  they  offered 
to  take  the  oaths.  "  By  a  law  of  the 
realm,"  said  the  governor,  "  Roman  Cath- 
olics who  have  once  refused  to  take  the 
oaths  cannot  be  permitted  to  do  so  after- 
wards, and  are  considered  Popish  recu- 
sants." They  were  cast  into  prison,  and 
the  chief-justice  decided  that  all  the 
French  inhabitants — hundreds  of  innocent 
families  who  were  ignorant  of  all  these 
proceedings — were  "  rebels  and  Popish  re- 
cusants," and  stood  in  the  way  of  "  Eng- 
lish interests "  in  the  country,  and  that 
they  had  forfeited  all  their  possessions  to 
the  crowTi.  So  their  doom  was  sealed. 
See  Longfellow's  Evangeline. 

Accault,  Michael,  explorer;  was  with 
La  Salle  when  the  latter  discovered  the 
Mississippi    Eiver.      Later,     with     Louis 


Hennepin  (^7.  v.),  in  the  summer  of  1679, 
he  was  sent  by  La  Salle  to  explore  the 
sources  of  the  Mississippi.  They  went 
up  the  river  as  far  the  Falls  of  St. 
Anthony,  wl^ere  they  were  captured  by 
Indians,  but  were  rescued  by  Daniel 
Duluth,  a  French  officer.  In  a  few  months 
they  succeeded  in  reaching  the  trading- 
station  at  Green  Bay. 

Acerraderos,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Santiago,  Cuba,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  a 
few  miles  west  of  the  entrance  to  the  har- 
bor of  Santiago.  It  was  here  that  General 
Garcia,  the  commander  of  the  Cuban 
army,  established  his  camp  just  before 
the  opening  of  the  Santiago  campaign  in 
1898.  The  United  States  fleet  arrived  off 
Santiago  on  June  21,  and  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible General  Shatter  and  Admiral  Samp- 
son went  ashore  and  arranged  with  Gen- 
eral Garcia  for  the  co-operation  of  the 
Cubans  under  his  command.  The  land- 
ing of  the  United  States  troops  and  the 
operations  of  the  American  army  from 
tliat  time  till  the  surrender  of  Santiago 
were  greatly  facilitated  by  General  Garcia 
and  his  army.     See  Daiquiri. 

Acland,   John   Dyke,   military  officer; 


MAJ.  JOHN  DYKE   ACLAND. 

was    with    Burgoyne    in    his    invasion    of 
northern  New  York  in  1777,  and  at  the 


14 


ACQUIA    CREEK— ACQUISITION"    OF    TERRITORY 


CHRISTIN'A   HARRIET   ACLAXD. 


same 
ment. 


time   he  was   a   member   of   Parlia- 
In  the  battle  of  Saratoga   (Oct.  7, 


1777)  he  was  severely  wounded — shot 
through  the  legs — and  made  a  prisoner. 
Taken  to  the  American  headquarters  on 
Bemis's  Heights,  his  devoted  wife,  Lady 
Harriet,  was  permitted  to  pass  through 
the  lines  and  attend  him.  She  was  kindly 
received  and  treated  by  the  American 
officers,  and  their  bearing  towards  their 
wounded  prisoners  excited  the  major's 
gratitude  and  warm  esteem.  After  his 
return  to  England  he  was  provoked  to 
give  the  lie  direct  to  Lieutenant  Lloyd,  at 
a  dinner-party,  because  the  latter  cast  as- 
persions upon  the  Americans.  A  duel  en- 
sued on  Bampton  Downs.  The  major  was 
unhurt,  but  a  severe  cold,  which  he  con- 
tracted at  the  time  of  the  duel,  culmi- 
nated in  a  fever  which  caused  his  death 
at  his  seat  at  Pixton,  Somersetshire,  Oct. 
31,  1778.  His  wife,  Christina  Harriet 
Caroline  Fox,  was  a  daughter  of  the  first 
Earl  of  Ilchester;  was  born  in  1750;  mar- 
ried John  Dyke  Acland  in  1770;  and 
died  near  Taunton,  England,  July  21, 
1815. 
Acquia  Creek.     See  Aquia  Creek. 


ACQUISITION    OF    TERRITORY 


Acquisition  of  Territory.  The  origi- 
nal territory  of  the  United  States  as  ac- 
knowledged by  the  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  in  1783,  consisted  of  the  follow- 
ing thirteen  States :  New  Hampshire,  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay,  Rhode  Island  and  Provi- 
dence Plantations,  Connecticut,  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  and  Georgia.  The  boundaries 
of  many  of  these  States,  as  constituted  by 
their  charters,  extended  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean ;  but  in  practice  they  ceased  at  the 
Mississippi.  Beyond  that  river  the 
territory  belonged,  by  discovery  and 
settlement,  to  the  King  of  Spain. 
All  the  territory  west  of  the  present 
boundaries  of  the  States  was  ceded  by 
them  to  the  United  States  in  the  order 
named:  Virginia,  1784;  Massachusetts, 
1785;  Connecticut,  1786  and  1800;  South 
Carolina,  1787;  North  Carolina,  1790; 
Georgia,  1802.  This  ceded  territory  com- 
prised part  of  Minnesota,  all  of  Wiscon- 
sin, Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio  (see 
Northwest   Territory),    Tennessee,    and 


a  great  part  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
Vermont  was  admitted  as  a  separate  State 
in  1791 ;  Kentucky,  then  a  part  of  Vir- 
ginia, in  1792;  and  Maine,  till  that  time 
claimed  by  Massachusetts,  in  1820. 

Louisiana  Purchase. — Spain's  restric- 
tion of  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi, 
the  great  natural  commercial  artery  of 
the  American  continent,  was  a  great  an- 
noyance to  the  settlers  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Alleghanies.  It  was  not  un- 
til Oct.  17,  1795,  and  after  many  attempts, 
that  Thomas  Pinckney  succeeded  in  nego- 
tiating a  treaty  of  friendship,  boundaries, 
and  navigation.  On  Oct.  1,  1800,  by  the 
treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  Spain  retroceded 
to  France  the  vast  province  of  Louisiana. 
Bonaparte's  design  to  revive,  in  New  Or- 
leans, the  former  colonial  glories  of  the 
French  monarchy  more  and  more  menaced 
the  United  States;  navigation  was  again 
closed;  and  in  Congress,  James  Ross,  Sen- 
ator from  Pennsylvania,  introduced  reso- 
lutions authorizing  the  President  to  call 
out  50,000  militia  and  to  take  possession 
of   New   Orleans,     Instead   of   this,    Con- 


15 


ACQUISITION    OF    TERRITORY 

gress  appropriated  $2,000,000  for  the  pur-  by  acts  passed  in  secret,  in  January 
chase  of  the  city,  and  sent  James  Monroe,  and  March,  1811,  had  authorized  the 
as  minister  extraordinary,  to  co-operate  President  to  take  temporary  possession, 
with  Livingston,  minister  to  France,  in  In  ,  1818,  during  the  Seminole  War,  be- 
the  proposed  purchase.  April  11,  1803,  ing  annoyed  by  Spanish  assistance  given 
Livingston,  wlio  had  already  begun  nego-  to  the  Indians,  Jackson  raided  east 
tiations  for  the  purchase  of  New  Orleans,  Florida,  captured  St.  Marks  and  Pen- 
was  suddenly  invited  by  Napoleon  to  sacola,  and  hanged  Arbuthnot  and  Am- 
make  an  offer  for  the  whole  of  Louisiana,  brister,  two  British  subjects  who  had  given 
On  the  following  day  Monroe  arrived  in  aid  and  comfort  to  the  Indians.  This 
Paris,  and  the  two  ministers  decided  to  demonstrated  so  completely  that  Florida 
offer  $10,000,000.  The  price  was  finally  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  United  States 
fixed  at  $15,000,000,  one-fourth  of  it  to  that  the  Spanish  minister  at  Washington 
consist  in  the  assumption  by  the  United  signed  a  treaty,  on  Feb.  22,  1819,  by  which 
States  of  $3,750,000  worth  of  claims  of  Spain  ceded  Florida,  in  return  for  the 
American  citizens  against  France.  The  payment  of  claims  of  American  citizens 
treaty  was  in  three  conventions — to  se-  against  Spain,  amounting  to  $5,000,000. 
cure  the  cession,  to  ascertain  the  price,  to  The  ratification  by  Spain  was  not  secured 
stipulate  for  the  assumption  of  the  claims  till  1821,  Spain  attempting  to  obtain  the 
— all  signed  the  same  day,  April  30,  1803,  refusal  of  the  United  States  to  recognize 
by  Livingston  and  Monroe  on  one  part,  the  independence  of  the  revolted  Spanish- 
and  Barbe-Marbois  on  the  other.  This  American  colonies.  The  territory  pur- 
vast  purchase  added  1,171,931  square  chased  comprised  59,268  square  miles, 
miles  to  the  territory  of  the  United  Oregon. — The  treaty  with  Spain  in 
States,  including  Alabama  and  Mississippi  1821  settled  the  western  boundary  of  the 
soiith  of  the  parallel  of  31°;  all  of  Lou-  Louisiana  purchase  as  follows:  "  Begin- 
isiana,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  Indian  Terri-  iiing  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sabine,  in  the 
tory,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  North  C4ulf  of  Mexico;  up  the  west  bank  of  the 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and  Montana;  Sabine  to  the  thirty-second  degree  of  north 
Minnesota,  west  of  the  Mississippi;  Colo-  latitude;  thence  north  to  the  Red  River; 
rado  and  Wyoming,  east  of  the  Rocky  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Red  River  to 
Mountains;  and  Kansas,  with  the  excep-  the  one-hundredth  degree  of  longitude  east 
tion  of  the  southwestern  corner.  The  from  Greenwich ;  thence  north  to  the  Ar- 
western  boundary  was  not  finally  settled  kansas;  thence  along  the  south  bank  of  the 
until  after  the  purchase  of  Florida,  in  Arkansas  to  its  source;  thence  south  or 
1819.  north,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  forty- 
Florida  Purchase. — The  boundary  be-  second  degree  north  latitude,  and  along 
tween  Louisiana  and  Florida  had  been  that  parallel  to  the  Pacific  Ocean."  This 
long  in  dispute,  Spain  claiming  all  that  put  out  of  dispute  the  territory  comprising 
territory  south  of  the  parallel  of  31°  and  the  present  States  of  Washington.  Oregon, 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  the  Idaho,  and  the  western  part  of  Wyoming, 
United  States  fixing  it  at  the  Perdido  claimed  by  the  United  States  on  the 
River,  the  present  boundary  between  Flor-  grounds  of  discovery  (1792),  exploration 
ida  and  Alabama.  In  1810,  the  people  of  (1805),  and  settlement  (1811).  The 
west  Florida  met  at  Baton  Rouge  and  de-  boundary  between  the  States  of  Washing- 
clared  themselves  independent,  and  Gov-  ton  and  Idaho,  on  one  side,  and  Canada, 
ernor  Claiborne,  of  the  Territory  of  Or-  on  the  other,  was  finally  determined  in 
leans,  was  sent  by  the  President  to  take  1848. 

possession;   in   1812  the  Pearl  River  was  Texas. — In  1833,  Texas,  then  a  part  of 

made  the  eastern  boundary  of  Louisiana,  the  Mexican  Republic,  refused  to  remain 

and   the   remainder   of   west   Florida   was  a    part    of    Coahuila,    and    on    April     1 

annexed  to  Mississippi  Territory;  in  1813  formed    a   Mexican    State   constitution   of 

the  fort  and  city  of  Mobile  were  taken  by  its  own.     The  greater  part  of  its  popula- 

General    Wilkinson.     During    this    period  tion  had  emigrated  from  the  southwestern 

a   determination   of   gaining   east   Florida  part   of   the   United    States,    and,   on   the 

had  been  growing  rapidly,  and  Congress,  abolishment  of  the  State  constitutions,  in 

16 


I  Lake 
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opeka 


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lOLOSENGA   I 
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THE  SHADED  AREA  ALONQ 
THE  COAST  INDICATES  THE 
t,  SETTLED  PART  AT  THE 
CLOSE  OF  THE  REVOLUTION- 
ARY WAR. 


G     U    L    \f        of        M    ^ 

MAP  OF  THE 

u:n^ited  states 

slaowiug 

ACQUISITION  OF  TERRITORY 


MAKE  ID. 

Annexed  1808 


B  ^ 


n  a; 


^  ^ 


Scale  of  Mile 
0        50      100  200  300 


\ 


i-P— .^ 


^'^IIAWAlIAJi 


ISLANDS    ^gMnnexed  1898 


Ceded  by  Spain  1899 


poino  RICO 


:>         Mayapi; 
Ceded  by  Spain 


ATLAS  TIC 


BBEAS  SE 


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ACQUISITION    or    TERBITORY 


1835,  and  the  appointment  of  a  dictator, 
declared  itself  independent  of  Mexico, 
March  2,  1836.  After  a  brief  war,  dis- 
tinguished by  two  brutal  massacres  on  the 
part  of  the  Mexicans  at  Goliad  and  the 
Alamo  {q.  v.) ,  Houston,  the  Texan  com- 
mander, with  700  men,  met  Santa  Ana,  the 
Mexican  President,  with  5,000  men,  at  San 
Jacinto,  and  totally  defeated  him.  Santa 
Ana,  to  gain  his  liberty,  signed  a  treaty 
recognizing  the  independence  of  the  Repub- 
lic of  Texas.  This  treaty  was  never  rati- 
fied by  Mexico;  but  the  United  States,  and 
afterwards  England,  France,  and  Belgium, 
recognizing  the  new  republic,  its  indepen- 
dence was  practically  secured.  From  this 
time  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the 
United  States  became  a  great  political 
issue,  both  by  the  Southern  politicians, 
who  were  anxious  to  add  more  slave  terri- 
tory to  the  United  States,  and  by  Texas 
herself,  whose  finances  had  fallen  into 
fearful  disorder  through  careless  and 
extravagant  expenditures.  This  was  not 
made  possible  until  the  election  of  Polk 
to  the  Presidency,  when  the  campaign  cry 
of  the  South  was,  "  Texas  or  Disunion." 
The  first  resolutions  were  introduced  into 
'Congress  in  the  House,  Jan.  25,  1845; 
by  joint  resolution,  in  the  House,  Dec. 
16;  and  in  the  »Senate,  Dec.  22.  Texas 
was  admitted  as  a  State  without  the  for- 
mality of  a  treaty.  It  added  376,133 
square  miles  to  the  territory  of  the  United 
States. 

Mexico  and  California. — This  terri- 
tory, comprising  545,783  square  miles, 
and  including  the  present  States  of  Cali- 
fornia, Nevada,  and  Utah,  and  a  large 
])art  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and  part 
of  Colorado,  came  to  the  United  States  as 
a  result  of  the  Mexican  War  {q.  v.) , 
through  conquest  and  purchase.  The 
treaty,  known  as  the  treaty  of  Guada- 
loupe  Hidalgo,  was  signed  Feb.  2,  1848, 
and  was  ratified  by  the  Senate  March  10, 
the  United  States"  paying  $15,000,000  in 
addition  to  assuming  the  payment  of 
claims  of  American  citizens  against  Mex- 
ico amounting  to  $3,250,000. 

Gadsden  Purchase. — In  1853  the  United 
States  bought  from  Mexico  a  strip  of 
land,  now  forming  that  part  of  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  lying  south  of  the  Gila 
Eiver  and  extending  from  the  Rio  Grande, 
near  El  Paso,  on  the  east,  to  the  Colorado 

I.— B  r 


River  on  the  west.  Gen.  James  Gads- 
den {q.  V.)  was  at  that  time  minister  to 
jVIexico  and  negotiated  the  transfer,  and 
this  territory,  45,535  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent, has  always  borne  his  name. 

Alaska. — This  valuable  fur  and  mineral 
producing  country  was  first  claimed  by 
Russia  by  right  of  discovery.  By  treaty 
of  March  30,  1867,  ratified  by  the  Senate 
in  special  session,  June  20,  1867,  Russia 
ceded  the  whole  of  the  territory,  557,390 
square  miles  in  extent,  to  the  United 
States  for  $7,200,000.     See  Alaska. 

Haioaii. — In  January,  1896,  a  joint 
resolution  was  introduced  into  the  Lower 
House  of  the  United  States  Congress  pro- 
viding for  the  annexation  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  was  referred  to  the  commit- 
tee on  foreign  affairs.  On  June  16,  1897, 
a  treaty  was  signed  in  Washington  by 
representatives  of  both  governments  and 
transmitted  to  the  Senate.  The  commit- 
tee on  foreign  relations  reported  favor- 
ably upon  it,  but  the  Senate  adjourned 
without  action.  In  Hawaii,  the  treaty  was 
ratified  by  both  Houses  of  the  Congress  by 
iinanimous  vote,  Sept.  10.  Many  attempts 
were  made  in  later  sessions  of  Congress, 
but  it  was  not  till  June  6,  1898,  when  the 
United  States  Senate  adopted  a  direct  an- 
nexation resolution,  that  anything  was 
accomplished  towards  the  acquisition  of 
the  islands.  The  President  signed  the 
resolution  on  the  following  day,  and  or- 
dered the  cruiser  Philadelphia  to  proceed 
to  Honolulu  and  raise  the  American  flag. 
Commissioners  were  appointed  to  prepare 
a  plan  for  the  future  government  of  the 
islands,  and  formal  possession  was  taken 
on  Aug.  12,  1898.  See  Blount,  James  H.; 
Hawaii. 

Wake  Island. — This  low-lying  atoll  in 
the  midst  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  half-way 
between  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  the 
Philippines,  was  taken  possession  of,  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States,  by  a  land- 
ing-party under  the  command  of  Com- 
mander Edward  D.  Taussig,  of  the  U.  S.  S. 
Bennington,  Jan.  17,  1899.  Wake  Island 
is  said  to  have  been  by  rights  already 
American  territory,  since,  in  1851,  Ad- 
miral Wilkes  surveyed  the  place  and  as- 
serted title.  As  a  cable  station,  in  view 
of  the  laying  of  a  Pacific  cable,  it  will  be 
invaluable.     See  Wake  Island. 

Porto  Rico. — This  large  and  fertile  isl- 


Acquisition  of  territory— acrelius 


and,  together  with  its  outlying  smaller 
islands,  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  States  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  by  the  ratification  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  (1899).  At  the  time  of 
the  suspension  of  hostilities  General  Miles 
was  conducting  a  campaign  in  the  island. 
He  had  met  with  very  little  resistance, 
and  had  been  treated  by  the  natives  on 
every  hand  more  as  a  liberator  than  a  con- 
queror. The  island  has  valuable  natural 
resources  and  possesses  a  delightful  cli- 
mate.    See  Porto  Rico. 

Philippine  Islands. — After  his  great 
victory  in  Manila  Bay,  May  1,  1898,  Dew- 
ey refrained  from  attacking  the  city  until 
he  could  receive  co-operation  from  the 
land  forces.  General  Merritt,  as  first  mil- 
itary governor  of  the  Philippines,  was 
despatched  immediately  with  a  large  mil- 
itary force,  which  was  landed  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July.  The  first  land 
engagement  took  place  on  Aug.  9,  near 
Malate,  and  the  city  was  stormed  and  capt- 
ured on  Aug.  13,  one  day  after  the  sign- 
ing of  the  protocol,  a  fact  of  which  the 
American  generals  were  in  ignorance.  The 
final  treaty  of  peace  (1899)  ceded  the  en- 
tire group  of  islands  to  the  United  States 
upon  the  consideration  of  a  payment  of 
$20,000,000.     See    Philippine   Islands. 

Guam. — The  principal  island  of  the 
Ladrone  group,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was 
seized  by  the  United  States  naval  authori- 
ties on  June  21,  1898,  and  was  ceded  by 
Spain  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty 
of  peace  following  the  Spanish-American 
War.  Formal  American  possession  was 
taken  Feb.  1,  1899.  On  Oct.  4,  1900,  by 
order  of  the  Navy  Department,  Guam  was 
made  a  separate  naval  and  government 
station.  The  harbor  of  San  Luis  d'Api-a 
is  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world.     See  Agana;  Guam. 

Samoa. — The  independence  and  neutral- 
ity of  the  Samoan  Islands  were  guaran- 
teed in  1890  by  tripartite  agreement  be- 
tween Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the 
United  States.  The  political  situation  re- 
mained very  peaceable  until  1899,  when 
some  of  the  followers  of  Mataafa,  the  for- 
mer king,  then  in  exile,  instigated  a  revo- 
lution. This  was  quickly  suppressed  by 
the  interference  of  the  above  powers,  who 
landed  marines  and  put  the  insurgents  to 
flight.     Soon    after    quiet    had    been    re- 


stored negotiations  were  entered  into 
which  resulted  in  the  partitioning  of  the 
islands  and  the  surrendering  by  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  of  all  rights  to  the 
island  of  Tutuila,  containing  the  magnif- 
icent harbor  of  Pago  Pago,  and  all  other 
islands  of  the  Samoan  group  east  of  long. 
171°  W.  of  Greenwich.  The  treaty  was 
ratified  in  the  Senate,  Jan.  16,  1900,  and 
formal  possession  of  the  islands  was  taken 
by  the  President  on  March  16.  See 
Samoa;  Tutuila. 

Cibitu  and  Cagayan. — The  Peace  Com- 
missioners in  Paris  (1899)  who  nego- 
tiated the  transfer  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands from  Spain  to  the  United  States 
drew  a  geographical  boundary-line  fixed 
by  meridians  of  longitude  and  parallels 
of  latitude.  The  lines  described  a  paral- 
lelogram with  the  exception  that  there 
was  an  inset  in  the  southwestern  corner 
to  exclude  some  islands  off  the  coast  of 
Borneo.  A  year  after  the  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  Paris  (1899),  the  fact  was  dis- 
covered that  in  laying  down  these  boun- 
daries the  commissioners  had  excluded 
the  islands  of  Cibitu  and  Cagayan  of 
the  Philippine  group.  After  negotiations 
lasting  for  several  months,  in  which  Spain 
refused  to  recede  from  her  position  of 
ownership,  the  United  States,  in  July, 
1900,  in  order  to  remove  cause  of  possible 
irritation  as  well  as  to  protect  herself 
from  their  future  purchase  by  other  Eu- 
ropean powers,  bought  the  islands  from 
Spain  for  $100,000.  The  islands  are  small 
and  thinly  populated,  but  are  valuable 
for  their  pearl  and  shell  fisheries.  Rati- 
fications of  the  treaty  of  cession  were 
exchanged  in  Washington  on  March  23, 
1901. 

See  also  Annexed  Territory,  Status 
of;  Anti-Expansionists;  Atkinson,  Ed- 
ward; Bryan,  William  Jennings;  Im- 
perialism. 

Acre,  one  of  the  principal  land  meas- 
ures in  the  United  States.  The  English 
imperial  or  standard  acre,  by  statute 
(George  IV..  1824)  contains  4,840  square 
yards,  and  this  is  the  accepted  standard 
in  the  United  States. 

Acrelius,  Israel,  clergyman ;  born  in 
Osteraker,  Sweden,  Dec.  25,  1714;  was 
ordained  in  1743;  came  to  America  to 
preside  over  the  Swedish  congregations  in 
New    Sweden    in    1749.      His    work    was 


18 


ACROPOLIS— ADAIR 


marked  with  success,  but  after  seven 
years'  toil  he  was  forced,  to  resign  by  ill- 
health,  and  returned  to  Sweden.  His  pub- 
lications include  The  Swedish  Colonies  in 
America  (1759,  translated  into  English  in 
1874),  and  articles  on  America.  He  died 
in  Fellingsbro,  April  25,  1800.  See  New 
SwEDEjf,  Founding  of. 

Acropolis,  a  citadel,  usually  on  the 
summit  of  a  rock  or  hill.  The  most  cele- 
brated was  the  one  at  Athens. 

Acta  Diurna,  the  Roman  gazette  con- 
taining an  authorized  account  of  daily 
transactions.  This  was  exposed  daily  in 
the  Forum. 

Acuera,  a  Creek  Indian  cacique,  the 
territory  of  whose  people  in  Florida  was 
-early  invaded  by  De  Soto.  The  cruel- 
ties of  Narvaez  and  De  Soto  in  Florida 
aroused  among  the  native  tribes  feel- 
ings of  the  bitterest  hatred.  Narvaez 
caused  a  captive  cacique,  or  chief,  to  be 
mutilated  after  the  first  engagement  with 
the  hostile  Indians.  His  nose  was  cut 
off,  and  he  was  otherwise  disfigured :  and 
the  invader  caused  fierce  blood-hounds  to 
tear  the  chief's  mother  in  pieces  in  the 
presence  of  her  children.  Narvaez  sup- 
posed this  would  strike  terror,  and  make 
conquest  easy;  but  he  was  mistaken.  De 
Soto  had  blood-hounds,  iron  neck-collars, 
handcuffs,  chains,  and  instruments  of  tort- 
ure, wherewith  to  subdue  the  barbarians, 
who  were  really  less  barbarous  than  he. 
He  loaded  his  captives  with  chains,  and 
made  beasts  of  burden  of  them,  regardless 
of  age  or  sex.  After  some  acts  of  this 
kind,  he  sought  to  conciliate  Acuera,  whose 
territory  he  had  invaded,  for  he  was  pow- 
erful, and  commanded  many  warriors.  De 
Soto  invited  the  dusky  sovereign  to  a 
friendly  interview,  when  he  received  from 
Acuera  this  haughty  reply:  "Others  of 
your  accursed  race  [Narvaez  and  his 
men]  have,  in  years  past,  disturbed  our 
peaceful  shores.  They  have  taught  me 
what  you  are.  What  is  your  employment  ? 
To  wander  about  like  vagabonds  from  land 
to  land ;  to  rob  the  poor  and  weak :  to  be- 
tray the  confiding;  to  murder  the  defence- 
loss  in  cold  blood.  No!  ^vith  such  a  peo- 
ple I  want  neither  peace  nor  friendship. 
War — never-ending,  exterminating  war — 
is  all  I  ask.  You  boast  yourself  to  be 
valiant — and  so  you  may  be;  but  my 
faithful  warriors  are  not  less  brave,  and 


of  this  you  shall  one  day  have  proof,  for 
I  have  sworn  to  maintain  an  unsparing 
conflict  while  one  white  man  remains  in 
my  borders;  not  openly  in  the  battle-field, 
though  even  thus  we  fear  not  to  meet  you. 
but  by  stratagem,  ambush,  and  midnight 
surprisal."  De  Soto  then  demanded  that 
Acuera  should  yield  obedience  to  the  Span- 
ish monarch.  "  I  am  a  king  in  my  own 
land,"  said  the  cacique,  "  and  will  never 
become  the  vassal  of  a  mortal  like  my- 
self. Vile  and  pusillanimous  is  he  who 
submits  to  the  yoke  of  another  when  he 
may  be  free!  As  for  me  and  my  people, 
we  prefer  death  to  the  loss  of  liberty  and 
the  subjugation  of  our  country."  De  Soto 
could  never  pacify  Acuera,  and  during 
the  twenty  days  that  he  remained  in 
the  cacique's  dominions  his  command  suf- 
fered dreadfully.  A  Spaniard  could  not 
go  100  paces  from  his  camp  without  be- 
ing slain  and  his  severed  head  carried  in 
triumph  to  Acuera.  Fourteen  Castilians 
£0  perished,  and  many  were  severely 
wounded.  "  Keep  on !  robbers  and  trai- 
tors!" said  the  cacique.  "In  my  province 
and  in  Apalacha  you  will  be  treated  as 
you  deserve.  We  will  quarter  and  hang 
every  captive  on  the  highest  tree."  And 
they  did  so.     See  De  Soto  and  Narvaez. 

Adair,  James,  author;  lived  among  the 
Chickasaw  and  Cherokee  Indians  in  1735- 
75.  He  held  the  opinion  and  attempted  to 
show  that  the  American  Indians  were  de- 
scended from  the  Jews.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  History  of  the  American  Indians  (in 
which  he  elaborated  his  opinion),  and  of 
vocabularies  of  Indian  dialects. 

Adair,  John,  military  officer;  born  in 
Chester  county,  S.  C,  in  1759.  He  served 
in  the  Continental  army  during  the 
Revolution,  and  in  the  wars  against  the 
frontier  Indians  in  1791-93.  He  was 
United  States  Senator  in  Congress  in 
1805-6;  and  as  volunteer  aide  to  Gen- 
eral Shelby  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames, 
in  1813,  he  showed  much  bravery 
and  skill.  He  distinguished  himself  as 
commander  of  the  Kentucky  troops  in 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  in  January, 
1815.  From  1820  to  1824  he  was  govern- 
or of  Kentucky,  having  served  in  the  legis- 
lature of  that  State;  and  from  1831  to 
1833  was  a  Representative  in  Congress. 
He  died  in  Harrodsburg,  Ky.,  May  19, 
1840. 


19 


ADAIR— ADAMS 


Adair,  William  P.,  born  in  18:28.  He 
was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Cherokee  na- 
tion, and  commanded  a  brigade  of  Indians 
organized  by  Gen.  Albert  Pike  on  behalf 
of  the  Confederacy.  This  brigade  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.,  in 
1862.     He  died  in  1880. 

Adams  and  Liberty.    See  Paine,  R.  T. 

Adams,  Abigail  (Smith),  wife  of  Pres- 
ident John  Adams;  born  in  Weymouth, 
Mass.,  Nov.  23,  1744;  daughter  of  the  Rev. 
William  Smith;  M'as  married  Aug.  25,  1764, 
when  Mr.  Adams  was  a  rising  young  law- 
yer in  Boston.  In  1784  she  joined  her  hus- 
band in  France,  and  in  the  following  year 
went  with  him  to  London,  where  neither 
her  husband  nor  herself  received  the  cour- 
tesies due  their  position.  In  1789-1810 
she  resided  at  the  seat  of  the  national 
government,  and  passed  the  remainder  of 
her  life  in  the  Quincy  part  of  Braintree, 
dying.  Oct.  28,  1818.  Her  correspondence, 
preserved  in  Familiar  Letters  of  John 
Adams  and  His  Wife,  Abigail  Adams,  dur- 
ing the  Revolution,  throws  important  light 
upon  the  life  of  the  times  which  it 
covers. 

Adams,  Brooks,  author;  born  in  Quin- 
cy, Mass.,  June  24,  1848;  son  of  Charles 
Francis;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege in  1870;  spent  a  year  in  the  law 
school  there ;  was  secretary  to  his  father 
while  the  latter  was  serving  as  an  arbi- 
trator on  the  Alabama  Claims,  under  the 
Treaty  of  Washington;  and  after  his  re- 
turn from  Creneva  lie  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  and  practised  till  1881,  when  he  be- 
gan applying  himself  chiefly  to  literature. 
Besides  numerous  articles  in  magazines 
and  other  periodicals,  he  has  published  The 
Emancipation  of  Massachusetts,  The  Law 
of  Civilization  and  Decay,  etc. 

Adams,  Charles,  lawyer;  born  in  Ar- 
lington Vt.,  March  12,  1785;  educated 
himself  for  college,  and  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Vermont  in  1804.  Dur- 
ing the  Canadian  cjifficulties  of  1838  he 
was  the  friend  and  legal  adviser  of  Gen- 
eral Wool,  and  subsequently  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  the  events  of  that  uprising  under 
the  title  of  The  Patriot  War.  He  attain- 
ed a  lai'ge  practice  in  his  profession,  and 
was  a  voluminous  contributor  to  period- 
ical literature  on  the  public  events  of  his 
day.  He  died  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  Feb.  13, 
1861. 


Adams,  Charles  Follen,  humorous 
writer;  born  in  Dorcliester,  Mass.,  April 
21,  1842;  received  a  common-school  edu- 
cation; and  was  wounded  and  taken  pris- 
oner at  Gettysburg  while  serving  in  the 
Union  army.  Since  1872  he  has  become 
widely  known  by  his  humorous  poems  in 
German  dialect,  of  which  Leedle  Yawcob 
Strauss  and  other  Poems  and  Dialect 
Ballads  are  the  most  popular. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  statesman; 
born    in    Boston,    Mass.,    Aug.    18,    1807; 


CHARLES   FRANCIS   ADAMS. 

son  of  John  Quincy  Adams;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1825.  He  ac- 
companied his  father  to  St.  Petersburg 
and  England,  where  he  passed  much  of  his 
childhood  until  the  return  of  his  family 
to  America  in  1817.  Mr.  Adams  studied 
law  in  the  office  of  Daniel  Webster,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828,  but  never 
practised  it  as  a  vocation.  In  1829  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Peter  C.  Brooks,  of 
Boston.  For  five  j^ears  he  was  a  member 
of  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts.  Hav- 
ing left  the  Whig  Party,  he  was  a  candi- 
date of  the  Free-soil  Party  (q.  v.)  in 
1848  for  the  Vice-Presidency  of  the  United 
States,  Mr.  Van  Buren  being  the  candidate 
for  the  Presidency.  They  were  defeated. 
In  1850-56  Mr.  Adams  published  the  Life 
and  Works  of  John  Adams  (his  grand- 
father), in  10  volumes.  In  1859  he,  was 
elected  to  Congress  from  the  district  which 
his  father  long  represented.  He  was  then 
a  Republican  in  politics.  In  March,  1861, 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Great  Brit- 
ain,   where    he    managed    his    diplomatic 


20 


ADAMS,    CHARLES    FRANCIS 


duties  with  much  skill  during  one  of  the    you  and  our  whole  country — were  drawing 


most  trying  times  in  our  history — that  of 
the  Civil  War.  He  remained  as  American 
minister  in  London  until  1868,  when,  in 
February,  he  resigned.  In  1872  Mr.  Adams 
was  first  a  Liberal  Republican,  and  then 
a  Democrat,  in  politics.  His  labors  in  the 
field  of  literatuie  were  various.  From 
1845  to  1848  he  edited  a  daily  newspaper 
in  Boston,  and  was  long  either  a  regular 
or  an  occasional  contributor  to  the  North 
American  Revieio.  His  principal  task  was 
the  preparation  of  the  Life  and  Works  of 
John  Adams,  and  a  Life  of  John  Adams, 
in  2  volumes.  He  also  issued  the  Life 
and  Works  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  in 
12  volumes.  He  died  in  Boston,  Nov. 
21,  1886.  When  the  spirit  of  secession 
was  rampant  in  Congress  late  in  Decem- 
ber, 1860,  he  tried  to  soothe  the  passions 
of  the  Southern  jwliticians  by  offering  in 
the  House  Committee  of  Thirty- three  a  res- 
olution, "  That  it  is  expedient  to  propose 
an  amendment  to  the  Constitution,  to  the 
efl'ect  that  no  future  amendments  of  it  in 
regard  to  slavery  shall  be  made  unless  pro- 
posed by  a  slave  State  and  ratified  by  all 
the  States."  It  was  passed  by  only  three 
dissenting  voices   in   the   committee. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  lawyer  and 
historian;  borri  in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  27, 
1835;  second  son  of  Charles  Francis,  1st; 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1856,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  two  years 
afterwards.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  Union  army,  attaining  the 
rank  of  brevet  brigadier-general. 

He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Railway  Commissioners  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  18G9;  and  was  president  of 
the  Union  Pacific  Railway  Company  in 
1884-91.  In  1895  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  So- 
ciety. His  publications  include.  Railroads, 
their  Origin  and  Problems ;  Massachusetts, 
its  Historians  and  its  History;  Three 
Episodes  of  Massachusetts  History;  Life 
of  Charles  Francis  Adams;  Richard  Henry 
Dana,  a  Biography,  etc. 

The  Double  Anniversary,  "16  and  '63. — 
On  July  4,  1869,  he  delivered  the  follow- 
ing historical  address  at  Quincy,  Mass.: 


Six  years  ago,  on  this  anniversary,  we 
— and  not  only  we  who  stood  upon  the 
scarred  and  furrowed  field  of  battle,  but 


breath  after  the  struggle  of  Gettysburg. 
For  three  long  days  we  had  stood  the 
strain  of  conflict,  and  now,  at  last,  when 
the  nation's  birthday  dawned,  the  shat- 
tered rebel  columns  had  sullenly  with- 
d)awn  from  our  front,  and  we  drew  that 
long  breath  of  deep  relief  which  none  have 
ever  drawn  who  have  not  passed  in  safety 
through  the  shock  of  doubtful  battle.  Nor 
was  our  country  gladdened  then  by  news 
from  Gettysburg  alone.  The  army  that 
day  twined  noble  laurel  garlands  round 
the  proud  brow  of  the  mother-land.  Vicks- 
burg  was,  thereafter,  to  be  forever  asso- 
ciated with  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, and  the  glad  anniversary  rejoicings, 
as  they  rose  from  every  town  and  village 
and  city  of  the  loyal  North,  mingled  with 
the  last  sullen  echoes  that  died  away  from 
our  cannon  over  the  Cemetery  Ridge,  and 
were  answered  by  glad  shouts  of  victory 
from  the  far  Southwest.  To  all  of  us 
of  this  generation — and  especially  to  such 
of  us  as  were  ourselves  part  of  those  great 
events — this  celebration,  therefore,  now 
has  and  must  ever  retain  a  special  signif- 
icance. It  belongs  to  us,  as  well  as  to 
our  fathers.  As  upon  this  day,  ninety- 
three  years  ago,  this  nation  was  brought 
into  existence  through  the  efforts  of  oth- 
ers, so,  upon  this  day,  six  years  ago,  I  am 
disposed  to  believe  through  our  own  ef- 
forts, it  dramatically  touched  the  climax 
of  its  great  argument. 

The  time  that  has  since  elapsed  enables 
us  now  to  look  back  and  to  see  things  in 
their  true  proportions.  We  begin  to  real- 
ize that  the  years  we  have  so  recently 
passed  through,  though  we  did  not  appre- 
ciate it  at  the  time,  were  the  heroic  years 
of  American  history.  Now  that  their  pas- 
sionate excitement  is  over,  it  is  pleasant 
to  dwell  upon  them — to  recall  the  rising 
of  a  great  people — the  call  to  arms  as  it 
boomed  from  our  hill-tops  and  clashed 
from  our  steeples — the  eager  patriotism 
of  that  fierce  April  which  kindled  new 
sympathies  in  every  bosom,  which  caused 
the  miser  to  give  freely  of  his  wealth,  the 
wife  with  eager  hands  to  pack  the  knap- 
sack of  her  husband,  and  mothers,  with 
eyes  glistening  with  tears  of  pride,  to 
look  out  upon  the  glistening  bayonets  of 
their  boys;  then  came  the  frenzy  of  impa- 
tience and  the  defeat  entailed  upon  us  by 


21 


ADAMS,    CHARLES    FRANCIS 


rashness  and  inexperience,  before  our  na- 
tion settled  down,  solidly  and  patiently, 
to  its  work,  determined  to  save  itself  from 
destruction;  and  then  followed  the  long, 
weary  years  of  fear  and  hope,  until  at 
last  that  day  came  six  years  ago  which  we 
now  celebrate — the  day  which  saw  the 
flood-tide  of  rebellion  reach  high-water 
mark,  whence  it  never  after  ceased  to  re- 
cede. At  the  moment,  probably,  none  of 
us,  either  at  home  or  at  the  seat  of  war, 
realized  the  grandeur  of  the  situation — the 
dramatic  power  of  the  incidents,  or  the 
Titanic  nature  of  the  conflict.  To  you 
who  were  at  home — mothers,  fathers,  wives, 
sisters,  brothers,  citizens  of  the  common 
country,  if  nothing  else — the  agony  of  sus- 
pense, the  anxiety,  the  joy,  and,  too  often, 
the  grief  which  was  to  know  no  end, 
which  marked  the  passage  of  those  days, 
left  little  either  of  time  or  inclination  to 
dwell  upon  aught  save  the  horrid  reality 
of  the  drama.  To  others,  who  more  im- 
mediately participated  in  those  great 
events,  the  daily  vexations  and  annoy- 
ances— the  hot  and  dusty  day — the  sleep- 
less, anxious  night — the  rain  upon  the 
unsheltered  bivouac — the  deep  lassitude 
which  succeeded  the  excitement  of  action 
• — the  cruel  orders  which  recognized  no 
fatigue  and  made  no  allowance  for  labors 
undergone — all  these  small  trials  of  the 
soldier's  life  made  it  possible  to  but  few 
to  realize  the  grandeur  of  the  drama  in 
which  they  were  playing  a  part.  Yet  we 
were  not  wholly  oblivious  of  it.  Now  and 
then  I  come  across  strange  evidences  of 
this  in  turning  over  the  leaves  of  the  few 
weather-stained,  dog-eared  volumes  which 
were  the  companions  of  my  life  in  camp. 
The  title-page  of  one  bears  witness  to  the 
fact  that  it  was  my  companion  at  Gettys- 
burg, and  in  it  I  recently  found  some  lines 
of  Browning's  noble  poem  of  Saul  marked 
and  altered  to  express  my  sense  of  our 
situation,  and  bearing  date  upon  this  very 
5th  of  July.  The  poet  had  described  in 
them  the  fall  of  snow  in  the  spring-time 
from  a  mountain,  under  which  nestled  a 
valley;  the  altering  of  a  few  words  made 
them  well  describe  the  approach  of  our 
army  to  Gettysburg. 

"  Fold  on  fold,  all  at  once,  we  crowd  thun- 
drously   down   to   your   feet, 
And    there    fronts    you,    stark,    black    but 
alive  yet,  your  army  of  old, 


With  Its  rents,  the  successive  bequeathing 
of    conflicts    untold; 

Yea  ! — each  harm  got  in  fighting  your  bat- 
tles,  each  furrow  and   sear 

Of  its  head  thrust  "twixt  you  and  the  tem- 
pest— all  hail !  here  we  are  !" 

And  there  we  were,  indeed,  and  then 
and  there  was  enacted  such  a  celebration 
as  I  hope  may  never  again  be  witnessed 
there  or  elsewhere  on  another  4th  of  July. 
PJven  as  I  stand  here  before  you,  through 
the  lapse  of  years  and  the  shifting  expe- 
riences of  the  recent  past  visions  and 
memories  of  those  days  rise  thick  and  fast 
before  me.  We  did,  indeed,  crowd  thun- 
drously  down  to  their  feet!  Of  the  events 
of  those  three  terrible  days  I  may  speak 
with  feeling  and  yet  with  modesty,  for 
small  indeed  was  the  part  which  those 
with  whom  I  served  were  called  upon  to 
play.  When  those  great  bodies  of  infan- 
try drove  together  in  the  crash  of  battle, 
the  clouds  of  cavalry  which  had  hitherto 
covered  up  their  movements  were  swept 
aside  to  the  flanks.  Our  work  for  that 
time  was  done,  nor  had  it  been  an  easy  or 
a  pleasant  work.  The  road  to  Gettysburg 
had  been  paved  with  our  bodies  and  water- 
ed with  our  blood.  Three  weeks  before, 
in  the  middle  days  of  June,  I,  a  captain 
of  cavalry,  had  taken  the  field  at  the  head 
of  100  mounted  men,  the  joy  and  pride  of 
my  life.  Through  twenty  days  of  almost 
incessant  conflict  the  hand  of  death  had 
been  heavy  upon  us,  and  now,  upon  the 
eve  of  Gettysburg,  thirty-four  of  the  hun- 
dred only  remained,  and  our  comrades  were 
dead  upon  the  field  of  battle,  or  languish- 
ing in  hospitals,  or  prisoners  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy.  Six  brave  young  fellows 
we  had  buried  in  one  grave  where  they 
fell  on  the  heights  of  Aldie.  It  was  late 
on  the  evening  of  the  1st  of  July  that 
there  came  to  us  rumors  of  heavy  fighting 
at  Gettysburg,  near  40  miles  away.  The 
regiment  happened  then  to  be  detached, 
and  its  orders  for  the  2d  were  to  move 
in  the  rear  of  Sedgwick's  Corps  and  see 
that  no  man  left  the  column.  All  that 
day  we  marched  to  the  sound  of  the  can- 
non ;  Sedgwick,  very  grim  and  stern,  was 
pressing  forward  his  tired  men,  and  we 
soon  saw  that  for  once  there  would  be  no 
stragglers  from  the  ranks.  As  the  day 
grew  old,  and  as  we  passed  rapidly  up 
from    the   rear    to    the    head    of    the    col- 


22 


ADAMS,    CHARLES    FRANCIS 


umn,  the  roar  of  battle  grew  more  dis- 
tinct, until  at  last  we  crowned  a  hill,  and 
the  contest  broke  upon  us.  Across  the 
deep  valley,  some  2  miles  away,  we  could 
see  the  white  smoke  of  the  bursting 
shells,  while  below  the  sharp,  incessant 
rattle  of  the  musketry  told  of  the  fierce 
struggle  that  was  going  on.  Before  us  ran 
the  straight,  white,  dusty  road,  choked 
with  artillery,  ambulances,  caissons,  am- 
munition trains,  all  pressing  forward  to 
the  field  of  battle,  while  mixed  among 
them,  their  bayonets  gleaming  through  the 
dustlike  wavelets^  on  a  river  of  steel,  tired, 
footsore  hungry,  thirsty,  begrimed  with 
sweat  and  dust,  the  gallant  infantry  of 
Sedgwick's  Corps  hurried  to  the  sound 
of  the  cannon  as  men  might  have  flocked 
to  a  feast.  Moving  rapidly  forward,  we 
crossed  the  brook  which  runs  so  promi- 
nently across  the  map  of  the  field  of  bat- 
tle, and  halted  on  its  farther  side  to  await 
our  orders.  Hardly  had  I  dismounted 
from  my  horse  when,  looking  back,  I  saw 
that  the  head  of  the  column  had  reached 
the  brook  and  deployed  and  halted  on  its 
other  bank,  and  already  the  stream  was 
filled  with  naked  men  shouting  with  pleas- 
ure as  they  washed  off  the  sweat  of  their 
long  day's  march.  Even  as  I  looked,  the 
noise  of  the  battle  grew  louder,  and  soon 
the  symptoms  of  movement  were  evident. 
The  rappel  was  heard,  the  bathers  hur- 
riedly clad  themselves,  the  ranks  were 
formed,  and  the  sharp,  quick  snap  of  the 
percussion-caps  told  us  the  men  were  pre- 
paring their  weapons  for  action.  Almost 
immediately  a  general  officer  rode  rapidly 
to  the  front  of  the  line,  addressed  to  it  a 
few  brief,  energetic  words,  the  short,  sharp 
order  to  move  by  the  flank  was  given, 
followed  immediately  by  the  '  double 
quick,'  the  officer  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  column,  and  that  brave  infan- 
try, which  had  marched  almost  40  miles 
since  the  setting  of  yesterday's  sun— which 
during  that  day  had  hardly  known  either 
sleep  or  food  or  rest  or  shelter  from  the 
July  heat — now,  as  the  shadows  grew 
long,  hurried  forward  on  the  run  to  take 
its  place  in  the  front  of  battle,  and  to  bear 
up  the  reeling  fortunes  of  the  day. 

It  is  said  that,  at  the  crisis  of  Solfe- 
rino,  Marshal  MacMahon  appeared  with 
his  corps  upon  the  field  of  battle,  his  men 
having   run   for    7    miles.     We   need   not 


23 


go  abroad  for  examples  of  endurance  and 
soldierly  bearing.  The  achievement  of 
Sedgwick  and  the  brave  6th  Coi'ps,  as  they 
marched  upon  the  field  of  Gettysburg  on 
that  second  day  of  July,  far  excels  the 
vaunted  efforts  of  the  French  Zouaves. 

Twenty-four  hours  later  we  stood  upon 
that  same  ground;  many  dear  friends  had 
yielded  up  their  young  lives  during  the 
hours  which  had  elapsed,  but,  though 
20,000  fellow-creatures  were  wounded  or 
dead  around  us,  though  the  flood-gates  of 
heaven  seemed  open  and  the  torrents  fell 
upon  the  quick  and  the  dead,  yet  the  ele- 
ments seemed  electrified  with  a  certain 
magnetic  influence  of  victory,  and,  as  the 
great  army  sank  down  overwearied  in  its 
tracks,  it  felt  that  the  crisis  and  danger 
was  passed — that  Gettysburg  was  im- 
mortal. 

May  I  not,  then,  well  express  the  hope 
that  never  again  may  we  or  ours  be  called 
upon  so  to  celebrate  this  anniversary? 
And  yet  now  that  the  passionate  hopes 
and  fears  of  those  days  are  all  over — now 
that  the  distracting  doubts  and  untold  anx- 
ieties are  buried  and  almost  forgotten, 
we  love  to  remember  the  gathering  of  the 
hosts,  to  hear  again  in  memory  the  shock 
of  the  battle,  and  to  wonder  at  the  mag- 
nificence of  the  drama.  The  passion  and 
the  excitement  is  gone,  and  we  can  look 
at  the  work  we  have  done  and  pronounce 
upon  it.  I  do  not  fear  the  sober  second 
judgment.  Our  work  was  a  good  work;  it 
was  well  done,  and  it  was  done  thoroughly. 
Some  one  has  said,  '  Happy  is  the  people 
which  has  no  history.'  Not  so!  As  it  is 
better  to  have  loved  and  lost  than  never 
to  have  loved  at  all,  so  it  is  better  to  have 
lived  greatly,  even  though  we  have  suffered 
greatly,  than  to  have  passed  a  long  life  of 
inglorious  ease.  Our  generation — yes,  we 
ourselves — have  been  a  part  of  great  things. 
We  have  suffered  greatly  and  greatly  re- 
joiced; we  have  drunk  deep  of  the  cup 
of  joy  and  of  sorrow;  we  have  tasted  the 
agony  of  defeat;  and  we  have  supped  full 
with  the  pleasures  of  vietorj^  We  have 
proved  ourselves  equal  to  great  deeds,  and 
have  learned  what  qualities  were  in  us, 
which,  in  more  peaceful  times,  we  our- 
selves did  not  suspect. 

And,  indeed,  I  would  here,  in  closing, 
fain  address  a  few  words  to  such  of  you, 
if   any   such   are   here,   who,   like   myself. 


ADAMS 


may   have   been   soldiers   during   the   War  country  and  not  to  tlie  exigencies  of  party 

of  the  Rebellion.     We  should  never  more  politics;  it  is  for  us  ever  to  bear  in  mind 

be   partisans.      We   have   been   a   part   of  the  higher  allegiance  we  have  sworn,  and 

great  events  in  the  service  of  the  common  to  remember  that  he  who  has  once  been  a 

country,  we  have  worn  her  uniforms,  we  soldier  of  the  mother-land  degrades  him- 

have  received   her   pay,   and  devoted  our-  self  forever  when  he  becomes  the  slave  of 

selves,  to  the  death  if  need  be,  in  her  ser-  faction.     Then,  at  last,  if  through  life  we 

vice.      When   we   were   blackened    by    the  ever   bear   these   lessons   freshly   in   mind, 

smoke   of   Antietam,   we   did   not   ask   or  will  it  be  well  for  us,  will  it  be  well  for 

care    whether    those    who    stood    shoulder  our    country,    will    it    be    well    for    those 

to  shoulder  beside  us,  whether  he  who  led  ^^'hose  name  we  bear,  that  our  bones  also 

us,  whether  those  who  sustained  us,  were  do  not  moulder  with  those  of  our   brave 

Democrats   or   Eepublicans,   Conservatives  comrades  beneath  the  sods  of  Gettysburg, 

or    Radicals;    we    asked    only    that    they  or  that  our  graves  do  not  look  down  on 

might  prove  as  true  as  was  the  steel  we  the    swift  -  flowing    Mississippi    from    the 

grasped,    and    as    brave    as    we    ourselves  historic  heights   of  Vicksburg. 

would   fain   have   been.      When   we   stood  Adams,     Charles    Kendall,    educator 

like  a  wall  of  stone  vomiting  fire  from  the  and   historian;    born   in  Derby,   Vt.,   Jan. 

heights  of  Gettysburg,   nailed  to   our   po-  24,  1835;  was  graduated  at  the  University 

sition  through  three  long  days  of  mortal  of  Michigan,  and  continued  his  studies  in 

hell,  did  we  ask  each  other  whether  that  Germany,  France,  and  Italy.     In  1867-85 

brave  officer  who  fell  while  gallantly  lead-  he  was  Professor  of  History  in  the  Uni- 

ing  the  coimter-charge,  Avhether  that  cool  versity  of  Michigan;  in  1885-92  was  pres- 

gunner   steadily   serving   his   piece   before  ident  of  Cornell   University;    in   1892  be- 

us    midst    the    storm    of    shot    and    shell,  came  president  of  the  University  of  Wis- 

v/hether  the  poor,  wounded,  mangled,  gasp-  consin;  and  from  that  year  till  1895  was 

ing  comrades,  crushed  and  torn,  and  dying  editor-in-chief    of    the    revised    edition    of 

in  agony  around  us,  had  voted   for   Lin-  Johnson's   Universal  Cyclopcedia.     He  has 

coin  or  Douglas,  for  Breckenridge  or  Bell?  published   many   monographs    and    papers 

We  then  were  full  of  other  thoughts.     We  in  reviews,  and  Democracy  and  Monarchy 

prized  men  for  what  they  were  worth  to  in  France;   Manual  of  Historical  Litera- 

the  common  country  of  us  all,  and  recked  ture;   British   Orations;    Christopher   Co- 

not  of  empty  words.     Was  the  man  true,  liunbus,  his  Life  and  Work,  etc. 

was  he  brave,  was  he  earnest,  was  all  we  Adams,  Cyrus  Cornelius,  geographer; 

thought  of  then,  not  did  he  vote  or  think  born    in    Naperville,    111.,    Jan.    7,    1849; 

with  us,  or  label  himself  with  our  party  was   educated   at   the   University   of   Chi- 

name.    This  lesson  let  us  try  to  remember,  cago,   in    1876.      On   the   founding   of   the 

We  cannot  give  to  party  all  that  we  once  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and   Sciences, 

offered  to  country,  but  our  duty  is  not  yet  was    chosen    president    of    its    department 

done.     We  are  no  longer,  what  we  have  of  geography.     He  is  widely  known  as  a 

been,   the   young   guard   of   the    republic;  writer      and      lecturer      on      geographical 

we   have   earned   an   exemption   from   the  topics;     has    travelled     extensively;     and 

clangers  of  the  field  and  camp,  and  the  old  was     a     delegate     to     the     International 

musket  or  the  crossed  sabres  hang  harm-  Geographical    Congress,    in   London,    Eng- 

le^  over  our  winter  fires,  never  more  to  be  land,  in  1895,  and  a  speaker  at  the  Afri- 

grasped  in  these  hands  henceforth  devoted  can   Congress,   in   Atlanta,   Ga.,   the   same 

to  more  peaceful  labors ;  but  the  duties  of  year.      He   has   made   a   special    study   of 

the  citizen,  and  of  the  citizen  who  has  re-  the  geography  of  Africa,  and  has  collected 

ceived  his  baptism  in  fire,  are  still  incum-  for    the    Brooklyn    Institute    over    2,500 

bent  upon  us.     Though  young  in  years,  we  specimens   of  appliances   used   in   the  ten 

should  remember  that  henceforth,  and  as  principal   countries   of   the  world   in   geo- 

long  as  we  live  in  the  land,  we  are  the  graphical  education. 

ancients,  the  veterans  of  the  republic.     As  Adams,    Fort,   one  of   the   largest  and 

such,  it  is  for  us  to  protect  in  peace  what  strongest   defensive  works   in   the   United 

we  preserved  in  war;  it  is  for  us  to  look  States;     near    Brenton    Cove,    Sy,    miles 

at  all  things  with  a  view  to  the  common  from    the    city    of    Newport,    R.    I.      For 

24 


ADAMS 


several  years  the  War  Department  lias 
been  engaged  in  providing  for  the  most 
thorough  fortification  of  Newport  Har- 
bor. In  1894  preliminary  plans  were 
completed  calling  for  batteries  of  six- 
teen mortars  each,  to  be  grouped  in  sec- 
tions of  four  mortars,  and  provided  with 
a  casemate  for  the  gunners,  and  a  wall 
of  sufficient  strength  to  resist  hostile  at- 
tack. Two  of  these  liatteries  were  planned 
to  be  erected  at  Dutch  Island  and  Fort 
Adams.  At  both  of  these  points  there 
were  already  torpedo  casements.  The  new 
battery  at  Fort  Adams  was  designed  to 
assist  in  fortifying  the  main  entrance  to 
Narraganset  Bay,  while  the  one  at 
Dutch  Island  would  aid  in  resisting  the 
approach  of  an  enemy  through  what  is 
called  West  Passage.  Fort  Adams 
mounts  460  guns,  and  besides  being  a 
work  of  protection  for  the  city  and  har- 
bor of  Newport,  it  also  protects  the 
United  States  torpedo  station  on  Goat 
Island,  and  the  training  station  for  naval 
apprentices  and  the  Naval  War  College, 
both  on  Coasters  Harbor  Island. 

Adams,  George  Burton,  educator  and 
historian;  born  in  Vermont  in  1851;  Pro- 
fessor of  History  in  Yale  University.  His 
late  works  include:  Civilization  during 
the  Middle  Ages;  Why  Americans  Dislike 
England;  The  Growth  of  the  French  Na- 
tion; and  European  History,  an  Outline 
of  its  Development. 

Adams,  Hannah,  historian;  born  in 
Medfield,  Mass.,  in  1755.  By  an  early 
fondness  for  study,  which  was  promoted 
by  her  father,  a  man  of  literary  tastes,  she 
obtained  a  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek 
from  some  divinity  students  broading  at 
her  father's  house  before  she  had  arrived 
at  full  womanhood.  Her  father,  a  shop- 
keeper, failed  in  business  when  she  was 
seventeen  years  of  age,  and  his  children 
were  compelled  to  help  themselves.  Dur- 
ing the  war  for  independence  she  sup- 
ported herself  by  teaching  and  lace-mak- 
ing. Miss  Adams  wrote  a  History  of  the 
Jeivs,  in  which  she  was  assisted  by  the 
Abbe  Gregoire,  witn  whom  she  corre- 
sponded. She  also  wrote  a  History  of 
New  England,  published  in  1799.  She 
also  wrote  books  on  religious  subjects ; 
and,  in  1814,  published  a  Controversy  with 
Dr.  Morse  (Rev.  Jedidiah).  Her  auto- 
biography,  continued  by  Mrs.  G.   G.  Lee, 


was  published  in  1832.  Miss  Adams  was 
small  in  stature,  very  deaf  in  her  old  age, 
fond  of  strong  tea,  and  an  inveterate 
snuff-taker.  She  derived  very  little  pe- 
cuniary gains  from  her  writings;  but  her 
friends  established  a  comfortable  annuity 
for  her.  She  was  one  of  the  pioneer 
literary  women  of  the  United  States,  pos- 
sessing rare  modesty  and  great  purity  of 
character.  She  died  in  Brookline,  Mass., 
Nov.  15,  1831.  Her  remains  were  the 
first  interred  in  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery. 

Adam.s,  Henry,  historian;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  1(5,  1838;  third  son 
of  Charles  Francis,  1st;  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  College  in  1858;  acted  as  pri- 
vate secretary  to  his  father  while  the 
latter  was  American  minister  to  Great 
Britain,  in  1861-68;  was  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  History  at  Harvard  in  1870-77; 
and  editor  of  the  North  American  Revieio 
in  1870-76.  His  principal  works  are, 
Historical  Essays;  Documents  Relating 
to  Neiv  England  Federalism ;  History  of 
Ihe  United  States  from  1801  to  1817  (9 
volumes) . 

Adams,  Henry  A.,  Jr.  ;  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania in  1833.  Graduated  at  Annapo- 
lis in  1851'.  Took  part  in  the  engagement 
with  the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  Canton 
Piver,  China,  in  1854.  Was  on  the 
BrooJclyn  at  the  passage  of  Forts  St. 
Philip  and  Jackson  in  1802,  and  also 
participated  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Fisher. 
Was  highly  praised  by  Admiral  Porter 
in  his  official  despatches. 

Adams,  Henry  C.  ;  born  in  Davenport, 
la.,  1861.  Graduated  from  Iowa  Col- 
lege, 1874.  Professor  of  Political  Econo- 
my in  the  University  of  Michigan  since 
1887.  Director  of  the  division  of  trans- 
portation of  the  eleventh  census ;  statis- 
tician to  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
since  1887;  president  American  Economic 
Association  from  189.5-97.  He  has  writ- 
ten Lectures  on  Political  Economy ;  State 
in  Relation  to  Industrial  Action;  Public 
Debts:  The  Science  of  Finance. 

Adams,  Herbert  Baxter,  historian 
and  editor;  born  in  Shutesbury,  Mass., 
April  16,  1850;  was  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  in  1872  and  at  Heidelberg 
University  in  1876;  and  in  1878-81  was 
successively  Associate  Professor  and  Pro- 
fessor of  History  in  Johns  Hopkins  LTni- 
versity;  also  in  1878-81  lecturer  in  Smith 


25 


ADAMS 


College,  Northampton,  Mass.  He  had 
been  for  many  years  secretary  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  and  edi- 
tor of  its  Reports,  editor  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins  Studies  in  Historical  and  Politi- 
cal Science,  and  editor  of  Contributions 
to  American  Educational  History,  pub- 
lished by  the  United  States  board  of  edu- 
cation. He  wrote  a  large  number  of  edu- 
cational and  historical  monographs.  He 
died  in  Amherst,  Mass.,  July  30,  1901. 


Adams,  Isaac,  inventor;  born  in 
Rochester,  N.  H.,  in  180.3;  learned  the 
cabinet-maker's  trade;  in  1824  settled  in 
Boston  and  worked  in  a  machine  shop. 
He  invented  the  printing-press  to  which 
his  name  was  given  in  1828,  and  two 
years  later  it  was  perfected  and  soon 
came  to  be  generally  used.  In  1840  he 
was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  Senate. 
He  died  in  Sandwich,  N.  H.,  July  19, 
1883. 


ADAMS,    JOHN 


Adams,  John,  second  President  of  the 
United  States;  from  1797  to  1801;  Fed- 
eralist; born  in  Braintree  (near 
Quincy),  Mass.,  Oct.  30,  1735.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1755, 
and  immediately  afterwards  taught  school 
at  Worcester,  where  he  began  the  study  of 
law.  His  father  was  in  moderate  cir- 
cumstances— a  selectman  and  a  farmer. 
Beginning  the  profession  of  law  in  Brain- 
tree  in  1758,  he  soon  acquired  a  good 
practice;  and,  when  he  was  twenty-nine 
years  of  age,  he  married  Abigail  Smith, 
an  accomplished  woman  possessed  of  great 
common- sense'.  His  first  appearance  in 
the  political  arena  was  as  author  of  In- 
structions of  the  Toivn  of  Braintree  to 
its  Representatives  on  the  Subject  of  the 
Stamp  Act,  which  was  adopted  by  over 
forty  towns.  Associated  Avith  Gridley 
and  Otis  in  supporting  a  memorial  ad- 
dressed to  the  governor  and  council,  pray- 
ing that  the  courts  might  proceed  with- 
out the  use  of  stamps,  Adams  opened  the 
case  by  declaring  that  the  Stamp  Act 
was  void,  as  Parliament  had  no  right  to 
make  such  a  law.  He  began  early  to 
write  political  essays  for  the  newspapers; 
and,  in  1768,  he  went  to  Boston,  when  the 
town  was  greatly  excited  by  political  dis- 
turbances. There  he  was  counsel  for  Cap- 
tain Preston  in  the  case  of  the  "  Boston 
Massacre  "  (see  Boston),  and  in  the  same 
year  (1770)  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in 
the  General  Court.  From  that  time  John 
Adams  was  a  leader  among  the  patriots 
in  Massachusetts.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the.  first  Continental  Congress  (1774), 
where  he  took  a  leading  part.  Return- 
ing, he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Pro- 
vincial   Congress.     He    was    an    efficient 


speaker  and  most  useful  committee-man 
in  the  Continental  Congress  until  he  was 
appointed  commissioner  to  France  late 
in  1777,  to  supersede  Deane.  He  advo- 
cated, helped  to  frame,  voted  for,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
and  he  was  a  most  efficient  member  of 
the  Board  of  War  from  June,  1776, 
until  December,  1777.  He  reached 
Paris  April  8,  1778,  where  he  found  a 
feud  between  Frankliir  and  Lee,  two 
other  commissioners.  He  advised  in- 
trusting that  mission  to  one  commis- 
sioner, and  Franklin  was  made  sole 
ambassador.  He  Avas  appointed  minister 
(1779)  to  treat  with  Great  Britain  for 
peace,  and  sailed  for  France  in  November. 
He  did  not  serve  as  commissioner  there, 
but,  in  July,  1780,  he  went  to  Holland  to 
negotiate  a  loan.  He  was  also  received 
by  the  States-General  as  United  States 
minister,  April  19,  1782.  He  obtained  a 
loan  for  Congress  of  $2,000,000,  and  made 
a  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  October,  and  assisted 
in  negotiating  the  preliminary  treaty  of 
peace.  With  Franklin  and  Jay,  he  nego- 
tiated a  treaty  of  commerce  with  Great 
Britain ;  and,  in  the  following  winter,  he 
negotiated  for  another  Dutch  loan. 

In  1785  Adams  went  as  minister  to  the 
English  Court,  and  there  he  prepared  his 
Defence  of  the  American  Constitution. 
Being  coldly  received,  he  returned  home, 
and,  in  1788.  was  elected  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States  under  the  national  Con- 
stitution. He  sustained  the  policy  of 
Washington  through  the  eight  years  of  his 
administration,  opposed  the  French  Revo- 
lution, and  was  a  strong  advocate  for  the 
neutrality  of  the  United  States.     In  1796 


26 


ADAMS,    JOHN 


he  was  chosen  President  by  a  small  ma- 
jority over  Jefferson,  and  his  administra- 
tion was  vehemently  opposed  by  the  new 
party  known  as  Republicans,  led  by  the 
latter,  its  real  founder.  He  had  much 
trouble  with  the  French  Directory 
throughout  his  entire  administration,  and 
drew  upon  himself  great  blame  for  favor- 
ing the  Alien  and  Sedition  Law.  In  his 
eagerness  for  re-election  Adams  offended  a 
powerful  faction  of  his  party,  and  was 
beaten  by  Jefferson  at  the  election  in 
1800.  Then  he  retired  to  private  life, 
where  he  watched  the  course  of  events 
Vv'ith  great  interest  for  twenty-five  years 
longer,  dying  July  4,  1826.  His  death  oc- 
curred on  the  same  day,  and  at  almost  the 
same  hour,  as  that  of  Jefferson,  his  col- 
league on  the  drafting  committee  and  in 
signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence, fifty  years  before.  His  biography, 
diary,  essays,  and  correspondence  were 
edited  and  published,  in  10  octavo  vol- 
umes, by  his  grandson,  Charles  Francis 
Adams.  Though  courteous  in  his  manner 
usually,  he  was,  at  times,  irritable  and 
imperious.     See    Cabinet,    President's. 

While  he  was  teaching  school  at  Worces- 
ter, in  1755,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Nathan 
'Webb,  in  which  he  remarked :  "  Mighty 
states  and  kingdoms  are  not  exempted 
from  change.  .  .  .  Soon  after  the  Reforma- 
tion, a  few  people  came  over  into  this  new 
world  for  conscience'  sake.  This  appar- 
ently trivial  incident  may  transfer  the 
great  seat  of  empire  to  America.  ...  If 
we  can  remove  the  turbulent  Gallics,  our 
people,  according  to  the  exaetest  calcula- 
tions, will,  in  another  century,  become 
more  numerous  than  in  England  itself. 
The  united  force  of  Europe  will  not  be 
able  to  subdue  us.  The  only  way  to  keep 
us  from  setting  up  for  ourselves  is  to  dis- 
unite us."  Less  than  thirty  years  after- 
wards the  prophet  stood  before  the  mon- 
arch of  England  as  the  representative  of 
an  American  republic,  where,  only  ten 
years  before,  were  fiourishing  English  col- 
onies. And  just  a  century  after  that 
prophecy  was  uttered  the  number  and 
strength  of  the  people  here  exceeded  the 
calculation  of  young  Adams.  The  popula- 
tion then  was  more  than  double  that  of 
England;  and,  while  his  country  was 
fiercely  torn  by  civil  war,  its  government 
defied  the  power  of  Great  Britain,  France, 


Spain,  and  the  Papal  States,  whose  rulers 
were  enemies  of  republican  government. 
Lord  Kanes  uttered  a  similar  prophecy  in 
1765. 

On  June  1,  1785,  he  was  introduced  by 
the  Marquis  of  Carmarthen  to  the  King 
of  Great  Britain  as  ambassador  extraor- 
dinary from  the  United  States  of  America 
to  the  Court  of  London.  The  inexecution 
of  the  treaty  of  peace  on  the  part  of  Great 
Britain  had  threatened  an  open  rupture 
between  the  two  nations.  Adams  was  sent 
with  full  powers  to  arrange  all  matters  in 
dispute.  His  mission  was  almost  fruit- 
less. He  found  the  temper  of  the  British 
people,  from  the  peasant  up  to  the  mon- 
arch, very  unfriendly  to  the  United  States. 
He  was  never  insulted,  but  the  chilliness 
of  the  social  atmosphere  and  the  studied 
neglect  of  his  official  representations  often 
excited  hot  indignation  in  his  bosom.  But 
his  government,  under  the  old  confedera- 
tion, was  so  weak  and  powerless  that  he 
was  compelled  to  endure  the  hauteur  of 
British  officials  in  silence.  They  gave  him 
to  understand  that  they  would  make  no 
arrangements  about  commercial  relations 
between  the  two  governments;  and  when 
he  proposed  to  his  own  government  to  pass 
countervailing  navigation  laws  for  the 
benefit  of  American  commerce,  he  was  met 
by  the  stern  fact  that  it  possessed  no  pow- 
er to  do  so.  At  length,  believing  his  mis- 
sion to  be  useless,  and  the  British  govern- 
ment sturdily  refusing  to  send  a  minister 
to  the  United  States,  Mr.  Adams  asked 
and  obtained  permission  to  return  home. 

Mr.  Adams  saw  with  alarm  the  con- 
tagion of  revolution  that  went  out  from 
Paris,  in  1789,  affecting  England,  and,  in 
a  degree,  his  own  country.  It  was  differ- 
ent, in  form  and  substance,  from  that 
which  had  made  his  own  people  free.  With 
a  view  to  avert  its  evil  tendencies,  he 
Avrote  a  series  of  articles  for  a  newspaper, 
entitled  Discourses  on  Davila.  These 
contained  an  analysis  of  Davila's  History 
of  the  Civil  War  in  France,  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  In  those  essays  he  main- 
tained that,  as  self-esteem  was  the  great 
spring  of  human  activity,  it  was  impor- 
tant in  a  popular  government  to  provide 
for  the  moderate  gratification  of  a  desire 
for  distinction,  applause,  and  admiration. 
He  therefore  advocated  a  liberal  use  of 
titles  and  ceremonial  honors  for  those  in 


ADAMS,    JOHN 


ofiice,  and  an  aristocratic  Senate.  He  pro- 
posed a  popular  Assembly  on  the  broadest 
democratic  basis  to  counteract  any  undue 
influence;  and  to  keep  in  check  encroach- 
ments upon  each  other,  he  recommended 
a  powerful  executive.  The  publication  of 
these  essays  at  that  time  was  vmfortunate, 
when  jealousy  was  rife  in  the  public  mind 
concerning  the  national  Constitution.  His 
ideas  were  so  cloudily  expressed  that  his 
meaning  was  misunderstood  by  many  and 
misinterpreted  by  a  few.  He  was  charged 
with  advocating  a  monarchy  and  a  hered- 
itary Senate.  The  essays  disgusted  Jeffer- 
son, who  for  a  time  cherished  the  idea  that 
Hamilton,  Adams,  Jay,  and  others  were 
at  the  head  of  a  conspiracy  to  overthrow  the 
republican  institutions  of  the  United  States. 
The  Threatening  Attitude  of  France. — 
On  May  16,  1797,  President  Adams  com- 
municated the  following  message  to  the 
Congress  on  the  serious  relations  which 
had  sprung  up  between  the  United  States 
and  France:  

Gentlemen  of  the  Senate  and  Gentlemen 
of  the  House  of  Representatives, — The  per- 
sonal inconveniences  to  the  members  of 
the  Senate  and  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives in  leaving  their  families  and 
private  affairs  at  this  season  of  the  year 
are  so  obvious  that  I  the  more  regret  the 
extraordinary  occasion  which  has  rendered 
the  convention  of  Congress  indispensable. 

It  would  have  afforded  me  the  highest 
satisfaction  to  have  been  able  to  con- 
gratulate you  on  the  restoration  of  peace 
to  the  nations  of  Europe  whose  animosities 
have  endangered  our  tranquillity;  but  we 
have  still  abundant  cause  of  gratitude 
to  the  Supreme  Dispenser  of  national 
blessings  for  general  health  and  prom- 
ising seasons,  for  domestic  and  social  hap- 
piness, for  the  rapid  progress  and  ample 
acquisitions  of  industry  through  extensive 
territories,  for  civil,  political,  and  religious 
liberty.  While  other  states  are  desolated 
with  foreign  war  or  convulsed  with  intes- 
tine divisions,  the  United  States  present 
the  pleasing  prospect  of  a  nation  governed 
by  mild  and  equal  laws,  generally  satisfied 
with  the  possession  of  their  rights,  neither 
envying  the  advantages  nor  fearing  the 
power  of  other  nations,  solicitous  only  for 
the  maintenance  of  order  and  justice  and 
the    preservation     of    liberty,     increasing 


daily  in  their  attachment  to  a  system  of 
government  in  proportion  to  their  experi- 
ence of  its  utility,  yielding  a  ready  and 
general  obedience  to  laws  flowing  from  the 
reason  and  resting  on  the  only  solid  foun- 
dation— the  affections  of  the  people. 

It  is  with  extreme  regret  that  I  shall 
be  obliged  to  turn  your  thoughts  to  other 
circumstances,  which  admonish  us  that 
some  of  these  felicities  may  not  be  lasting. 
But  if  the  tide  of  our  prosperity  is  full  and 
a  reflux  commencing,  a  vigilant  circumspec- 
tion becomes  us,  that  we  may  meet  our  re- 
verses with  fortitude  and  extricate  ourselves 
from  their  consequences  with  all  the  skill 
we  possess  and  all  the  efforts  in  our  power. 

In  giving  to  Congress  information  of  the 
state  of  the  Union  and  recommending  to 
their  consideration  such  measures  as  ap- 
pear to  me  to  be  necessary  or  expedient, 
according  to  my  constitutional  duty,  the 
causes  ^nd  the  objects  of  the  present  ex- 
traordinary session  will  be  explained. 

After  the  President  of  the  United  States 
received  information  that  the  French  gov- 
ernment had  expressed  serious  discontents 
at  some  proceedings  of  the  government  of 
these  States  said  to  affect  the  interests 
of  France,  he  thought  it  expedient  to  send 
to  that  country  a  new  minister,  fully 
instructed  to  enter  on  such  amicable  dis- 
cussions and  to  give  such  candid  explana- 
tions as  might  happily  remove  the  dis- 
cfintents  and  suspicions  of  the  French 
government  and  vindicate  the  conduct  of 
the  United  States.  For  this  purpose  he 
selected  from  among  his  fellow-citizens  a 
character  whose  integrity,  talents,  experi- 
ence, and  services  had  pla'ced  him  in  the 
rank  of  the  most  esteemed  and  respected 
in  the  nation.  The  direct  object  of  his 
mission  was  expressed  in  his  letter  of  cre- 
dence to  the  French  Republic,  being  "  to 
maintain  that  good  understanding  which 
from  the  commencement  of  the  alliance  had 
subsisted  between  the  two  nations,  and  to 
efface  unfavorable  impressions,  banish 
suspicions,  and  restore  that  cordiality 
which  was  at  once  the  evidence  and  pledge 
of  a  friendly  tmion."  And  his  instruc- 
tions were  to  the  same  effect,  "faithfully 
to  represent  the  disposition  of  the  gov- 
ernment and  people  of  the  United  States 
f their  disposition  being  one),  to  remove 
jealousies  and  obviate  complaints  by  show- 
ing that  they  were  groundless,  to  restore  that 


28 


ADAMS,    JOHN 


mutual  confidence  which  had  been  so  unfort- 
unately and  injuriously  impaired,  and  to 
explain  the  relative  interests  of  both  coun- 
tries and  the  real  sentiments  of  his  own." 

A  minister  thus  specially  commissioned 
it  was  expected  would  have  proved  the  in- 
strument of  restoring  mutual  confidence 
between  the  two  republics.  The  first  step 
of  the  French  government  corresponded 
with  that  expectation.  A  few  days  before 
his  arrival  at  Paris  the  French  minister 
of  foreign  relations  informed  the  Amer- 
ican minister  then  resident  at  Paris  of 
the  formalities  to  be  observed  by  himself 
in  taking  leave,  and  by  his  successor  pre- 
paratory to  his  reception.  These  formalities 
they  observed,  and  on  December  9  presented 
officially  to  the  minister  of  foreign  relations, 
the  one  a  copy  of  his  letters  of  recall,  the 
other  a  copy  of  his  letters  of  credence. 

These  were  laid  before  the  Executive 
Directory.  Two  days  afterwards  the  min- 
ister of  foreign  relations  informed  the  re- 
called American  minister  that  the  Execu- 
tive Directory  had  determined  not  to  re- 
ceive another  minister  plenipotentiary 
from  the  United  States  until  after  the  re- 
dress of  grievances  demanded  of  the  Am.er- 
ican  government,  and  which  the  French 
Republic  had  a  right  to  expect  from  it. 
The  American  minister  immediately  en- 
deavored to  ascertain  whether  by  refusing 
to  receive  him  it  was  intended  that  he 
should  retire  from  the  territories  of  the 
French  Republic,  and  verbal  answers  were 
given  that  such  was  the  intention  of  the 
Directory.  For  his  o^vn  justification  he 
desired  a  written  answer,  but  obtained 
none  until  towards  the  last  of  January, 
when,  receiving  notice  in  writing  to  quit 
the  territories  of  the  republic,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Amsterdam,  Avhere  he  proposed 
to  wait  for  instruction  from  this  gov- 
ernment. During  his  residence  at  Paris 
cards  of  hospitality  were  refused  him,  and 
he  was  threatened  with  being  subjected  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  minister  of  police; 
but  with  becoming  firmness  he  insisted  on 
the  protection  of  the  law  of  nations  due 
to  him  as  the  known  minister  of  a  foreign 
power.  You  will  derive  further  informa- 
tion from  his  despatches,  which  will  be 
laid  before  you. 

As  it  is  often  necessary  that  nations 
should  treat  for  the  mutual  advantage  of 
their  affairs,  and  especially  to  accommo- 


29 


date  and  terminate  differences,  and  as  they 
can  treat  only  by  ministers,  the  right  of 
embassy  is  well  known  and  established 
by  the  law  and  usage  of  nations.  The  re- 
fusal on  the  part  of  France  to  receive  our 
minister  is,  then,  the  denial  of  a  right; 
but  the  refusal  to  receive  him  until  we 
have  acceded  to  their  demands  without  dis- 
cussion and  without  investigation  is  to 
treat  us  neither  as  allies  nor  as  friends, 
nor  as  a  sovereign  state. 

With  this  conduct  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment it  will  be  proper  to  take  into 
view  the  public  audience  given  to  the 
late  minister  of  the  United  States  on  his 
tjrking  leave  of  the  Executive  Directory. 
The  speech  of  the  President  discloses  senti- 
ments more  alarming  than  the  refusal  of 
a  minister,  because  more  dangerous  to  our 
independence  and  union,  and  at  the  same 
time  studiously  marked  with  indignities 
towards  the  government  of  the  United 
States.  It  evinces  a  disposition  to  sepa- 
rate the  people  of  the  United  States  from 
the  government,  to  persuade  them  that 
thej'  have  different  affections,  principles, 
and  interests  from  those  of  their  fellow- 
citizens  whom  they  themselves  have  chosen 
to  manage  their  common  concerns,  and 
thus  to  produce  divisions  fatal  to  our 
peace.  Such  attempts  ought  to  be  repelled 
with  a  decision  which  shall  convince 
France  and  the  world  that  we  are  not  a 
degraded  people,  humiliated  under  a  colo- 
nial spirit  of  fear  and  sense  of  inferiority, 
fitted  to  be  the  miserable  instruments  of 
foreign  influence,  and  regardless  of  na- 
tional honor,  character,  and  interest. 

I  should  haA^e  been  happy  to  have  thrown 
a  veil  over  these  transactions  if  it  had 
been  possible  to  conceal  them;  but  they 
have  passed  on  the  great  theatre  of  the 
world,  in  the  face  of  all  Europe  and 
America,  and  with  such  circumstances  of 
publicity  and  solemnity  that  they  cannot 
be  disguised  and  will  not  soon  be  forgotten. 
They  have  inflicted  a  wound  in  the  Ameri- 
can breast.  It  is  my  sincere  desire,  how- 
ever, that  it  may  be  healed. 

It  is  my  sincere  desire,  and  in  this  I 
presume  I  concur  with  you  and  with  your 
constituents,  to  preserve  peace  and  friend- 
ship with  all  nations;  and  believing  that 
neither  the  honor  nor  the  interest  of  the 
United  States  absolutely  forbid  the  repe- 
tition of  advances  for  securing  these  de- 


ADAMS,    JOHN 


sirable  objects  with  France,  I  shall  in- 
stitute a  fresh  attempt  at  negotiation,  and 
shall  not  fail  to  promote  and  accelerate 
an  accommodation  on  terms  compatible 
with  the  rights,  duties,  interests,  and 
honor  of  the  nation.  If  we  have  com- 
mitted errors,  and  these  can  be  demon- 
strated, we  shall  be  willing  to  correct 
them;  if  we  have  done  injuries,  we  shall 
be  Avilling  on  conviction  to  redress  them; 
and  equal  measures  of  justice  we  have  a 
right  to  expect  from  France  and  every 
other  nation. 

Tlie  diplomatic  intercourse  between  the 
United  States  and  France  being  at  present 
susi^ended,  the  government  has  no  means 
of  obtaining  official  information  from  that 
country.  Nevertheless,  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  Executive  Directory 
passed  a  decree  on  the  2d  of  March  last 
contravening  in  part  the  treaty  of  amity 
and  commerce  of  1778,  injurious  to  our 
lawful  commerce  and  endangering  the  lives 
of  our  citizens.  A  copy  of  this  decree  will 
be  laid  before  you. 

Wliile  we  are  endeavoring  to  adjust  all 
our  differences  with  France  by  amicable 
negotiation,  the  progress  of  the  war  in 
Europe,  the  depredations  on  our  com- 
merce, the  personal  injuries  to  our  citi- 
zens, and  the  general  complexion  of  affairs 
render  it  my  indispensable  duty  to  recom- 
mend to  your  consideration  effectual  meas- 
ures of  defence. 

The  commerce  of  the  United  States  has 
become  an  interesting  object  of  attention, 
whether  we  consider  it  in  relation  to  the 
wealth  and  finances  or  the  strength  and 
resources  of  the  nation.  With  a  sea-coast 
of  near  2,000  miles  in  extent,  opening  a 
field  for  fisheries,  navigation,  and  com- 
merce, a  great  portion  of  our  citizens 
naturally  apply  their  industry  and  enter- 
prise to  these  objects.  Any  serious  and 
permanent  injury  to  commerce  would  not 
fail  to  produce  the  most  embarrassing  dis- 
orders. To  prevent  it  from  being  under- 
mined and  destroyed  it  is  essential  that 
it  receive  an  adequate  protection. 

The  naval  establishment  must  occur  to 
every  man  who  considers  the  injuries 
committed  on  our  commerce,  the  insults 
ofl'ered  to  our  citi/ens,  and  the  description 
of  vessels  by  which  these  abuses  have  been 
practised.  As  the  sufferings  of  our  mer- 
cantile  and   seafaring   citizens   cannot   be 


ascribed  to  the  omission  of  duties  demand- 
able,  considering  the  neutral  situation  of 
our  country,  they  are  to  be  attributed  to 
the  hope  of  impunity  arising  from  a  sup- 
posed inability  on  our  part  to  afford  pro- 
tection. To  resist  the  consequences  of 
such  impressions  on  the  minds  of  foreign 
nations  and  to  guard  against  the  degrada- 
tion and  servility  which  they  must  finally 
stamp  on  the  American  character  is  an  im- 
portant duty  of  government. 

A  naval  power,  next  to  the  militia,  is 
the  natural  defence  of  the  United  States. 
The  experience  of  the  last  war  would  be 
sufficient  to  show  that  a  moderate  naval 
force,  such  as  would  easily  be  within  the 
present  abilities  of  the  Union,  would  have 
been  sufficient  to  have  baffled  many  for- 
midable transportations  of  troops  from 
one  State  to  another,  which  were  then 
practised.  Our  sea-coasts,  from  their 
great  extent,  are  more  easily  annoyed  and 
more  easily  defended  by  a  naval  force 
than  any  other.  With  all  the  materials 
our  country  abounds;  in  skill  our  naval 
architects  and  navigators  are  equal  to 
any;  and  commanders  and  seamen  will 
not  be  wanting. 

But  although  the  establishment  of  a 
permanent  system  of  naval  defence  appears 
to  be  requisite,  I  am  sensible  it  cannot  be 
formed  so  speedily  and  extensively  as  the 
present  crisis  demands.  Hitherto  I  have 
thought  proper  to  prevent  the  sailing  of 
armed  vessels  except  on  voyages  to  the 
East  Indies,  where  general  usage  and  the 
danger  from  pirates  appeared  to  render 
the  permission  proper.  Yet  the  restriction 
has  originated  solely  from  a  wish  to  pre- 
vent collisions  with  the  powers  at  war, 
contravening  the  act  of  Congress  of  June, 
1794,  and  not  from  any  doubt  entertained 
by  me  of  the  policy  and  propriety  of  per- 
mitting our  vessels  to  employ  means  of 
defence  while  engaged  in  a  lawful  foreign 
commerce.  It  remains  for  Congress  to 
prescribe  such  regulations  as  will  enable 
our  seafaring  citizens  to  defend  them- 
selves against  violations  of  the  law  of 
nations,  and  at  the  same  time  restrain 
them  from  committing  acts  of  hostility 
against  the  powers  at  war.  In  addition 
to  this  voluntary  provision  for  defence  by 
individual  citizens,  it  appears  to  me  neces- 
sary to  equip  the  frigates,  and  provide 
other  vessels  of  inferior  force,  to  take  un- 


30 


ADAMS,    JOHN 


der  convoy  such  merchant  vessels  as  shall 
remain  unarmed. 

The  greater  part  of  the  cruisers  whose 
depredations  have  been  most  injurious 
have  been  built  and  some  of  them  partially 
equipped  in  the  United  States.  Although 
an  effectual  remedy  may  be  attended  with 
difficulty,  yet  1  have  thought  it  my  duty 
to  present  the  subject  generally  to  your 
consideration.  If  a  mode  can  be  devised 
by  the  wisdom  of  Congress  to  prevent  the 
resources  of  the  United  States  from  being 
converted  into  the  means  of  annoying  our 
trade,  a  great  evil  will  be  prevented.  With 
the  same  view,  I  think  it  proper  to  men- 
tion that  some  of  our  citizens  resident 
abroad  have  fitted  out  privateers,  and 
others  have  voluntarily  taken  the  com- 
mand, or  entered  on  board  of  them,  and 
committed  spoliations  on  the  commerce 
of  the  United  States.  Such  unnatural  and 
iniquitous  practices  can  be  restrained  only 
by  severe  punishment. 

But  besides  a  protection  of  our  com- 
merce on  the  seas,  I  think  it  highly  neces- 
sary to  protect  it  at  home,  where  it  is 
collected  in  our  most  important  ports. 
The  distance  of  the  United  States  from 
Europe,  and  the  well-known  promptitude, 
ardor,  and  courage  of  the  people  in  de- 
fence of  their  country,  happily  diminish 
the  probability  of  invasion.  Nevertheless, 
to  guard  against  sudden  and  predatory  in- 
cursions the  situation  of  some  of  our  prin- 
cipal seaports  demands  your  consideration. 
And  as  our  country  is  vulnerable  in  other 
interests  besides  those  of  its  commerce, 
you  will  seriously  deliberate  whether  the 
means  of  general  defence  ought  not  to  be 
increased  by  an  addition  to  the  regular 
artillery  and  cavalry,  and  by  arrange- 
ments for  forming  a  provisional  army. 

With  the  same  view,  and  as  a  measure 
which,  even  in  a  time  of  universal  peace, 
ought  not  to  be  neglected,  I  recommend  to 
your  consideration  a  revision  of  the  laws 
for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining 
the  militia,  to  render  that  natural  and 
safe  defence  of  the  country  efficacious. 

Although  it  is  very  true  that  we  ought 
not  to  involve  ourselves  in  the  political 
system  of  Europe,  but  to  keep  ourselves 
always  distinct  and  separate  from  it  if  we 
can,  yet  to  eflfect  this  separation  early, 
punctual,  and  continual  information  of 
the   current   chain   of   events   and   of   the 


political  projects  in  contemplation  is  no 
less  necessary  than  if  we  were  directly 
concerned  in  them.  It  is  necessary,  in 
order  to  the  discovery  of  the  efforts  made 
to  draw  us  into  the  vortex,  in  season  to 
make  preparations  against  them.  How- 
ever we  may  consider  ourselves,  the  mari- 
time and  commercial  powers  of  the  world 
will  consider  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica as  forming  a  weight  in  that  balance  of 
power  in  Europe  which  never  can  be  for- 
gotten or  neglected.  It  would  not  only 
be  against  our  interest,  but  it  would  be 
doing  wrong  to  one-half  of  Europe,  at 
least,  if  we  should  voluntarily  throw  our- 
selves into  either  scale.  It  is  a  natural 
policy  for  a  nation  that  studies  to  be  neu- 
tral to  consult  with  other  nations  en- 
gaged in  the  same  studies  and  pursuits. 
At  the  same  time  that  measures  might  be 
pursued  with  this  view,  our  treaties  with 
Prussia  and  Sweden,  one  of  which  is  ex 
pired  and  the  other  near  expiring,  might 
be  renewed. 

Gentlemen  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives,— It  is  particularly  your  province  to 
consider  the  state  of  the  public  finances,  and 
to  adopt  such  measures  respecting  them  as 
exigencies  shall  be  found  to  require.  The 
preservation  of  public  credit,  the  regular 
extinguishment  of  the  public  debt,  and  a 
provision  of  funds  to  defray  any  extraor- 
dinary expenses  will,  of  course,  call  for 
your  serious  attention.  Although  the  im- 
position of  new  burthens  cannot  be  in 
itself  agreeable,  yet  there  is  no  ground  to 
doubt  that  the  American  people  will  ex- 
pect from  you  such  measures  as  their 
actual  engagements,  their  present  security, 
and  future  interests  demand. 

Gentlemen  of  the  Senate  and  Gentlemen 
of  the  House  of  Representatives, — The 
present  situation  of  our  country  imposes 
an  obligation  on  all  the  departments 
of  government  to  adopt  an  explicit  and 
decided  conduct.  In  my  situation  an  ex- 
position of  the  principles  by  which  my 
administration  will  be  governed  ought  not 
to  be  omitted. 

It  is  impossible  to  conceal  from  our- 
selves or  the  world  what  has  been  before 
observed,  that  endeavors  have  been  em- 
ployed to  foster  and  establish  a  division 
between  the  government  and  people  of  the 
United  States.  To  investigate  the  causes 
which  have  encouraged  this  attempt  is  not 


31 


ADAMS,    JOHN 


necessary,  but  to  repel,  by  decided  and 
united  councils,  insinuations  so  derogatory 
to  the  honor  and  aggressions  so  dangerous 
to  the  Constitution,  Union,  and  even  inde- 
pendence of  the  nation  is  an  indispensable 
duty. 

It  must  not  be  permitted  to  be  doubted 
whether  the  people  of  the  United  States 
will  support  the  government  established 
by  their  voluntary  consent  and  ap- 
pointed by  their  free  choice,  or  whether, 
by  surrendering  themselves  to  the  direc- 
tion of  foreign  and  domestic  factions,  in 
opposition  to  their  own  government,  they 
will  forfeit  the  honorable  station  they 
have  hitherto  maintained. 

For  myself,  having  never  been  indiffer- 
ent to  what  concerned  the  interests  of  my 
country,  devoted  the  best  part  of  my  life 
to  obtain  and  support  its  independence,  and 
constantly  witnessed  the  patriotism,  fidel- 
ity, and  perseverance  of  my  fellow-citizens 
on  the  most  trying  occasions,  it  is  not  for 
me  to  hesitate  or  abandon  a  cause  in  which 
my  heart  has  been  so  long  engaged. 

Convinced  that  the  conduct  of  the  gov- 
ernment has  been  just  and  impartial  to 
foreign  nations,  that  those  internal  regula- 
tions which  have  been  established  by  law 
for  the  preservation  of  peace  are  in  their 
nature  proper,  and  that  they  have  been 
fairly  executed,  nothing  will  ever  be  done 
by  me  to  impair  the  national  engage- 
ments, to  innovate  upon  principles  which 
have  been  so  deliberately  and  uprightly 
established,  or  to  surrender  in  any  manner 
the  rights  of  the  government.  To  enable 
me  to  maintain  this  declaration  I  rely, 
under  God,  with  entire  confidence  on  the 
firm  and  enlightened  support  of  the  na- 
tional legislature  and  upon  the  virtue  and 
patriotism  of  my  fellow-citizens. 

John  Adams. 

The  Fourth  of  July. — In  a  letter  to  his 
wife,  dated  Philadelphia,  July  3,  1776, 
Mr. Adams  made  the  following  predictions: 


Had  a  declaration  of  independence  been 
made  seven  months  ago,  it  would  have  been 
attended  with  many  great  and  glorious 
effects.  We  might,  before  this  hotir,  have 
formed  alliance  with  foreign  states.  We 
should  have  mastered  Quebec  and  been 
in  possession  of  Canada. 

You  will,  perhaps,  wonder  how  much 
a   declaration  would   have   influenced   our 


affairs  in  Canada ;  but,  if  I  could  write 
with  freedom,  I  could  easily  convince  you 
that  it  would,  and  explain  to  you  the  man- 
ner how.  Many  gentlemen  in  high  sta- 
fions  and  of  great  influence  have  been 
duped,  by  the  ministerial  bubble  of  com- 
missioners, to  treat;  and  in  real,  sincere 
expectation  of  this  event,  which  they  so 
fondly  wished,  they  have  been  slow  and 
languid  in  promoting  measures  for  the  re- 
duction of  that  province.  Others  there 
are  in  the  colonies  who  really  wished  that 
our  enterprise  in  Canada  would  be  defeat- 
ed ;  that  the  colonies  might  be  brought 
into  danger  and  distress  between  two  fires, 
and  be  thus  induced  to  submit.  Others 
really  wished  to  defeat  the  expedition  to 
Canada,  lest  the  conquest  of  it  should  ele- 
vate the  minds  of  the  people  too  much  to 
harken  to  those  terms  of  reconciliation 
which  they  believed  would  be  offered  us. 
These  jarring  views,  wishes,  and  designs 
occasioned  an  opposition  to  many  salutary 
measures  which  were  proposed  for  the  sup- 
port of  that  expedition,  and  caused  ob- 
structions, embarrassments,  and  studied 
delays,  which  have  finally  lost  us  the 
province. 

All  these  causes,  however,  in  conjunc- 
tion, would  not  have  disappointed  us,  if  it 
had  not  been  for  a  misfortune  which  could 
not  have  been  foreseen,  and  perhaps  could 
not  have  been  prevented — I  mean  the  prev- 
alence of  the  small-pox  among  our  troops. 
This  fatal  pestilence  completed  our  de- 
struction. It  is  a  frown  of  Providence 
upon  us.  which  we  ought  to  lay  to  heart. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  delay  of 
this  declaration  to  this  time  has  many 
great  advantages  attending  it.  The  hopes 
of  reconciliation  which  were  fondly  enter- 
tained by  multitudes  of  honest  and  well- 
meaning,  though  short-sighted  and  mis- 
taken, people  have  been  gradually,  and  at 
last  totally,  extinguished.  Time  has  been 
given  for  the  whole  people  maturely  to 
consider  the  great  question  of  indepen- 
dence, and  to  ripen  their  judgment,  dis- 
sipate their  fears,  and  allure  their  hopes, 
by  discussing  it  in  newspapers  and  pam- 
phlets, by  debating  it  in  assemblies,  con- 
ventions, committees  of  safety  and  inspec- 
tion, in  town  and  county  meetings,  as  well 
as  in  private  conversations,  so  that  the 
whole  people,  in  every  colony,  have  now 
adopted   it   as   their   own   act.     This   will 


32 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


cement  the  union,  and  avoid  those  heats, 
and  perhaps  convulsions,  which  might 
have  been  occasioned  by  such  a  declara- 
tion six  months  ago. 

But  the  day  is  past.  The  second  day 
of  July,  1776,  will  be  a  memorable  epoch 
in  the  history  of  America.  I  am  apt  to 
believe  that  it  will  be  celebrated  by  suc- 
ceeding generations  as  the  great  Anni- 
versary Festival.  It  ought  to  be  com- 
memorated, as  the  day  of  deliverance,  by 
solemn  acts  of  devotion  to  God  Almighty. 
It  ought  to  be  solemnized  with  pomp, 
shows,  games,  sports,  guns,  bells,  bonfires, 


and  illuminations,  from  one  end  of  the 
continent  to  the  other,  from  this  time  for- 
ward forever. 

You  may  think  me  transported  with 
enthusiasm;  but  I  am  not.  I  am  well 
aware  of  the  toil  and  blood  and  treasure 
that  it  will  cost  us  to  maintain  this  dec- 
laration and  support  and  defend  these 
States.  Yet,  through  all  the  gloom,  I  can 
see  the  rays  of  light  and  glory;  I  can  see 
that  the  end  is  more  than  worth  all  the 
means,  and  that  posterity  will  triumph, 
although  you  and  I  may  rue,  which  I 
hope  we  shall  not. 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  sixth  President  1802,  and  he  occupied  one  in  that  of  the 
of  the  United  States;  from  1825  to  1829;  United  States  from  1803  until  1808,  when 
Republican;  born  in  Braintree,  Mass.,  disagreeing  with  the  legislature  of  Massa- 
July  11,  1767;  was  a  son  of  President  chusetts  on  the  embargo  question,  he  re- 
John  Adams;  and  was  graduated  at  Har-  signed.  From  1806  to  1809  he  was  Pro- 
vard  College  in  1787.  In  February,  1778,  fessor  of  Rhetoric  in  Harvard  College, 
he  accompanied  his  father  to  France,  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  by 
where  he  studied  the  French  and  Latin  President  Madison  minister  to  Russia; 
languages  for  nearly  two  years.  After  and  in  1814,  while  serving  in  that  office, 
an  interval,  he  returned  to  France  and  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  United  States 
resumed  his  studies,  which  were  subse-  commissioners  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of 
quently  pursued  at  Amsterdam  and  at  peace  at  Ghent.  After  that,  he  and  Henry 
the  University  of  Leyden.  At  the  age  of  Clay  and  Albert  Gallatin  negotiated  a 
fourteen  years,  he  accompanied  Mr.  Dana  commercial  treaty  with  Great  Britain, 
to  Russia  as  his  private  secretaiy.  The  which  was  signed  July  13,  1815.  Mr. 
next  year  he  spent  some  time  at  Stock-  Adams  remained  in  London  as  minister 
holm,  Copenhagen,  and  Hamburg.  He  until  1817,  when  he  was  recalled  to  take 
afterwards  accompanied  his  father  (who  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State.  This  was 
was  American  minister)  to  England  and  at  the  beginning  of  what  was  popularly 
France  and  returned  home  with  him  early  known  as  the  "  era  of  good  feeling,"  the 
in  1785.  After  his  graduation  at  Har-  settlement  of  questions  growing  out  of  the 
vard,  he  studied  law  with  the  eminent  war  with  Great  Britain  (1812-15)  having 
Theophilus  Parsons,  practised  at  Boston,  freed  the  government  from  foreign  polit- 
and  soon  became  distinguished  as  a  po-  ical  embarrassments  and  enabled  it  to 
litical  writer.  give  fuller  attention  to  domestic  concerns. 

In  1791  he  published  a  series  of  articles  During  his   occupation   of  this   office  Mr. 

in  favor   of  neutrality  with   France  over  Adams   was    identified   with    the   negotia- 

the  signature  of  "  Publius."     He  was  en-  tion   of   the   treaty  with   Spain   by  which 

gaged    in    the    diplomatic    service    of    his  Florida   was   ceded   to  the   United   States 

country  as  minister,  successively,  to  Hoi-  for    $5,000,000,    and    by    which    also    the 

land,  England,  and  Prussia  from  1794  to  boundary  between   Louisiana   and   Mexico 

1801.     He  received  a  commission,  in  1798,  was  established.     He  is  credited  with  hav- 

to   negotiate   a   treaty  with   Sweden.     At  ing   been    the    author    of    the    declaration 

Berlin  he  wrote  a  series  of  Letters  from  known    as    the    "Monroe   Doctrine"    (see 

Silesia.       Mr.     Adams     married     Louisa,  Moneoe,    James  ) .     The    closing    part    of 

daughter    of    Joshua    Johnson,    American  his  term  as  Secretary  was  marked  by  the 

consul   at   London,    in    1797.     He   took   a  legislation  of  the  "  Missouri  Compromise " 

seat  in  the  Senate  of  Massachusetts  in  (see  Missouri)  .  When  President  Monroe 
I.— c                                                          33 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 

submitted  to  his  cabinet  the  two  qucs-  to  be  represented  at  the  congress  of  Amer- 
tions  concerning  the  interpretation  of  the  ican  nations  to  be  assembled  at  Panama 
act  as  passed  by  the  Congress,  Mr.  Adams  to  deliberate  upon  objects  of  peculiar 
stood  alone  in  the  opinion  that  the  word  concernment  to  this  hemisphere,  and  that 
"  forever  "  meant  forever.  this   invitation   had  been  accepted. 

When  Monroe's  administration  was  Although  this  measure  was  deemed  to 
drawing  to  a  close,  several  prominent  be  within  the  constitutional  competency 
men  were  spoken  of  as  candidates  for  the  of  the  executive,  I  have  not  thought 
Presidency — -William  H.  Crawford,  John  proper  to  take  any  step  in  it  before  as- 
Quincy  Adams,  Henry  Clay,  John  C.  Cal-  certaining  that  my  opinion  of  its  expe- 
houn,  and  Andrew  Jackson.  The  votes  in  diency  will  concur  with  that  of  both 
the  autumn  of  1824  showed  that  the  people  branches  of  the  legislature,  first,  by  the 
had  not  elected  either  of  the  candidates;  decision  of  the  Senate  upon  the  nomina- 
and  when  the  votes  of  the  Electoral  Col-  tions  to  be  laid  before  them,  and,  second- 
lege  were  counted,  it  was  found  that  the  ly,  by  the  sanction  of  both  Houses  to  the 
choice  of  President  devolved  upon  the  appropriations,  without  which  it  cannot 
House   of   Representatives,    in   accordance    be  carried  into  effect. 

with  the  12th  Amendment.  In  February,  A  report  from  the  Secretary  of  State, 
1825,  that  body  chose  John  Quincy  Adams  and  copies  of  the  correspondence  with 
President.  Mr.  Adams  received  the  votes  the  South  American  governments  on  this 
of  13  States  on  the  first  ballot.  Gen-  subject  since  the  invitation  given  by  them, 
eral  Jackson  7  States,  and  Mr.  Craw-  are  herewith  transmitted  to  the  Senate. 
ford  4  States.  Mr.  Calhoun  received  They  will  disclose  the  objects  of  impor- 
the  votes  of  182  of  the  electors,  against  78  tance  which  are  expected  to  form  a  sub- 
for  all  others.  The  Electoral  College  had  ject  of  discussion  at  this  meeting,  in 
given  Jackson  the  largest  vote  of  any  can-  which  interests  of  high  importance  to 
didate — 99 — and  Adams  84.  See  Cabinet,  this  Union  are  involved.  It  will  be  seen 
President's.  that  the  United  States  neither  intend  nor 

In  1831  Mr.  Adams  was  elected  to  Con-  are  expected  to  take  part  in  any  delibera- 
gress,  and  was  continued  in  it  by  sucees-  tions  of  a  belligerent  character  ;  that  the 
sive  elections  until  his  death,  which  occur-  motive  of  their  attendance  is  neither  to 
red  suddenly  in  the  Capitol,  on  Feb.  23,  contract  alliances  nor  to  engage  in  any 
1848.  His  last  words  were,  "  This  is  the  undertaking  or  project  importing  hostility 
last  of  earth;  I  am  content."     Mr.  Adams   to  any  other  nation. 

was  a  ripe  scholar,  an  able  diplomatist,  a  But  the  Southern  American  nations,  in 
life-long  opponent  of  human  slavery,  a  bold  the  infancy  of  their  independence,  often 
and  unflinching  advocate  for  its  abolition,  find  themselves  in  positions  with  refer- 
When  he  was  eighty  years  of  age  he  ence  to  other  countries  with  the  prin- 
was  called  "  The  old  man  eloquent."  He  ciples  applicable  to  which,  derivable  from 
wrote  prose  and  poetry  with  almost  equal  the  state  of  independence  itself,  they  have 
facility  and  purity  of  diction.  See  La-  not  been  familiarized  by  experience.  The 
FAYETTE.  result  of  this  has  been  that  sometimes  in 

Pan-American  Union. — On  Dec.  26,  their  intercourse  with  the  United  States, 
1825,  President  Adams  sent  the  following  they  have  manifested  dispositions  to  re- 
message  to  the  Senate,  in  which  he  ampli-  serve  a  right  of  granting  special  favors 
fied  the  views  concerning  a  Pan  -  Ameri-  and  privileges  to  the  Spanish  nation  as 
can  union  which  he  had  expressed  in  a  the  price  of  their  recognition.  At  others 
previous  message :  they  have  actually  established  duties  and 
impositions   operating  unfavorably  to  the 

To  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, —  United  States,  to  the  advantage  of  other 
In  the  messages  to  both  Houses  of  Con-  European  powers,  and  sometimes  they 
gress  at  the  commencement  of  the  session,  have  appeared  to  consider  that  they  might 
it  was  mentioned  that  the  governments  interchange  among  themselves  mutual 
of  the  republics  of  Colombia,  of  Mexico,  concessions  of  exclusive  favor,  to  which 
and  of  Central  America  had  severally  in-  neither  European  powers  nor  the  United 
vited  the  government  of  the  United  States  States   should  be  admitted.     In   most   of 

34 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


these  cases  their  regulations  unfavorable 
to  us  have  yielded  to  friendly  expostula- 
tion and  remonstrance.  But  it  is  believed 
to  be  of  infinite  moment  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  a  liberal  commercial  intercourse 
should  be  exhibited  to  them,  and  urged 
with  disinterested  and  friendly  persua- 
sion upon  them  when  all  assembled  for 
the  avowed  purpose  of  consulting  together 
upon  the  establishment  of  such  prin- 
ciples as  may  have  an  important  bearing 
upon  their  future  welfare. 

The  consentaneous  adoption  of  princi- 
ples of  maritime  neutrality,  and  favorable 
to  the  navigation  of  peace,  and  commerce 
in  time  of  war,  will  also  form  a  subject 
of  consideration  to  this  congress.  The 
doctrine  that  free  ships  make  free  goods 
and  the  restrictions  of  reason  upon  the 
extent  of  blockades  may  be  established  by 
general  agreement  with  far  more  ease,  and 
perhaps  with  less  danger,  by  the  general 
engagement  to  adhere  to  them  concerted  at 
such  a  meeting,  than  by  partial  treaties  or 
conventions  with  each  of  the  nations 
separately.  An  agreement  between  all  the 
parties  represented  at  the  meeting  that 
each  will  guard  by  its  own  means  against 
the  establishment  of  any  future  European 
colony  within  its  borders  may  be  found 
advisable.  This  was  more  than  two  years 
since  announced  by  my  predecessor  to  the 
world  as  a  principle  resulting  from  the 
emancipation  of  both  the  American  con- 
tinents. It  may  be  so  developed  to  the 
new  southern  nations  that  they  will  all 
feel  it  as  an  essential  appendage  to  their 
independence. 

There  is  yet  another  subject  upon  which, 
without  entering  into  any  treaty,  the 
moral  influence  of  the  United  States  may 
perhaps  be  exerted  with  beneficial  conse- 
quences at  such  a  meeting — the  advance- 
ment of  religious  liberty.  Some  of  the 
southern  nations  are  even  so  far  under  the 
dominion  of  prejudice  that  they  have  in- 
corporated with  their  political  constitu- 
tions an  exclusive  church,  without  tolera- 
tion of  any  other  than  the  dominant  sect. 
The  abandonment  of  this  last  badge  of  re- 
ligious bigotry  and  oppression  may  be 
pressed  more  eflfeetually  by  the  united  ex- 
ertions of  those  who  concur  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  freedom  of  conscience  upon  those 
who  are  yet  to  be  convinced  of  their  jus- 
tice and  wisdom  than  by  the  solitary  efforts 


of  a  minister  to  any  one  of  the  separate 
governments. 

The  indirect  influence  which  the  United 
States  may  exercise  upon  any  projects  or 
purposes  originating  in  the  war  in  which 
the  southern  republics  are  still  engaged, 
which  might  seriously  afi'ect  the  interests 
of  this  Union,  and  the  good  offices  by 
which  the  United  States  may  ultimately 
contribute  to  bring  that  war  to  a  speedier 
termination,  though  among  the  motives 
which  have  convinced  me  of  the  propriety 
of  complying  with  this  invitation,  are  so 
far  contingent  and  eventual  that  it  would 
be  improper  to  dwell  upon  them  more  at 
large. 

In  fine,  a  decisive  inducement  with  me 
for  acceding  to  the  measure  is  to  show 
by  this  token  of  respect  to  the  southern 
republics  the  interest  that  we  take  in  their 
welfare  and  our  disposition  to  comply 
with  their  wishes.  Having  been  the  first 
to  recognize  their  independence,  and  sym- 
pathize with  them  so  far  as  was  compat- 
ible with  our  natural  duties  in  all  their 
struggles  and  suflferings  to  acquire  it,  we 
have  laid  the  foundation  of  our  future 
intercourse  with  them  in  the  broadest  prin- 
ciples of  reciprocity  and  the  most  cordial 
feelings  of  fraternal  friendship.  To  ex- 
tend those  principles  to  all  our  commercial 
relations  with  them  and  to  hand  down 
that  friendship  to  future  ages  is  congenial 
to  the  highest  policy  of  the  Union,  as  it 
will  be  to  that  of  all  those  nations  and 
their  posterity.  In  the  confidence  that 
these  sentiments  will  meet  the  approba- 
tion of  the  Senate,  I  nominate  Richard  C. 
Anderson,  of  Kentucky,  and  John  Ser- 
geant, of  Pennsylvania,  to  be  envoys  ex- 
traordinary and  ministers  plenipotentiary 
to  the  assembly  of  American  nations  at 
Panama,  and  William  B.  Rochester,  of 
New  York,  to  be  secretary  to  the  mission. 
John  Quincy  Adams. 

On  March  15,  1826,  he  sent  the  follow- 
ing reply  to  a  House  resolution: 


To  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the 
United  States, — In  compliance  with  the 
resolution  of  the  House  of  the  5th 
ultimo,  requesting  me  to  cause  to  be 
laid  before  the  House  so  much  of  the 
correspondence  between  the  government 
of  the  United  States  and  the  new 
states    of    America,    or    their    ministers, 


35 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


respecting  the  projjosed  congress  or  meet- 
ing of  diplomatic  agents  at  Panama,  and 
such  information  respecting  the  general 
character  of  that  expected  congress  as  may 
be  in  my  possession  and  as  may,  in  my 
opinion,  be  communicated  without  preju- 
dice to  the  public  interest,  and  also  to  in- 
form the  House,  so  far  as  in  my  opinion 
the  public  interest  may  allow,  in  i-egard 
to  what  objects  the  agents  of  the  United 
States  are  expected  to  take  part  in  the 
deliberations  of  that  congress,  I  now  trans- 
mit to  the  House  a  report  from  the  Secre- 
tary of  State,  with  the  correspondence 
and  information  requested  by  the  resolu- 
tion. 

With  regard  to  the  objects  in  which  the 
agents  of  the  United  States  are  expected 
to  take  part  in  the  deliberations  of  that 
congress,  I  deem  it  proper  to  premise  that 
these  objects  did  not  form  the  only,  nor 
even  the  principal,  motive  for  my  accept- 
ance of  the  invitation.  My  first  and  great- 
est inducement  was  to  meet  in  the  spirit 
of  kindness  and  friendship  an  overture 
made  in  that  spirit  by  three  sister  repub- 
lics of  this  hemisphere. 

The  great  revolution  in  human  affairs 
which  has  brought  into  existence,  nearly 
at  the  same  time,  eight  sovereign  and  in- 
dependent nations  in  our  own  quarter  of 
the  globe  has  placed  the  United  States  in 
a  situation  not  less  novel  and  scarcely  less 
interesting  than  that  in  which  they  had 
found  themselves  by  their  own  transition 
from  a  cluster  of  colonies  to  a  nation  of 
sovereign  States.  The  deliverance  of  the 
South  American  republics  from  the  op- 
pression under  which  they  had  been  so 
long  afflicted  was  hailed  with  great  una- 
nimity by  the  people  of  this  Union  as 
among  the  most  auspicious  events  of  the 
age.  On  the  4th  of  May,  1822,  an  act  of 
Congress  made  an  appropriation  of  $100,- 
000  "  for  such  missions  to  the  independent 
nations  on  the  American  continent  as  the 
President  of  the  United  States  might  deem 
proper."  In  exercising  the  authority 
recognized  by  this  act  my  predecessor,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  appointed  successively  ministers 
plenipotentiary  to  the  republics  of  Colom- 
bia, Buenos  Ayres,  Chile,  and  Mexico.  Un- 
willing to  raise  among  the  fraternity  of 
freedom  questions  of  precedency  and  eti- 
quette, which  even  the  European  monarchs 


had  of  late  found  it  necessary  in  a  great 
measure  to  discard,  he  despatched  these 
ministers  to  Colombia,  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
Chile  without  exacting  from  those  repub- 
lics, as  by  the  ancient  principles  of  politi- 
cal primogeniture  he  might  have  done, 
that  the  compliment  of  a  plenipotentiary 
mission  should  have  been  paid  first  by 
them  to  the  United  States.  The  instruc- 
tions, prepared  under  his  direction,  to 
Mr.  Anderson,  the  first  of  our  ministers 
to  the  Southern  continent,  contain  at 
much  length  the  general  principles  upon 
which  he  thought  it  desirable  that  our 
relations,  political  and  commercial,  with 
these  our  new  neighbors  should  be  estab- 
lished for  their  benefit  and  ours  and  that 
of  the  future  ages  of  our  posterity.  A 
copy  of  so  much  of  these  instructions  as 
relates  to  these  general  subjects  is  among 
the  papers  now  transmitted  to  the  House. 
Sinailar  instructions  were  furnished  to  the 
ministers  appointed  to  Buenos  Ayres, 
Chile,  and  Mexico,  and  the  system  of  social 
intercourse  which  it  was  the  purpose  of  ' 
those  missions  to  establish  from  the  first 
opening  of  our  diplomatic  relations  with 
those  rising  nations  is  the  most  effective 
exposition  of  the  principles  upon  which 
the  invitation  to  the  congress  at  Panama 
has  been  accepted  by  me,  as  well  as  of  the 
objects  of  negotiation  at  that  meeting,  in 
which  it  was  expected  that  our  plenipo- 
tentiaries should  take  part. 

The  House  will  perceive  that  even  at  the 
date  of  these  instructions  the  first  treaties 
between  some  of  the  Southern  republics 
had  been  concluded  by  which  they  had 
stipulated  among  themselves  this  diplo- 
matic assembly  at  Panama.  And  it  will 
be  seen  with  what  caution,  so  far  as  it 
might  concern  the  policy  of  the  United 
States,  and  at  the  same  time  with  what 
frankness  and  good  will  towards  those  na- 
tions, he  gave  countenance  to  their  design 
of  inviting  the  United  States  to  this  high 
assembly  for  consultation  upon  American 
interests.  It  was  not  considered  a  con- 
clusive reason  for  declining  this  invitation 
that  the  proposal  for  assembling  such  a 
congress  had  not  first  been  made  by  our- 
selves. It  had  sprung  from  the  urgent, 
immediate,  and  momentous  common  in- 
terests of  the  great  communities  strug- 
gling for  independence,  and,  as  it  were, 
quickening     into     life.     From     them     the 


36 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QXJINCY 

proposition  to  us  appeared  respectful  and  talent.  Nothing  was  ever  lost  by  kind 
friendly;  from  us  to  them  it  could  scarce-  treatment.  Nothing  can  be  gained  by 
ly  have  been  made  without  exposing  our-  sullen  repulses  and  aspiring  pretensions, 
selves  to  suspicions  of  purposes  of  am-  But  objects  of  the  highest  importance, 
bition,  if  not  of  domination,  more  suited  not  only  to  the  future  welfare  of  the 
to  rouse  resistance  and  excite  distrust  whole  human  race,  but  bearing  directly 
tlian  to  conciliate  favor  and  friendship,  upon  the  special  interests  of  this  Union, 
The  first  and  paramount  principle  upon  icill  engage  the  deliberations  of  the  con- 
which  it  was  deemed  wise  and  just  to  lay  gress  at  Panama,  whether  we  are  repre- 
the  corner-stone  of  all  our  future  rela-  sented  there  or  not.  Others,  if  we  are 
tions  with  them  was  disinterestedness p  the  represented,  may  be  offered  by  our  pleni- 
next  was  cordial  good  will  to  them;  the  potentiaries  for  consideration  having  in 
third  was  a  claim  of  fair  and  equal  rec-  view  both  these  great  results — our  own 
iprocity.  Under  these  impressions  when  interests  and  the  improvement  of  the 
the  invitation  was  formally  and  earnestly  condition  of  man  upon  earth.  It  may 
given,  had  it  even  been  doubtful  whether  be  that,  in  the  lapse  of  many  centuries, 
any  of  the  objects  proposed  for  consider-  no  other  opportunity  so  favorable  will 
ation  and  discussion  at  the  congress  were  be  presented  to  the  government  of  the 
such  as  that  immediate  and  important  in-  United  States  to  subserve  the  benevolent 
terests  of  the  United  States  would  be  af-  purposes  of  divine  Providence ;  to  dis- 
fected  by  the  issue,  I  should,  nevertheless,  pense  the  promised  blessings  of  the  Re- 
have  determined,  so  far  as  it  depended  upon  deenier  of  Mankind;  to  promote  the 
me,  to  have  accepted  the  invitation  and  to  prevalence  in  future  ages  of  peace  on 
have  appointed  ministers  to  attend  the  earth  and  good  -  will  to  man,  as  will 
meeting.  The  proposal  itself  implied  that  now  be  placed  in  their  power  by  partici- 
the  republics  by  whom  it  was  made  he-  pating  in  the  deliberations  of  this  con- 
lieved  that  important  interests  of  ours  or  gress. 

of  theirs  rendered  our  attendance  there  de-  Among   the   topics    enumerated    in    offi- 

sirable.    They  had  given  us  notice  that  in  cial   papers   published   by  the  republic  of 

the  novelty  of  their  situation  and  in  the  Colombia,   and   adverted   to   in   the  corre- 

spirit  of  deference  to  our  experience  they  spondence     now     communicated     to     the 

would  be  pleased  to  have  the  benefit  of  our  House,    as    intended    to    be    presented    for 

friendly  covmsel.    To  meet  the  temper  with  discussion    at    Panama,    there   is    scarcely 

which  this  proposal  was  made  with  a  cold  one   in   which   the   result   of   the   meeting 

repulse  was  not  thought  congenial  to  that  will  not  deeply  alTect  the  interests  of  the 

warm  interest  in  their  welfare  with  which  United   States.     Even  those  in  which  the 

the  people  and  government  of  the  Union  belligerent  states  alone  will  take  an  active 

had  hitherto  gone  hand  in  hand  through  part  will  have  a  powerful  efTect  upon  the 

the  whole  progress  of  their  revolution.    To  state  of  our  relations  with  the  American, 

insult  them  by  a  refusal  of  their  overture,  and    probably    with    the    principal    Euro- 

and  then  invite  them  to  a  similar  assembly  pean,    states.      Were    it    merely    that    we 

to  be   called  by   ourselves,   was   an    expe-  might  be  correctly  and  speedily  informed 

dient  which  never  presented  itself  to  the  of   the   proceedings   of   the   congress,   and 

mind.     I  would  have  sent  ministers  to  the  the    progress    and    issue    of    their    nego- 

meeting  had  it  been  merely  to  give  them  tiations,   I   should  hold  it  advisable   that 

such  advice  as   they  might  have   desired,  we  should  have  an  accredited  agency  with 

even  with  reference  to  their  oion  interests,  them,    placed    in    such    confidential    rela- 

not    involving   ours.     I    would    have    sent  tions   with   the   other   members   as   would 

them  had  it  been   merely  to   explain  and  insure  the  authenticity  and  the  safe  and 

set  forth  to  them  our  reasons  for  declining  early  transmission  of  its  reports.     Of  the 

any  proposal  of  specific  measures  to  which  same  enumerated  topics  are  the  prepara- 

they   might    desire    our    concurrence,    but  tion   of  a   manifesto   setting  forth  to  the 

which  we  might  deem   incompatible  with  world  the  justice  of  their  cause  and  the 

our  interests  or  our  duties.     In  the  inter-  relations   they  desire  to   hold   with   other 

course  between  nations   temper  is   a  mis-  Christian  powers,  and  to  form  a  conven- 

sionary     perhaps     more     powerful     than  tion   of   navigation   and    commerce   appli- 

37 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


cable  both  to  the  confederated  states  and 
to  their  allies. 

It  will  be  within  the  recollection  of  the 
House  that,  immediately  after  the  close 
of  the  war  of  our  independence,  a  meas- 
ure closely  analogous  to  this  congress  of 
I'anama  was  adopted  by  the  Congress  of 
our  Confederation,  and  for  purposes  of 
precisely  the  same  character.  Three  com- 
missioners, with  plenipotentiary  powers, 
were  appointed  to  negotiate  treaties  of 
amity,  navigation,  and  commerce  with  all 
the  principal  powers  of  Europe.  They 
met  and  resided,  for  that  purpose,  about 
one  year  at  Paris,  and  the  only  result  of 
their  negotiations  at  that  time  was  the 
first  treaty  between  the  United  States 
and  Prussia — memorable  in  the  diplomatic 
annals  of  the  world,  and  precious  as  a 
monument  of  the  principles,  in  relation 
to  commerce  and  maritime  warfare,  with 
which  our  country  entered  upon  her 
career  as  a  member  of  the  great  family 
of  independent  nations.  This  treaty,  pre- 
pared in  conformity  with  the  instructions 
of  the  American  plenipotentiaries,  conse- 
crated three  fundamental  principles  of 
the  foreign  intercourse  which  the  Con- 
gress of  that  period  were  desirous  of  es- 
tablishing: first,  equal  reciprocity  and 
the  mutual  stipiilation  of  the  privileges 
of  the  most  favored  nation  in  the  com- 
mercial exchanges  of  peace ;  secondly,  the 
abolition  of  private  war  upon  the  ocean; 
and,  thirdly,  restrictions  favorable  to 
neutral  commerce  upon  belligerent  prac- 
tices with  regard  to  contraband  of  war 
and  blockades.  A  painful,  it  may  be  said 
a  calamitous,  experience  of  more  than 
forty  years  has  demonstrated  the  deep 
importance  of  these  same  principles  to 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  this  nation, 
and  to  the  welfare  of  all  maritime  states, 
and  has  illustrated  the  profound  wisdom 
with  which  they  were  assumed  as  car- 
dinal points  of  the  policy  of  the  Union. 

At  that  time  in  the  infancy  of  their 
political  existence,  under  the  influence  of 
those  principles  of  liberty  and  of  right  so 
congenial  to  the  cause  in  which  they  had 
just  fought  and  triumphed,  they  were  able 
but  to  obtain  the  sanction  of  one  great 
and  philosophical,  though  absolute,  sov- 
ereign in  Europe  to  their  liberal  and  en- 
lightened principles.  They  could  obtain 
no  more.     Since  then  a  political  hurricane 


has  gone  over  three-fourths  of  the  civi- 
lized portions  of  the  earth,  the  desola- 
tion of  which  it  may  with  confidence  be 
expected  is  passing  away,  leaving  at  least 
the  American  atmosphere  purified  and 
refreshed.  And  now  at  this  propitious 
moment  the  new-born  nations  of  this  hemi- 
sphere, assembling  by  their  representa- 
tives at  the  isthmus  between  its  two  con- 
tinents to  settle  the  principles  of  their 
future  international  intercourse  with  other 
nations  and  with  us,  ask  in  this  great  ex- 
igency for  our  advice  upon  those  very 
fundamental  maxims  which  we  from  our 
cradle  at  first  proclaimed  and  partially 
succeeded  to  introduce  into  the  code  of 
national  law. 

Without  recurring  to  that  total  pros- 
tration of  all  neutral  and  commercial 
rights  which  marked  the  progress  of  the 
late  European  wars,  and  which  finally  in- 
volved the  United  States  in  them,  and  ad- 
verting only  to  our  political  relations 
with  these  American  nations,  it  is  ob- 
servable that  while  in  all  other  respects 
those  relations  have  been  uniformly  and 
without  exception  of  the  most  friendly 
and  mutually  satisfactory  character,  the 
only  causes  of  difference  and  dissension 
between  us  and  them  which  ever  have 
arisen  originated  in  those  never-failing 
fountains  of  discord  and  irritation — dis- 
criminations of  commercial  favor  to 
other  nations,  licentious  privateers,  and 
paper  blockades.  I  cannot  without  doing 
injustice  to  the  republics  of  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Colombia  forbear  to  acknowledge  the 
candid  and  conciliatory  spirit  with  which 
they  have  repeatedly  yielded  to  our  friend- 
ly representations  and  remonstrances  on 
these  subjects — in  repealing  discrimina- 
tive laws  which  operated  to  our  disadvan- 
tage and  in  revoking  the  commissions 
of  their  privateers,  to  which  Colombia 
has  added  the  magnanimity  of  making 
reparation  for  unlawful  captures  by  some 
of  her  cruisers  and  of  assenting  in  the 
midst  of  war  to  treaty  stipulations  favor- 
able to  neutral  navigation.  But  the  re- 
currence of  these  occasions  of  complaint 
has  rendered  the  renewal  of  the  discussion 
which  resulted  in  the  removal  of  them 
necessary,  while  in  the  mean  time  injuries 
are  sustained  by  merchants  and  other  in- 
dividuals of  the  United  States  which  can- 
not be  repaired,   and   the   remedy   lingers 


38 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


in  overtaking  the  pernicious  operation  of 
the  mischief.  The  settlement  of  general 
principles  pervading  with  equal  efficacy 
all  the  American  states  can  alone  put 
an  end  to  these  evils,  and  can  alone  be 
accomplished  at  the  proposed  assembly. 

If  it  be  true  that  the  noblest  treaty  of 
peace  ever  mentioned  in  history  is  that 
by  which  the  Carthagenians  were  bound 
to  aboli.sh  the  practice  of  sacrificing  their 
own  children  because  it  was  stipulated  in 
favor  of  human  7iature,  I  cannot  exagger- 
ate to  myself  the  unfading  glory  with 
which  these  United  States  will  go  forth  in 
the  memory  of  future  ages  if,  by  their 
friendly  counsel,  by  their  moral  influence, 
by  the  power  of  argument  and  persuasion 
alone,  they  can  prevail  upon  the  American 
nations  at  Panama  to  stipulate  by  general 
agreement  among  themselves,  and  so  far 
as  any  of  them  may  be  concerned,  the  per- 
petual abolition  of  private  war  upon  the 
ocean.  And  if  we  cannot  yet  flatter  our- 
selves that  this  may  be  accomplished,  as 
advances  towards  it  the  establishment  of 
the  principle  that  the  friendly  flag  shall 
cover  the  cargo,  the  curtailment  of  con- 
traband of  war,  and  the  proscription  of 
fictitious  paper  blockades— engagements 
which  we  may  reasonably  hope  will  not 
prove  impracticable — will,  if  successfully 
inculcated,  redound  proportionally  to  our 
honor  and  drain  the  fountain  of  many  a 
future  sanguinary  war. 

The  late  Pi'esident  of  the  United  States, 
in  his  message  to  Congress  of  Dec.  2, 
1823,  while  announcing  the  negotiation 
then  pending  with  Russia,  relating  to  the 
northwest  coast  of  this  continent,  ob- 
served that  the  occasion  of  the  discus- 
sions to  which  that  incident  had  given 
rise  had  been  taken  for  asserting  as  a 
principle  in  which  the  rights  and  inter- 
ests of  the  United  States  were  involved 
that  the  American  continents,  by  the  free 
and  independent  condition  which  they  had 
assumed  and  maintained,  were  thencefor- 
ward not  to  be  considered  as  subjects  for 
future  colonization  by  any  European 
power.  The  principle  had  first  been  as- 
sumed in  that  negotiation  with  Russia. 
It  rested  upon  a  course  of  reasoning 
equally  simple  and  conclusive.  With  the 
exception  of  the  existing  European  colo- 
nies, which  it  was  in  no  wise  intended  to 
disturb,   the   two   continents   consisted   of 


several  sovereign  and  independent  nations, 
whose  territories  coVered  their  whole  sur- 
face. By  this  their  independent  condition 
the  United  States  enjoyed  the  right  of 
commercial  intercourse  with  every  part 
of  their  possessions.  To  attempt  the  es- 
tablishment of  a.  colony  in  those  posses- 
sions would  be  to  usurp  to  the  exclusion  of 
others  a  commercial  intercourse  which 
was  the  common  possession  of  all.  It 
could  not  be  done  without  encroaching 
upon  existing  rights  of  the  United  States. 
The  government  of  Russia  has  never  dis- 
puted these  positions  nor  manifested  the 
slightest  dissatisfaction  at  their  having 
been  taken.  Most  of  the  new  American 
republics  have  declared  their  entire  assent 
to  them,  and  they  now  propose,  among  the 
subjects  of  consultation  at  Panama,  to 
take  into  consideration  the  means  of  mak- 
ing effectual  the  assertion  of  that  principle 
as  well  as  the  means  of  resisting  inter- 
ference from  abroad  with  the  domestic  con- 
cerns of  the  American  governments. 

In  alluding  to  these  means  it  would 
obviously  be  premature  at  this  time  to 
anticipate  that  which  is  offered  merely  as 
matter  for  consultation,  or  to  pronounce 
upon  those  measures  which  have  been  or 
may  be  suggested.  The  purpose  of  this 
government  is  to  concur  in  none  which 
would  import  hostility  to  Europe  or  justly 
excite  resentment  in  any  of  her  states. 
Should  it  be  deemed  advisable  to  contract 
any  conventional  engagement  on  this 
topic,  our  views  would  extend  no  further 
than  to  a  mutual  pledge  of  the  parties  to 
the  compact  to  maintain  the  principle  in 
application  to  its  own  territory,  and  to 
permit  no  colonial  lodgments  or  establish- 
ment of  European  jurisdiction  upon  its 
own  soil ;  and  with  respect  to  the  obtru- 
sive interference  from  abroad — if  its  fut- 
ure character  may  be  inferred  from  that 
which  has  been  and  perhaps  still  is  exer- 
cised in  more  than  one  of  the  new  states — 
a  joint  declaration  of  its  character  and 
exposure  of  it  to  the  world  may  be  proba- 
bly all  that  the  occasion  would  require. 
Whether  the  United  States  should  or 
should  not  be  parties  to  such  a  declaration 
may  justly  form  a  part  of  the  deliberation. 
That  there  is  an  evil  to  be  remedied  needs 
little  insight  into  the  secret  history  of  late 
years  to  know,  and  that  this  remedy  may 
best  be  concerted  at  the  Panama  meeting 


39 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


deserves  at  least  the  experiment  of  con- 
sideration. A  concert  of  measures  having 
reference  to  the  more  effectual  abolition  of 
the  African  sla^e-trade  and  the  consider- 
ation of  the  light  in  which  the  political 
condition  of  the  island  of  Hayti  is  to  be 
regarded  are  also  among  the  subjects  men- 
tioned by  the  minister  from  the  republic 
of  Colombia  as  believed  to  be  suitable  for 
deliberation  at  the  congress.  The  failure 
of  the  negotiations  with  that  republic 
undertaken  during  the  late  administration 
for  the  suppression  of  that  trade,  in  com- 
pliance with  a  resolution  of  the  House  of 
Eepresentatives,  indicates  the  expediency 
of  listening  with  respectful  attention  to 
propositions  which  may  contribute  to  the 
accomplishment  of  the  great  end  which 
was  the  purpose  of  that  resolution,  while 
the  result  of  those  negotiations  will  serve 
as  admonition  to  abstain  from  pledging 
this  government  to  any  arrangement 
which  might  be  expected  to  fail  of  obtain- 
ing the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate 
by  a  constitutional  majority  to  its  ratifi- 
cation. 

Whether  the  political  condition  of  the 
island  of  Hayti  shall  be  brought  at  all 
into  discussion  at  the  meeting  may  be 
a  question  for  preliminary  advisement. 
There  are  in  the  political  constitution  of 
government  of  that  people  circumstances 
which  have  hitherto  forbidden  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  them  by  the  government 
of  the  United  States  as  sovereign  and  in- 
dependent. Additional  reasons  for  with- 
holding that  acknowledgment  have  recent- 
ly been  seen  in  their  acceptance  of  a  nomi- 
nal sovereignty  by  the  grant  of  a  foreign 
prince  under  conditions  equivalent  to  the 
concession  by  them  of  exclusive  commer- 
cial advantages  to  one  nation,  adapted  al- 
together to  the  state  of  colonial  vassalage 
and  retaining  little  of  independence  but 
the  name.  Our  plenipotentiaries  will  be 
instructed  to  present  these  views  to  the 
assembly  at  Panama,  and,  should  they  not 
be  concurred  in,  to  decline  acceding  to  any 
arrangement  which  may  be  proposed  upon 
different  principles. 

The  condition  of  the  islands  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico  is  of  deeper  import  and 
more  immediate  bearing  upon  the  present 
interests  and  future  prospects  of  our 
jUnion.  The  correspondence  herewith 
transmitted   will    show   how    earnestly   it 


has  engaged  the  attention  of  this  govern- 
ment. The  invasion  of  both  those  islands 
by  the  united  forces  of  Mexico  and  Co- 
lombia is  avowedly  among  the  objects  to 
be  matured  by  the  belligerent  states  at 
Panama.  The  convulsions  to  which,  from 
the  peculiar  composition  of  their  jwpula- 
tion,  they  would  be  liable  in  thfe  event  of 
such  an  invasion,  and  the  danger  there- 
from resulting  of  their  falling  ultimately 
into  the  hands  of  some  European  power 
other  than  Spain,  will  not  admit  of  our 
looking  at  the  consequences  to  which  the 
congress  at  Panama  may  lead  with  indif- 
ference. It  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  upon 
this  topic  or  to  say  more  than  that  all  our 
efforts  in  reference  to  this  interest  will 
be  to  preserve  the  existing  state  of  things, 
the  tranquillity  of  the  islands,  and  the 
peace  and  security  of  their  inhabitants. 

And,  lastly,  the  congress  of  Panama  is 
believed  to  present  a  fair  occasion  for 
urging  upon  all  the  new  nations  of  the 
South  the  just  and  liberal  principles  of 
religious  liberty;  not  by  any  interference 
whatever  in  their  internal  concerns,  but 
by  claiming  for  our  citizens  whose  occupa- 
tions or  interests  may  call  them  to  occa- 
sional residence  in  their  territories  the 
inestimable  privilege  of  worshipping  their 
Creator  according  to  the  dictates  of  their 
own  consciences.  This  privilege,  sanc- 
tioned by  the  customary  law  of  nations 
and  secured  by  treaty  stipulations  in 
numerous  national  compacts — secured  even 
to  our  own  citizens  in  the  treaties  with 
Colombia  and  with  the  Federation  of  Cen- 
tral America — is  yet  to  be  obtained  in  the 
other  South  American  states  and  Mexico. 
Existing  prejudices  are  still  struggling 
against  it,  which  may,  perhaps,  be  more 
successfully  combated  at  this  general  meet- 
ing than  at  the  separate  seats  of  govern- 
ment of  each  republic. 

I  can  scarcely  deem  it  otherwise  than 
superfluous  to  observe  that  the  assembly 
will  be  in  its  nature  diplomatic  and  not 
legislative;  that  nothing  can  be  transacted 
there  obligatory  upon  any  one  of  the 
states  to  be  represented  at  the  meeting, 
unless  with  the  express  concurrence  of  its 
own  representatives,  nor  even  then, 
but  subject  to  the  ratification  of  its  con- 
stitutional authority  at  home.  The  faith 
of  the  United  States  to  foreign  powers 
cannot  otherwise  be  pledged.     I  shall,  in- 


40 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QTJINCY 


deed,  in  the  first  instance,  consider  the 
assembly  as  merely  consultative;  and  al- 
though the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  United 
States  will  be  empowered  to  receive  and 
refer  to  the  consideration  of  their  govern- 
ment any  proposition  from  the  other  par- 
ties to  the  meeting,  they  will  be  author- 
ized to  conclude  nothing  unless  subject  to 
the  definitive  sanction  of  this  government 
in  all  its  constitutional  forms.  It  has 
therefore  seemed  to  me  unnecessary  to 
insist  that  every  object  to  be  discussed  at 
the  meeting  should  be  specified  with  the 
precision  of  a  judicial  sentence,  or  enumer- 
ated with  the  exactness  of  a  mathematical 
demonstration.  The  purpose  of  the  meet- 
ing itself  is  to  deliberate  upon  the  great 
and  common  interests  of  several  new 
and  neighboring  nations.  If  the  measure 
is  new  and  without  precedent,  so  is  the 
situation  of  the  parties  to  it.  That  the 
purposes  of  the  meeting  are  somewhat  in- 
definite, far  from  being  an  objection  to  it, 
is  among  the  cogent  reasons  for  its  adop- 
tion. It  is  not  the  establishment  of  prin- 
ciples of  intercourse  with  one,  but  with 
seven  or  eight  nations  at  once.  That  be- 
fore they  have  had  the  means  of  exchang- 
ing ideas  and  communicating  with  one 
another  in  common  upon  these  topics 
they  should  have  definitely  settled  and  ar- 
ranged them  in  concert  is  to  require  that 
the  efl'ect  should  precede  the  cause;  it  is 
to  exact  as  a  preliminary  to  the  meeting 
that  for  the  accomplishment  of  which  the 
meeting  itself  is  designed. 

Among  the  inquiries  which  were  thought 
entitled  to  consideration  before  the  de- 
termination was  taken  to  accept  the  in- 
vitation was  that  whether  the  measure 
might  not  have  a  tendency  to  change  the 
policy,  hitherto  invariably  pursued  by  the 
United  States,  of  avoiding  all  entangling 
alliances  and  all  unnecessary  foreign  con- 
nections. 

Mindful  of  the  advice  given  by  the 
Father  of  our  Country  in  his  Farewell 
Address,  that  the  great  rule  of  conduct 
for  us  in  regard  to  foreign  nations  is,  in 
extending  our  commercial  relations,  to 
have  with  them  as  little  political  connec- 
tion as  possible,  and,  faithfully  adhering 
to  the  spirit  of  that  admonition,  I  can- 
not overlook  the  reflection  that  the  coun- 
sel of  Washington  in  that  instance,  like 
all  the  counsels  of  wisdom,  was  founded 


upon  the  circumstances  in  which  our  coun- 
try and  the  world  around  us  were  situ- 
ated at  the  time  when  it  was  given;  that 
the  reasons  assigned  by  him  for  his  ad- 
vice were  that  Europe  had  a  set  of  pri- 
mary interests  which  to  us  had  none  or  a 
very  remote  relation;  that  hence  she  must 
be  engaged  in  frequent  controversies,  the 
causes  of  which  were  essentially  foreign 
to  our  concern,  that  our  detached  and 
distant  situation  invited  and  enabled  us 
to  pursue  a  different  course;  that  by  our 
union  and  rapid  growth,  with  an  efficient 
government,  the  period  was  not  far  distant 
when  we  might  defy  material  injury  from 
external  annoyance,  when  we  might  take 
such  an  attitude  as  would  cause  our  neu- 
trality to  be  respected,  and,  with  refer- 
ence to  belligerent  nations,  might  choose 
peace  or  war,  as  our  interests,  guided  by 
juctice,  should  counsel. 

Compare  our  situation  and  the  circum- 
stances of  that  time  with  those  of  the 
present  day,  and  what,  from  the  very 
words  of  Washington  then,  would  be  his 
counsels  to  his  countrymen  now?  Europe 
has  still  her  set  of  primary  interests  with 
Avhich  we  have  little  or  a  remote  relation. 
Our  distant  and  detached  situation  with 
reference  to  Europe  remains  the  same. 
But  we  were  then  the  only  independent 
nation  of  this  hemisphere,  and  we  were 
surrounded  by  European  colonies,  with  the 
greater  part  of  which  we  had  no  more 
intercourse  than  with  the  inhabitants  of 
another  planet.  Those  colonies  have  now 
been  transformed  into  eight  independent 
nations,  extending  to  our  very  borders, 
seven  of  them  rei^ublics  like  ourseh'es, 
v.'ith  whom  we  have  an  immensely  growing 
commercial,  and  must  have  and  have  al- 
ready important  political,  connections, 
with  reference  to  whom  our  situation  is 
neither  distant  nor  detached;  whose  po- 
litical principles  and  systems  of  govern- 
ment, congenial  with  our  own,  must  and 
will  have  an  action  and  counteraction 
upon  us  and  ours  to  which  we  cannot  be 
indifferent  if  we  would. 

The  rapidity  of  our  growth,  and  the  con- 
sequent increase  of  our  strength,  has  more 
than  realized  the  anticipations  of  this 
admirable  political  legacy.  Thirty  years 
have  nearly  elapsed  since  it  was  written, 
and  in  the  interval  our  population,  our 
wealth,     our     territorial     extension,     our 


41 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


power — physical  and  moral — have  nearly 
trebled.  Reasoning  upon  this  state  of 
things  from  the  sound  and  judicious  prin- 
ciples of  Washington,  must  we  not  say 
that  the  period  which  he  predicted  as  then 
not  far  off  has  arrived,  that  America  has 
a  set  of  primary  interests  which  have  none 
or  a  remote  relation  to  Europe;  that  the 
interference  of  Europe,  therefore,  in  those 
concerns  should  be  spontaneously  withheld 
by  her  upon  the  same  principles  that  we 
have  never  interfered  with  hers,  and  that 
if  she  should  interfere,  as  she  may,  by 
n;easures  which  may  have  a  great  and 
dangerous  recoil  upon  ourselves,  we  might 
be  called  in  defence  of  our  own  altars  and 
firesides  to  take  an  attitude  which  would 
cause  our  neutrality  to  be  respected  and 
choose  peace  or  war,  as  our  interest, 
guided  by  justice,  should  counsel. 

The  acceptance  of  this  invitation,  there- 
fore, far  from  conflicting  with  the  coun- 
sel or  the  policy  of  Washington,  is  di- 
rectly deducible  from  and  conformable  to 
it.  Nor  is  it  less  conformable  to  the  views 
of  my  immediate  predecessors  as  declared 
in  his  annual  message  to  Congress  of  Dec. 
2,  1823,  to  which  I  have  already  adverted, 
and  to  an  important  passage  of  which  I 
invite    the    attention    of    the    House: 

"The  citizens  of  the  United  States," 
said  he,  "  cherish  sentiments  the  most 
friendly  in  favor  of  the  liberty  and  happi- 
ness of  their  fellow-men  on  that  [the  Euro- 
pean] side  of  the  Atlantic.  In  the  wars  of 
the  European  powers  in  matters  relating 
to  themselves  we  have  never  taken  any 
part,  nor  does  it  comport  with  our  policy 
so  to  do.  It  is  only  when  our  rights  are 
invaded  or  seriously  menaced  that  we  re- 
sent injuries  or  make  preparation  for  our 
defence.  With  the  movements  in  this 
hemisphere  we  are  of  necessity  more  im- 
mediately connected,  and  by  causes  which 
mvist  be  obvious  to  all  enlightened  and 
impartial  observers.  The  political  system 
of  the  allied  powers  is  essentially  differ- 
ent in  this  respect  from  that  of  America. 
This  difference  proceeds  from  that  which 
exists  in  their  respective  governments. 
And  ,to  the  defence  of  our  own,  which 
has  been  achieved  by  the  loss  of  so  much 
blood  and  treasure,  and  matured  by  the 
wisdom  of  their  most  enlightened  citizens, 
and  under  which  we  have  enjoyed  unex- 
ampled felicity,   this  whole  nation   is  de- 


voted. We  owe  it,  therefore,  to  candor 
and  to  the  amicable  relations  substitut- 
ing between  the  United  States  and  those 
powers  to  declare  that  we  should  consider 
any  attempt  on  their  part  to  extend  their 
system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere 
as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety. 
With  the  existing  colonies  or  dependencies 
of  any  European  power  we  have  not  in- 
terferred  and  shall  not  interfere;  but  with 
the  governments  who  have  declared  their 
independence  and  maintained  it,  and 
whose  independence  we  have  on  great 
consideration  and  on  just  principles  ac- 
knowledged, we  could  not  view  any  inter- 
position for  the  purposes  of  oppressing 
them  or  controlling  in  any  other  manner 
their  destiny  by  any  European  power  in 
any  other  light  than  as  the  manifestation 
of  an  unfriendly  dispositon  towards  the 
United  States.  In  the  war  between 
those  new  governments  and  Spain  we  de- 
clared our  neutrality  at  the  time  of 
their  recognition,  and  to  this  we  have 
adhered,  and  shall  continue  to  adhere, 
provided  no  change  shall  occur  which  in 
the  judgment  of  the  competent  authorities 
of  this  government  shall  make  a  corre- 
sponding change  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  indispensable  to  their  security." 

To  the  question  which  may  be  asked, 
whether  this  meeting  and  the  principles 
which  may  be  adjusted  and  settled  by 
it  as  rules  of  intercourse  between  the 
American  nations  may  not  give  umbrage 
to  the  holy  league  of  European  powers 
or  offence  to  Spain,  it  is  deemed  a  suffi- 
cient answer  that  our  attendance  at  Pana- 
ma can  give  no  just  cause  of  umbrage 
or  offence  to  either,  and  that  the  United 
States  will  stipulate  nothing  there  which 
can  give  such  cause.  Here  the  right  of 
inquiry  into  our  purposes  and  measures 
must  stop.  The  holy  league  of  Europe 
itself  was  formed  without  inquiring  of 
the  United  States  whether  it  would  or 
would  not  give  umbrage  to  them.  The 
fear  of  giving  umbrage  to  the  holy  league 
of  Europe  was  urged  as  a  motive  for  de- 
nying to  the  American  nations  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  their  independence. 
That  it  would  be  viewed  by  Spain  as  hos- 
tility to  her  was  not  only  urged,  but 
directly  declared  by  herself.  The  Con- 
gress and  administration  of  that  day  con- 
sulted  their    rights    and    duties,    and   not 


42 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 

their  fears.     Fully  determined  to  give  no  the   motives   by  which   I   have   been   gov- 
needless  displeasure  to  any  foreign  power,  erned   in  this   transaction,   as   well   as   of 
the  United  States  can  estimate  the  proba-  the    objects    to    be    discussed    and    of    the 
bility  of  their  giving  it  only  by  the  right  ends,   if   possible,   to   be   attained   by  our 
which    any    foreign    state    could    have    to  representation   at   the   proposed   congress, 
take  it  from  their  measures.     Neither  the  1   submit   the  propriety  of   an  appropria- 
representation    of    the    United    States    at  tion  to  the  candid  consideration  and  en- 
Panama  nor  any  measure  to  which  their  lightened  patriotism  of  the  legislature, 
assent  may  be  yielded  there  will  give  to  John   Quincy  Adams. 
the   holy  league   or   any   of   its   members.  Jubilee  of  the  Constitution. — The  follow- 
nor  to   Spain,   the   right  to   take   offence;  ing  is  the  address  of  Mr.  Adams  before  the 
for  the  rest,  the  United  States  must  still,  New    York    Historical    Society,    April    30, 
as    heretofore,    take    counsel    from    their  1830: 
duties  rather  than  their  fears. 

Such  are  the  objects  in  which  it  is  ex-  Would  it  be  an  unlicensed  trespass  of 
pected  that  the  plenipotentiaries  of  the  the  imagination  to  conceive  that,  on  the 
United  States,  when  commissioned  to  at-  night  preceding  the  day  of  which  you 
tend  the  meeting  at  the  Isthmus,  will  now  commemorate  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
take  part,  and  such  are  the  motives  and  — on  the  night  preceding  the  30th  of 
purposes  with  which  the  invitation  of  the  April,  1789,  when  from  the  balcony  of  your 
republics  was  accepted.  It  was,  how-  city  hall  the  Chancellor  of  the  State  of 
ever,  as  the  House  will  perceive  from  the  New  York  administered  to  George  Wash- 
correspondence,  accepted  only  upon  condi-  ington  the  solemn  oath  faithfully  to  exe- 
tion  that  the  nomination  of  commissioners  cute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
for  the  mission  should  receive  the  advice  States,  and  to  the  best  of  his  ability  to 
and  consent  of  the  Senate.  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitu- 

The   concurrence   of   the   House    to    the  tion    of    the    United    States — that    in   the 

measure,  by  the  appropriations  necessary  visions  of  the  night  the  guardian  angel  of 

for  carrying  it  into  effect,  is  alike  subject  the  Father  of  our  Country  had  appeared 

to    its    free    determination    and    indispen-  before  him,  in  the  venerated  form  of  his 

sable  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  intention.  mother,  and,  to  cheer  and  encourage  him 

That  the   congress  at  Panama  will   ac-  in  the  performance  of  the  momentous  and 

complish   all,    or   even   any,    of   the   tran-  solemn  duties  that  he  was  about  to  assume, 

scendent  benefits  to  the  human  race  which  had   delivered   to   him   a   suit   of   celestial 

warmed   the   conception   of   its    first    pro-  armor — a  helmet,   consisting  of  the   prin- 

poser,    it    were,    perhaps,    indulging    too  ciples   of   piety,    of   justice,    of   honor,    of 

sanguine  a  forecast  of  events  to  promise,  benevolence,  with  which  from  his  earliest 

It  is  in  its  nature  a  measure  speculative  infancy  he  had   hitherto   walked   through 

and  experimental.    The  blessing  of  Heaven  life,  in  the  presence  of  all  his  brethren — a 

may   turn    it    to    the   account    of   human  spear,  studded  with  the  self-evident  truths 

improvement;     accidents    vmforeseen    and  of    the    Declaration    of    Independence — a 

mischances    not    to    be    anticipated    may  sword,   the  same  with  which   he  had  led 

baffle    all    its    high    purposes    and    disap-  the  armies  of  his  country  through  the  war 

point  its  fairest  expectations.     But  the  de-  of    freedom,    to    the    summit    of    the    tri- 

sign  is  great,  is  benevolent,  is  humane.  umphal    arch    of    independence — a    corslet 

It  looks  to  the  melioration  of  the  con-  and    cuishes    of    long   experience    and    ha- 

dition  of  man.     It  is  congenial  with  that  bitual  intercourse  in  peace  and  war  Avith 

spirit  which  prompted  the  declaration  of  the  world  of  mankind,  his  contemporaries 

our  independence,  which  inspired  the  pre-  of  the  human  race,  in  all  their  stages  of 

amble   of   our    first    treaty   with    France,  civilization — and,   last  of  all,  the   Consti- 

which  dictated  our  first  treaty  with  Prus-  tution  of  the  United  States,  a  shield,  em- 

sia,  and  the  instructions  vmder  which  it  bossed  by  heavenly  hands  with  the  future 

was    negotiated,    which    filled    the    hearts  history  of  his  country, 

and  fired  the  souls  of  the  immortal  found-  Yes,    gentlemen!     on    that    shield,    the 

ers  of  our  Revolution.  Constitution    of    the    United    States,    was 

With    this    unrestricted    exposition    of  sculptured  (by  forms  unseen,  and  in  char- 

43 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


acters  then  invisible  to  mortal  eye),  the 
predestined  and  prophetic  history  of  the 
one  confederated  people  of  the  North 
American  Union. 

They  have  been  the  settlers  of  thirteen 
separate  and  distinct  English  colonies, 
along  the  margin  of  the  shore  of  the  North 
American  continent;  contiguously  situ- 
ated, but  chartered  by  adventurers  of  char- 
acters variously  diversified,  including  sec- 
tarians, religious  and  political,  of  all  the 
classes  which  for  the  two  preceding  cen- 
turies had  agitated  and  divided  the  people 
of  the  British  islands,  and  with  them 
were  intermingled  the  descendants  of  Hol- 
landers, Swedes,  Germans,  and  French 
fugitives  from  the  persecution  of  the  re- 
voker  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

In  the  bosoms  of  this  people,  thus  het- 
erogeneously  composed,  there  was  burn- 
ing, kindled  at  different  furnaces,  but  all 
furnaces  of  affliction,  one  clear,  steady 
flame  of  liberty.  Bold  and  daring  enter- 
prise, stubborn  endurance  of  2:)rivation,  un- 
flinching intrepidity  in  facing  danger,  and 
inflexible  adherence  to  conscientious  prin- 
ciple had  steeled  to  energetic  and  unyield- 
ing hardihood  the  characters  of  the  primi- 
tive settlers  of  all  these  colonies.  Since 
that  time  two  or  three  generations  of  men 
had  passed  away,  but  they  have  increased 
and  multiplied  with  unexampled  rapidity; 
and  the  land  itself  had  been  the  recent 
theatre  of  a  ferocious  and  bloody  seven 
years'  war  between  the  two  most  powerful 
and  most  civilized  nations  of  Europe,  con- 
tending for  the  possession  of  this  conti- 
nent. 

Of  that  strife  the  victorious  comba- 
tant had  been  Britain.  She  had  con- 
quered the  provinces  of  France.  She  had 
expelled  her  rival  totally  from  the  conti- 
nent, over  which,  bounding  herself  by  the 
Mississippi,  she  was  thenceforth  to  hold 
divided  empire  only  with  Spain.  She  had 
acquired  undisputed  control  over  the  Ind- 
ian tribes,  still  tenanting  the  forests  unex- 
plored by  the  European  man.  She  had 
established  an  uncontested  monopoly  of 
the  commerce  of  all  her  colonies.  But  for- 
getting all  the  warnings  of  preceding  ages 
• — forgetting  the  lessons  written  in  the 
blood  of  her  own  children,  through  cen- 
turies of  departed  time,  she  undertook  to 
tax  the  people  of  the  colonies  without  their 
consent. 


Resistance,  instantaneous,  unconcerted, 
sympathetic,  inflexible  resistance,  like  an 
electric  shock  startled  and  roused  the  peo- 
ple of  all  the  English  colonies  on  this  con- 
tinent. 

This  was  the  first  signal  for  the  North 
American  Union.  The  struggle  was  for 
chartered  rights,  for  English  liberties, 
for  the  cause  of  Algernon  Sidney  and 
John  Hampden,  for  trial  by  jury,  the 
habeas  corpus  and  Magna  Charta. 

But  the  English  lawyers  had  decided 
that  Parliament  was  omnipotent;  and 
Parliament,  in  their  omnipotence,  instead 
of  trial  by  jury  and  the  habeas  corpus, 
enacted  admiralty  courts  in  England  to  try 
Americans  for  offences  charged  against 
them  as  committed  in  America;  instead 
of  the  privileges  of  Magna  Charta,  nulli- 
fied the  charter  itself  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  shut  up  the  port  of  Boston,  sent 
armies  and  navies  to  keep  the  peace  and 
teach  the  colonies  that  John  Hampden 
was  a  rebel  and  Algernon  Sidney  a 
traitor. 

English  liberties  had  failed  them.  From 
the  omnipotence  of  Parliament  the  colo- 
nists appealed  to  the  rights  of  man  and 
the  omnipotence  of  the  god  of  battles. 
Union !  Union !  was  the  instinctive  and 
simultaneous  cry  throughout  the  land. 
Their  Congress,  assembled  at  Philadelphia, 
once — twice — had  petitioned  the  King,  had 
remonstrated  to  Parliament,  had  ad- 
dressed the  people  of  Britain  for  the 
rights  of  Englishmen — in  vain.  Fleets 
and  armies,  the  blood  of  Lexington,  and 
the  fires  of  Charlestown  and  Falmouth, 
had  been  the  answer  to  petition,  re- 
monstrance, and  address. 

Independence  was  declared.  The  colo- 
nies were  transformed  into  States.  Their 
inhabitants  were  proclaimed  to  be  one 
people,  renouncing  all  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown,  all  co-patriotism  with  the 
British  nation,  all  claims  to  chartered 
rights  as  Englishmen.  Thenceforth  their 
charter  was  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. Their  rights,  the  natural  rights  of 
mankind.  Their  government,  such  as 
should  be  instituted  by  themselves,  under 
the  solemn  mutual  pledges  of  perpetual 
union,  foimded  on  the  self-evident  truths 
proclaimed  in  the  Declaration. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
issued,   in   the   excruciating   agonies   of   a 


44 


J,       o)    .  JitLoJln'^Jb 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QXTINCY 


civil  war,  and  by  that  war  independence 
was  to  be  maintained.  Six  long  years  it 
raged  with  unabated  fury,  and  the  Union 
was  yet  no  more  than  a  mutual  pledge  of 
faith  and  a  mutual  participation  of  com- 
mon sulFerings  and  common  dangers. 

The  omnipotence  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment was  vanquished.  The  independence 
of  the  United  States  of  America  was  not 
granted,  but  recognized.  The  nation  had 
"  assumed  among  the  powers  of  the  earth 
the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God 
entitled  it  '' — but  the  one,  united  people 
had  yet  no  government. 

In  the  enthusiasm  of  their  first  spon- 
taneous, unstipulated,  unpremeditated 
union,  they  have  flattered  themselves  that 
no  general  government  would  be  required. 
As  separate  States  they  were  all  agreed 
that  they  should  constitute  and  govern 
themselves.  The  revolution  under  which 
they  were  gasping  for  life,  the  war  which 
was  carrying  desolation  into  all  their 
dwellings,  and  mourning  into  every  fam- 
ily, had  been  kindled  by  the  abuse  of 
power — the  power  of  government.  An  in- 
vincible repugnance  to  the  delegation  of 
power  had  thus  been  generated  by  the 
very  course  of  events  which  had  rendered 
it  necessary;  and  the  more  indispensable 
it  became, the  more  awakened  was  the  jeal- 
ousy and  the  more  intense  was  the  distrust 
by  which  it  was  to  be  circumscribed. 

They  relaxed  their  union  into  a  league 
of  friendship  between  sovereign  and  inde- 
pendent States.  They  constituted  a  Con- 
gress, with  powers  co-extensive  with  the 
nation,  but  so  hedged  and  hemmed  in  with 
restrictions  that  the  limitation  seemed  to 
be  the  general  rule  and  the  grant  the  oc- 
casional exception.  The  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration, subjected  to  philosophical  analy- 
sis, seem  to  be  little  more  than  an  enumer- 
ation of  the  functions  of  a  national  gov- 
ernment which  the  Congress  constituted 
by  the  instrument  was  not  authorized  to 
perform.  There  was  avowedly  no  execu- 
tive  power. 

The  nation  fell  into  an  atrophy.  The 
Union  languished  to  the  point  of  death. 
A  torpid  numbness  seized  upon  all  its 
faculties.  A  chilling,  cold  indifference 
crept  from  its  extremities  to  the  centre. 
The  system  was  about  to  dissolve  in  its 
own  Imbecility — impotence  in  negotiation 


abioad,  domestic  insurrection  at  home, 
were  on  the  point  of  bearing  to  a  dishon- 
orable grave  the  proclamation  of  a  govern- 
ment founded  on  the  rights  of  man — when 
a  convention  of  delegates  from  eleven  of 
the  thirteen  States,  with  George  Washing- 
ton at  their  head,  sent  forth  to  the  people 
an  act  to  be  made  their  own,  speaking  in 
their  name  and  in  the  first  person,  thus: 
"  We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in 
order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  estab- 
lish justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity, 
provide  for  the  common  defence,  promote 
the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  bless- 
ings of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  pos- 
terity, do  ordain  and  establish  this  Con- 
stitution for  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica."' 

Tliis  act  was  the  complement  to  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  founded 
upon  the  same  principles,  carrying  them 
out  into  practical  execution,  and  forming 
with  it  one  entire  system  of  national  gov- 
ernment. The  Declaration  was  a  mani- 
festo to  the  world  of  mankind,  to  justify 
the  one,  confederated  people  for  the  vio- 
lent and  voluntary  severance  of  the  ties 
of  their  allegiance,  for  the  renunciation 
of  their  country,  and  for  assuming  a  sta- 
tion themselves  among  the  potentates  of 
the  world — a  self-constituted  sovereign, 
a  self-constituted  country. 

In  the  history  of  the  himian  race  this 
had  never  been  done  before.  Monarchs 
had  been  dethroned  for  tyranny,  king- 
doms converted  into  republics,  and  revolt- 
ed provinces  had  assumed  the  attributes  of 
sovereign  power.  In  the  history  of  Eng- 
land itself,  within  one  century  and  a  half 
before  the  day  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, one  lawful  king  had  been 
brought  to  the  block,  and  another  expelled, 
with  all  his  posterity,  from  his  king- 
dom, and  a  collateral  dynasty  had  ascend- 
ed his  throne.  But  the  former  of  these 
revolutions  had,  by  the  deliberate  and 
final  sentence  of  the  nation  itself,  been 
pronounced  a  rebellion,  and  the  rightful 
heir  of  the  executed  king  had  been  re- 
stored to  the  crown.  In  the  latter,  at  the 
first  onset,  the  royal  recreant  had  fled — he 
was  held  to  have  abdicated  the  crown,  and 
it  was  placed  upon  the  heads  of  his  daugh- 
ter and  of  her  husband,  the  prime  leader 
of  the  conspiracy  against  him.  In  these 
events   there   had   been   much   controversy 


45 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QTJINCY 


upon  the  platform  of  English  liberties — 
upon  the  customs  of  the  ancient  Britons, 
the  laws  of  Alfred,  the  witenagemote  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  the  Great  Charter 
of  Runnymede  with  all  its  numberless  con- 
firmations. But  the  actors  of  those  times 
had  never  ascended  to  the  first  foundation 
of  civil  society  among  men,  nor  had  any 
revolutionary  system  of  government  been 
rested  upon  them. 

The  motive  for  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence was  on  its  face  avowed  to  be 
'■'  a  decent  respect  for  the  opinions  of  man- 
kind"; its  purpose,  to  declare  the  causes 
which  impelled  the  people  of  the  English 
colonies  on  the  continent  of  North  Amer- 
ica to  separate  themselves  from  the  politi- 
cal community  of  the  British  nation.  They 
declare  only  the  causes  of  their  separa- 
tion, but  they  announce  at  the  same  time 
their  assumption  of  the  separate  and  equal 
station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and 
of  nature's  God  entitle  them  among  the 
powers  of  the  earth. 

Thus  their  first  movement  is  to  recog- 
nize and  appeal  to  the  laws  of  nature  and 
to  nature's  God,  for  their  right  to  assume 
the  attributes  of  sovereign  power  as  an  in- 
dependent nation. 

The  causes  of  their  necessary  separa- 
tion, for  they  begin  and  end  by  declaring 
it  necessary,  alleged  in  the  Declaration, 
are  all  founded  on  the  same  laws  of  nature 
and  of  nature's  God;  and  hence,  as  prelim- 
inary to  the  enumeration  of  the  causes  of 
separation,  they  set  forth  as  self-evident 
truths  the  rights  of  individual  man,  by 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God,  to 
life,  to  liberty,  to  the  pursuit  of  happiness ; 
that  all  men  are  created  equal ;  that  to 
secure  the  rights  of  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness,  governments  are  in- 
stituted among  men,  deriving  their  just 
powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed. 
All  this  is  by  the  laws  of  nature  and  of 
nature's  God,  and  of  course  presupposes 
the  existence  of  a  God,  the  moral  ruler  of 
the  universe,  and  a  rule  of  right  and 
wrong,  of  just  and  unjust,  binding  upon 
man,  preceding  all  institutions  of  human 
society  and  of  government.  It  avers,  also, 
that  governments  are  instituted  to  secure 
these  rights  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God, 
and  that  whenever  any  form  of  govern- 
ment becomes  destructive  of  those  ends 
it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to 


abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a  new  govern- 
ment— to  throw  ofi"  a  government  degen- 
erating into  despotism,  and  to  provide 
new  guards  for  their  future  security. 
They  proceed  then  to  say  that  such  was 
then  the  situation  of  the  colonies,  and 
such  the  necessity  which  constrained  them 
to  alter  their  former  systems  of  govern- 
ment. 

Then  follows  the  enumeration  of  the 
acts  of  tyranny  by  which  the  King,  Parlia- 
ment, and  people  of  Great  Britain  had  per- 
verted the  powers  to  the  destruction  of  the 
ends  of  government  over  the  colonies,  and 
the  consequent  necessity  constraining  the 
colonies  to  the  separation. 

In  conclusion,  the  Representatives  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  in  general 
Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Su- 
preme Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude 
of  their  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by 
the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  these 
colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare  that 
these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States; 
that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance 
to  the  British  crown;  and  that  all  polit- 
ical connection  between  them  and  the  State 
of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  total- 
ly dissolved;  and  that,  as  free  and  inde- 
pendent States,  they  have  full  power  to 
levy  war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alli- 
ances, establish  commerce,  and  to  do  all 
other  acts  and  things  which  independent 
States  may  of  right  do.  The  appeal  to 
the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world,  and  the 
rule  of  right  and  wrong  as  paramount 
events  to  the  power  of  independent  States, 
are  here  again  repeated  in  the  very  act 
of  constituting  a  new  sovereign  commu- 
nity. It  is  not  immaterial  to  remark  that 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration,  though 
qualifying  themselves  as  the  Representa- 
tives of  the  United  States  of  America, 
in  general  Congress  assembled,  yet  issue 
the  Declaration  in  the  name  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  good  people  of  the  colo- 
nies, and  that  they  declare,  not  each  of  the 
separate  colonies,  but  the  United  Colo- 
nies, free  and  independent  States.  The 
whole  people  declared  the  colonies  in  their 
united  condition,  of  right,  free  and  inde- 
pendent States. 

The  dissolution  of  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown,  the  severance  of  the  colo- 
nies  from  the   British   empire,   and   their 


46 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


actual  existence  as  independent  States, 
thus  declared  of  right,  were  definitely  es- 
tablished in  fact,  by  war  and  peace.  The 
independence  of  each  separate  State  had 
never  been  declared  of  right.  It  never  ex- 
isted in  fact.  Upon  the  principles  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  ties  of  allegiance,  the  assump- 
tion of  sovereign  power,  and  the  institu- 
tion of  civil  government  are  all  acts  of 
transcendent  authority,  which  the  people 
alone  are  competent  to  perform;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, it  is  in  the  name  and  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  people  that  two  of  these 
acts — the  dissolution  of  allegiance,  with 
the  severance  from  the  British  empire,  and 
the  declai'ation  of  the  United  Colonies,  as 
free  and  independent  States — were  per- 
formed by  that  instrument. 

But  there  still  remained  the  last  and 
crowning  act,  which  the  people  of  the 
Union  alone  were  competent  to  perform — 
the  institution  of  civil  government  for 
that  compound  nation,  the  United  States 
of  America. 

At  this  day  it  cannot  but  strike  us  as 
extraordinary  that  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  occurred  to  any  one  member  of  that 
assembly,  which  had  laid  down  in  terms  so 
clear,  so  explicit,  so  unequivocal,  the  foun- 
dation of  all  just  government,  in  the  im- 
prescriptible rights  of  man  and  the  trans- 
cendent sovereignty  of  the  people,  and  who 
in  those  principles  had  set  forth  their  only 
personal  vindication  from  the  charges  of 
rebellion  against  their  King  and  of  treason 
to  their  country,  that  their  last  crowning 
act  was  still  to  be  performed  upon  the 
same  principles — that  is,  the  institution, 
by  the  people  of  the  United  States,  of  a 
civil  government  to  guard  and  protect  and 
defend  them  all.  On  the  contrary,  that 
same  assembly  which  issued  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  instead  of  continu- 
ing to  act  in  the  name  and  by  the  author- 
ity of  the  good  people  of  the  United  States, 
had,  immediately  after  the  appointment  of 
the  committee  to  prepare  the  Declaration, 
appointed  another  committee,  of  one  mem- 
ber from  each  colony,  to  prepare  and  digest 
the  form  of  confederation  to  be  entered 
into  between  the  colonies. 

That  committee  reported  on  the  12th 
of  July,  eight  days  after  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  had  been  issued,  a 
draft    of    Articles    of    Confederation    be- 


tween the  colonies.  This  draft  was  pre- 
pared by  John  Dickinson,  then  a  delegate 
from  Pennsylvania,  who  voted  against 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  never 
signed  it,  having  been  superseded  by  a 
new  election  of  delegates  from  the  State 
eight  days  after  this  draught  was  re- 
ported. 

There  was  thus  no  congeniality  of 
principle  between  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence and  the  Articles  of  Confeder- 
ation. The  foundation  of  the  former  were 
a  superintending  Providence,  the  rights 
of  man  and  the  constituent  revolutionary 
power  of  the  people;  that  of  the  latter 
was  the  sovereignty  of  organized  power 
and  the  independence  of  the  separate  or 
dis-united  States.  The  fabric  of  the  Dec- 
laration and  that  of  the  Confederation 
were  each  consistent  with  its  own  founda- 
tion, but  they  could  not  form  one  con- 
sistent symmetrical  edifice.  They  were 
the  productions  of  diflerent  minds  and  of 
adverse  passions — one,  ascending  for  the 
foundation  of  human  government  to  the 
laws  of  nature  and  of  God,  written  vipon 
the  heart  of  man ;  the  other,  resting  upon 
the  basis  of  human  institutions  and  pre- 
scriptive law  and  colonial  charter.  The 
corner-stone  of  the  one  was  right,  that  of 
the  other  was  power. 

The  work  of  the  founders  of  our  inde- 
pendence was  thus  but  half  done.  Absorb- 
ed in  that  more  than  herculean  task  of 
maintaining  that  independence  and  its 
principles  by  one  of  the  most  cruel  wars 
that  ever  glutted  the  furies  with  human 
woe,  they  marched  undaunted  and  stead- 
fast through  that  fiery  ordeal,  and,  con- 
sistent in  their  principles  to  the  end, 
concluded,  as  an  acknowledged  sover- 
eignty of  the  United  States,  proclaimed 
by  their  people  in  1776,  a  peace  with 
that  same  monarch  whose  sovereignty 
over  them  they  had  abjured  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's 
God. 

But  for  these  United  States  they  had 
formed  no  Constitution.  Instead  of  re- 
sorting to  the  source  of  all  constituted 
power,  they  had  wasted  their  time,  their 
talents,  and  their  persevering,  untiring 
toils  in  erecting  and  roofing  and  buttress- 
ing a  frail  and  temporary  shed  to  shelter 
the  nation  from  the  storm,  or  rather  a 
mere    baseless    scaffolding    on    which    to 


47 


ADAMS,     JOHN    QUINCY 


stand  when  they  should  raise  the  marble 
palace  of  the  people,  to  stand  the  test  of 
time. 

Five  years  were  consumed  by  Congress 
and  the  State  legislatures  in  debating  and 
altering  and  adjusting  these  Articles  of 
Confederation,  the  first  of  which  was: 

"  Each  State  retains  its  sovereignty, 
freedom,  and  independence,  and  every  pow- 
er, jurisdiction,  and  right  which  is  not  by 
this  confederation  expressly  delegated  to 
the  United  States  in  Congress  assem- 
bled." 

Observe  the  departure  from  the  lan- 
guage, and  the  consequent  contrast  of 
principles,  with  those  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

"  Each  State  retains  its  sovereignty," 
etc.  Where  did  each  State  get  the  sovereign- 
ty which  it  retains?  In  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  the  delegates  of  the  colonies 
in  Congress  assembled,  in  the  name  and  by 
the  authority  of  the  good  people  of  the 
colonies,  declare,  not  each  colony,  but  the 
United  Colonies,  in  fact,  and  of  right,  not 
sovereign,  but  free  and  independent  States. 
And  why  did  they  make  this  declaration 
in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the 
one  people  of  all  the  colonies?  Because  by 
the  principles  before  laid  down  in  the 
Declaration,  the  people,  and  the  people 
alone,  as  the  rightful  source  of  all  le- 
gitimate government,  were  competent  to 
dissolve  the  bands  of  subjection  of  all  the 
colonies  to  the  nation  of  Great  Britain, 
and  to  constitute  them  free  and  indepen- 
dent States.  Now  the  people  of  the  colo- 
nies, speaking  by  their  delegates  in  Con- 
gress, had  not  declared  each  colony  a 
sovereign,  free,  and  independent  State, 
nor  had  the  people  of  each  colony  so  de- 
clared the  colony  itself,  nor  could  they  so 
declare  it,  because  each  was  already  bound 
in  union  with  all  the  rest — a  union  formed 
de  facto,  by  the  spontaneous  revolutionary 
movement  of  the  whole  people,  and  organ- 
ized by  the  meeting  of  the  first  Congress, 
in  1774,  a  year  and  ten  months  before  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

Where,  then,  did  each  State  get  the 
sovereignty,  freedom,  and  independence 
which  the  Articles  of  Confederation  de- 
clare it  retains  ?  Not  from  the  whole  peo- 
ple of  the  whole  Union ;  not  from  the 
Declaration  of  Independence — not  from  the 
people  of  the  State  itself.    It  was  assumed 


by  agreement  between  the  legislatures  of 
the  several  States  and  their  delegates  in 
Congress,  without  authority  from  or  con- 
sultation of  the  people  at  all. 

In  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
the  enacting  and  constituent  party  dis- 
pensing and  delegating  sovereign  power 
is  the  whole  people  of  the  United  Colonies. 
The  recipient  party,  invested  with  power, 
is  the  United  Colonies,  declared  United 
States. 

In  the  Articles  of  Confederation  this 
order  of  agency  is  averted.  Each  State  is 
the  constituent  and  enacting  party,  and 
the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled 
the  recipient  of  delegated  power,  and  that 
power  delegated  with  such  a  penurious 
and  carking  hand  that  it  had  more  the 
aspect  of  a  revocation  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  than  an  instrument  to 
carry  it  into  effect. 

None  of  these  indispensably  necessary 
powers  were  ever  conferred  by  the  State 
legislatures  upon  the  Congress  of  the  con- 
federation; and  well  was  it  that  they 
never  were.  The  system  itself  was  radi- 
cally defective.  Its  incurable  disease  was 
an  apostasy  from  the  principles  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  —  a  substi- 
tution of  separate  State  sovereignties,  in 
the  place  of  the  constituent  sovereignty  of 
the  people  as  the  basis  of  the  confederate 
Union. 

In  the  Congress  of  the  confederation 
the  master  minds  of  James  Madison  and 
Alexander  Hamilton  were  constantly  en- 
gaged through  the  closing  years  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  and  those  of  peace 
which  immediately  succeeded.  That  of 
John  Jay  was  associated  with  them  short- 
ly after  the  peace,  in  the  capacity  of  Sec- 
retary to  the  Congress  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
The  incompetency  of  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation for  the  management  of  the 
affairs  of  the  Union  at  home  and  abroad 
was  demonstrated  to  them  by  the  painful 
and  mortifying  experience  of  every  day. 
W'ashington,  though  in  retirement,  was 
brooding  over  the  cruel  injustice  suffered 
by  his  associates  in  arms,  the  warriors  of 
the  Hevolution ;  over  the  prostration  of  the 
public  credit  and  the  faith  of  the  nation 
in  the  neglect  to  provide  for  the  payment 
even  of  the  interest  upon  the  public  debt; 
over  the  disappointed  hopes  of  the  friends 
of  freedom ;  in  the  language  of  the  address 


48 


ADAMS,    JOHN    QUINCY 


from  Congress  to  the  States  of  the  18th  of 
April,  1783,  "  The  pride  and  boast  of 
America,  that  the  rights  for  which  she 
contended  were  the  rights  of  human 
nature." 

At  his  residence  in  Mount  Vernon,  in 
March,  1785,  the  first  idea  was  started  of 
a  revisal  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
by  an  organization  of  means  differing 
from  that  of  a  compact  between  the  State 
legislatures  and  their  own  delegates  in 
Congress.  A  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  State  legislatures,  independent  of  the 
Congress  itself,  was  the  expedient  which 
presented  itself  for  effecting  the  purpose, 
and  an  augmentation  of  the  powers  of 
Congress  for  the  regulation  of  commerce 
as  the  object  for  which  this  assembly  was 
to  be  convened.  In  January,  1786,  the 
proposal  was  made  and  adopted  in  the 
legislature  of  Virginia  and  communicated 
to  the  other  State  legislatures. 

The  convention  was  held  at  Annapolis 
in  September  of  that  year.  It  was  attend- 
ed by  delegates  from  only  five  of  the  cen- 
tral States,  who,  on  comparing  their  re- 
stricted powers  with  the  glaring  and  uni- 
versally acknowledged  defects  of  the  con- 
federation, reported  only  a  recommenda- 
tion for  the  assemblage  of  another  con- 
vention of  delegates  to  meet  at  Philadel- 
phia in  May,  1787,  from  all  the  States 
and  with  enlarged  powers. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  the  work  of  this  convention.  But  in 
its  construction  the  convention  immediate- 
ly perceived  that  they  must  retrace  their 
steps,  and  fall  back  from  a  league  of 
friendship  between  sovereign  States  to  the 
constituent  sovereignty  of  the  people;  from 
power  to  right — from  the  irresponsible 
despotism  of  State  sovereignty  to  the  self- 
evident  truths  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. In  that  instrument  the  right 
to  institute  and  to  alter  governments 
among  men  was  ascribed  exclusively  to 
the  people;  the  ends  of  government  were 
declared  to  be  to  secure  the  natural  rights 
of  man ;  and  that  when  the  government  de- 
generates from  the  promotion  to  the  de- 
struction of  that  end,  the  right  and  the 
duty  accrued  to  the  people  to  dissolve  this 
degenerate  government  and  to  institute 
another.  The  signers  of  the  Declaration 
further  averred  that  the  one  people  of  the 
United    Colonies    were    then    precisely    in 


that  situation,  with  a  government  degen- 
erated into  tyranny,  and  called  upon  by 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  to 
dissolve  that  government  and  institute 
another.  Then,  in  the  name  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  good  people  of  the  colo- 
nies, they  pronounced  the  dissolution  of 
their  allegiance  to  the  King  and  their 
eternal  separation  from  the  nation  of 
Great  Britain,  and  declared  the  United 
Colonies  independent  States.  And  here,  as 
the  representatives  of  the  one  people,  they 
had  stopped.  They  did  not  require  the 
confirmation  of  this  act,  for  the  power 
to  make  the  declaration  had  already  been 
conferred  upon  them  by  the  people;  dele- 
gating the  power,  indeed,  separately  in 
the  separate  colonies,  not  by  colonial  au- 
thority, but  by  the  spontaneous  revolu- 
tionary movement  of  the  people  in  them 
all. 

From  the  day  of  that  declaration  the 
constituent  power  of  the  people  had  never 
been  called  into  action.  A  confederacy 
had  been  substituted  in  the  place  of  a 
government,  and  State  sovereignty  had 
usurped  the  constituent  sovereignty  of  the 
people. 

The  convention  assembled  at  Phila- 
delphia had  themselves  no  direct  authority 
from  the  people.  Their  authority  was  all 
derived  from  the  State  legislatures.  But 
they  had  the  Articles  of  Confederation  be- 
fore them,  and  they  saw  and  felt  the 
wretched  condition  into  which  they  had 
brought  the  whole  people,  and  that  the 
Union  itself  was  in  the  agonies  of  death. 
They  soon  perceived  that  the  indispensa- 
bly needed  powers  were  svich  as  no  State 
government,  no  combination  of  them,  was 
by  the  principles  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence competent  to  bestow.  They 
could  emanate  only  from  the  people.  A 
highly  respectable  portion  of  the  assembly, 
still  clinging  to  the  confederacy  of  States, 
proposed  as  a  substitute  for  the  Consti- 
tution a  mere, revival  of  the  Articles  of 
Confederation,  with  a  grant  of  additional 
powers  to  the  Congress.  Their  plan  was 
respectfully  and  thoroughly  discussed,  but 
the  want  of  a  government  and  of  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  people  to  the  delegation  of 
powers  happily  prevailed.  A  Constitu- 
tion for  the  people,  with  the  distribution 
of  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial 
powers,  was  prepared.    It  announced  itself 


I. — D 


49 


ABAMS 

as  the  work  of  the  people  themselves;  and  people,  and  distorts  the  Constitution  of  the 
as  this  was  unquestionably  a  power  as-  United  States  into  a  league  of  friendship 
sumed  by  the  convention,  not  delegated  to  between  confederate  corporations.  I  speak 
them  by  the  people,  they  religiously  con-  to  matters  of  fact.  There  is  the  Declara- 
fined  it  to  a  simple  power  to  propose,  and    tion    of    Independence,    and    there    is    the 

carefully   provided   that   it    should    be   no    Constitution    of    the    United    States let 

more  than  a  proposal  until  sanctioned  by  them  speak  for  themselves.  The  gross- 
the  confederation  Congress,  by  the  State  ly  immoral  and  dishonest  doctrine  of 
legislatures,  and  by  the  people  of  the  sev-  despotic  State  sovereignty,  the  exclusive 
eral  States,  in  conventions  specially  as-  judge  of  its  own  obligations,  and  respon- 
sembled,  by  authority  of  their  legislatures,  sible  to  no  power  on  earth  or  in  heaven 
for  the  single  purpose  of  examining  and  for  the  violation  of  them,  is  not  there, 
passing  upon  it.  The  Declaration  says,  "It  is  not  in  me." 

And  thus  was  consummated  the  work  The  Constitution  says,  "  It  is  not  in  me." 
commenced  by  the  Declaration  of  Inde-  Adams,  John  Quinct  (son  of  Charles 
pendence,  a  work  in  which  the  people  F.)  ;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  22, 
of  the  Noi'th  American  Union,  acting  1833;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1853;  was 
under  the  deepest  sense  of  responsibility  the  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  gov- 
to  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  the  universe,  had  ernorship  in  1868-69-70,  and  for  the  Unit- 
achieved  the  most  transcendent  act  of  ed  States  Vice-Presidency  on  the  ticket 
power  that  social  man  in  his  mortal  con-  with  Charles  O'Conor  in  1872.  He  died  in 
dition  can  perform,  even  that  of  dis-  Quincy,  Mass.,  Aug.  14,  1894. 
solving  the  ties  of  allegiance  by  which  he  Adams,  Julius  Walker,  engineer;  born 
is  bound  to  his  country,  of  renouncing  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  18,  1812.  He  was 
that  country  itself,  of  demolishing  its  the  pioneer  engineer  of  the  East  River 
government,  of  instituting  another  gov-  Bridge.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Dec. 
ernment,  and  of  making  for  himself  an-  13,  1899. 
other  country  in  its  stead.  Adam.s,  Robert,  Jr.,  legislator;  born  in 

The  Revolution  itself  was  a  work  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  26,  1849;  was 
thirteen  years,  and  had  never  been  com-  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
pleted  until  that  day.  The  Declaration  vania  in  1869.  He  entered  Congress  in 
of  Independence  and  the  Constitution  of  1893  as  representative  from  the  2d  Penn- 
the  United  States  are  parts  of  one  con-  sylvania  District,  and  in  1898  was  acting 
sistent  whole,  founded  upon  one  and  the  chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign 
same  theory  of  government,  then  new,  not  affairs  which  reported  the  Cuban  resolu- 
as  a  theory,  for  it  had  been  working  itself  tions  and  the  declaration  of  war  against 
into  the  mind  of  man  for  many  ages,  and    Spain. 

been  especially  expounded  in  the  writ-  Adams,  Samuel,  patriot;  born  in  Bos- 
ings  of  Locke,  but  had  never  before  been  ton,  Sept.  27,  1722;  was  graduated  at 
adopted  by  a  great  nation  in  practice.  Harvard  College  in  1742,  and  was  honored 

There  are  yet,  even  at  this  day,  many  with  the  degree  of  LL.D.  by  it  in  1792. 
speculative  objections  to  this  theory.  The  tendency  of  his  mind  was  shown  Avhen, 
Even  in  our  own  country  there  are  still  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  receiving  the  de- 
philosophers  who  deny  the  principles  as-  g^ee  of  A.M.,  he  proposed,  and  took  the 
serted  in  the  Declaration  as  self-evident  affirmative  on,  the  question  "  Whether  it 
truths,  who  deny  the  natural  equality  and  he  lawful  to  resist  the  supreme  magis- 
inalienable  rights  of  man,  who  deny  that  trate  if  the  commonwealth  cannot  other- 
the  people  are  the  only  legitimate  source  wise  be  preserved?"  He  published  a  pam- 
of  power,  who  deny  that  all  just  powers  phlet  at  about  the  same  time  entitled 
of  government  are  derived  from  the  con-  Englishmen's  Rights.  He  became  an  un- 
sent  of  the  governed.  Neither  your  time  successful  merchant,  but  a  successful 
nor,  perhaps,  the  cheerful  nature  of  this  writer;  and  gained  great  popularity  by 
occasion  permit  me  here  to  enter  upon  his  political  essays  against  the  adminis- 
the  examination  of  this  anti-revolutionary  tration  of  Governor  Shirley.  Stern  in 
theory,  which  arrays  State  sovereignty  morals,  a  born  republican,  and  with  cour- 
against  the  constituent  sovereignty  of  the    age    equal     to     his     convictions,     Samuel 

50 


ADAMS,    SAMUEL 


Adams  was  a  natural  leader  of  the  op- 
posers  of  the  Stamp  Act  and  kindred  meas- 
ures of  Parliament,  and  from  that  period 
(1765)  until  the  independence  of  the 
colonies  was  achieved  he  was  a  foremost 
leader  of  the  patriot  host.     He  suggested 


SAMUEL  ADAMS. 


the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  and  was  a  con- 
tinual object  of  dread  and  hatred  to  the 
colonial  governors.  He  proposed  the  first 
Committee  of  Correspondence  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1772;  and,  when  General  Gage 
besought  him  to  make  his  peace  with  the 
King,  he  replied,  "  I  trust  I  have  made 
my  peace  with  the  King  of  kings.  No  per- 
sonal considerations  shall  induce  me  to 
abandon  the  righteous  cause  of  my  coun- 
try." 

In  1774  he  was  the  chief  in  maturing 
the  plan  for  a  Continental  Congress;  was 
a  member  of  it;  and  served  in  that  body 
most  efficiently  from  that  time  until  1781. 
As  early  as  1769  Mr.  Adams  advocated  the 
independence  of  the  colonies,  and  was  one 
of  the  warmest  supporters  of  it  in  the 
Congress.  When  debating  on  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  Adams  said :  "  I 
should  advise  persisting  in  our  struggle 
for  liberty  though  it  were  revealed  from 
heaven  that  999  were  to  perish,  and  one 
of  1,000  were  to  survive  and  retain  his 
liberty.  One  such  freeman  must  possess 
more   virtue,   and   enjoy   more   happiness, 


than  1,000  slaves;  and  let  him  propagate 
his  like,  and  transmit  to  them  what  he  has 
so  nobly  preserved."  Mr.  Adams  assisted 
in  drafting  the  State  constitution  of  Mas- 
sachusetts (1779),  was  president  of  his 
State  Senate  (1781),  member  of  his  State 
Convention  that  ratified  the  national  Con- 
stitution, lieutenant-governor  (1789-94), 
and  governor  (1794-97).  He  sympathized 
with  the  French  Revolutionists,  and  was 
a  Jefi'ersonian  Democrat  in  politics  in  his 
latter  days.  The  purity  of  his  life  and 
his  inllexible  integrity  were  attested  by 
friends  and  foes.  Hutchinson,  in  a  letter 
to  his  government,  said  he  was  of  "  such 
an  obstinate  and  inflexible  disposition  that 
no  gift  nor  office  would  ever  conciliate 
him."  His  piety  was  sincere,  and  he  was 
a  thoroughbred  Puritan.  Without  fort- 
une, without  a  profession,  he  depended 
on  moderate  salaries  and  emoluments  of 
office ;  and  for  almost  fifty  years  a  daily 
maintenance,  frugal  in  the  extreme,  was 
eked  out  by  the  industry  and  prudence  of 
his  second  wife,  whom  he  married  in  1757. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Oct.  2,  1803. 

Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock  were 
regarded  as  arch-rebels  by  General  Gage, 
and  he  resolved  to  arrest  them  and  send 
them  to  England  to  be  tried  for  treason. 
A  capital  part  of  his  scheme,  in  sending  out 
the  expedition  to  Lexington  and  Concord 
(April  18-19,  1775),  was  the  seizure  of 
these  patriots,  who,  members  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Congress,  had  tarried  at  Lexing- 
ton on  being  informed  of  Gage's  intention 
to  arrest  them  on  their  return  to  Boston. 
They  were  at  the  house  of  Rev.  Jonas 
Clarke,  and  Gage  thought  to  surprise  and 
capture  them  at  midnight.  The  vigilant 
Warren,  learning  the  secret  of  the  expe- 
dition, sent  Paul  Revere  to  warn  the  pa- 
triots of  their  danger.  Revere  waited  at 
Charlestown  for  a  signal-light  from  the 
sexton  of  the  North  Church,  to  warn  him 
of  the  forward  movement  of  the  troops. 
It  was  given,  and  on  Deacon  Larkin's 
swift  horse  Revere  sped  to  Lexington.  At 
a  little  past  midnight  he  rode  up  to 
Clarke's  house,  which  he  found  guarded 
by  Sergeant  Monroe  and  his  men.  In  hur- 
ried words  he  asked  for  Hancock.  "  The 
family  have  retired,"  said  the  sergeant, 
"  and  I  am  directed  not  to  allow  them  to 
be  disturbed  by  any  noise."  "Noise!"  ex- 
claimed Revere;  "  you'll  have  noise  enough 


51 


ADAMS,    SAMUEL 


before  long;  the  regulars  are  coming  out!" 
He  was  then  allowed  to  knock  at  the  door. 
Mr.  Clarke  appeared  at  a  window,  when 
Revere  said,  "  1  wish  to  see  Mr.  Hancock." 
"  I  do  not  like  to  admit  strangers  into  my 
house  so  late  at  night,"  answered  Mr. 
Clarke.  Hancock,  who  was  not  asleep, 
recognized  Revere's  voice,  and  called  out, 
"  Come  in,  Revere,  we  are  not  afraid  of 
you."  The  Avarning  was  given ;  the  whole 
household  was  soon  astir,  and  the  two 
patriots  awaited  the  coming  of  the  enemy. 
When  they  approached,  the  "  arch-rebels  " 
were  persuaded  to  retire  to  a  more  secure 
retreat,  followed  by  Dorothy  Quincy,  to 
wiiom  Hancock  was  affianced  (and  whom 
he  married  in  September  following ) ,  who 
was  on  a  visit  at  Mr.  Clarke's.  When 
Adams,  from  a  wooded  hill  near  Clarke's 
house,  saw  the  beginning  of  the  skirmish 
at  Lexington,  he  exclaimed,  Avith  prophetic 
prescience,  "  What  a  glorious  morning  for 
America  is  this!"  In  a  proclamation 
(June  12)  in  which  he  denounced  those  in 
arms  and  their  abettors  to  be  "  rebels  and 
parricides  of  the  Constitution,"  and  offered 
a  free  pardon  to  all  who  should  forthwith 
return  to  their  allegi- 
ance. General  Gage  ex- 
cepted Adams  and  Han- 
cock, who  were  out- 
lawed, and  for  whom  he 
offeied  a  lewaid  as 
s  "  aich  tiaitois  " 
-  Immediately  after 
the  "  Boston  Massa- 
cie"  a  monster 
meeting  of  citi- 
7Pns      of      Boston 


OLD   SOUTH   MEETIXG-HOUSE. 


was  held  in  the  Old  South  Meeting- 
house, and  appointed  a  committee,  consist- 
ing of  Samuel  Adams.  John  Hancock, 
William     Molineaux,     William     Phillips, 


Jose])h  Warren,  Joshua  Henshaw,  and 
Samuel  Pemberton,  to  call  on  Lieutenant- 
Governor  Hutchinson  and  demand  the  re- 
moval of  the  British  troops  from  Boston, 
by  presenting  resolutions  to  that  effect 
adopted  by  the  meeting.  Adams  submit- 
ted the  resolutions.  The  lieutenant  -  gov- 
ernor and  Colonel  Dalrymple  were  dis- 
posed to  temporize.  Hutchinson  said  he 
had  no  power  to  remove  all  the  troops. 
Adams  proved  that  he  had,  by  the  terms 
of  the  charter.  Still  the  crown  officers 
hesitated.  Adams  resolved  that  there 
should  be  no  more  trifling  with  the  will 
of  the  people.  Stretching  forth  his  hand 
towards  Hutchinson,  and  in  a  voice  not 
loud  but  clear,  he  said :  "  If  you  have 
power  to  remove  one  regiment,  you  have 
power  to  remove  hoth.  It  is  at  your  peril 
if  you  do  not.  The  meeting  is  composed 
of  3,000  people.  They  are  become  very  im- 
patient. A  thousand  men  are  already  ar- 
rived from  the  neighborhood,  and  the  coun- 
try is  in  general  motion.  Night  is  ap- 
proaching; an  immediate  answer  is  ex- 
pected." This  was  the  voice  of  the 
province — of  the  continent.  Hutchinson 
grew  pale;  his  knees  trembled;  and  Adams 
afterwards  said,  "  I  enjoyed  the  sight." 
After  conferring  together  in  a  whisper, 
Hutchinson  and  Dalrymple  promised  to 
send  all  the  troops  to  Castle  William,  in 
Boston  Harbor. 

Mr.  Adams  was  early  marked  as  an  in- 
flexible patriot  and  most  earnest  promoter 
of  the  cause  of  freedom.  When  Governor 
Gage  sought  to  bribe  him  to  desist  from 
his  opposition  to  the  acts  of  Parliament 
concerning  taxation  in  America,  he  sent 
Colonel  Fenton  on  this  errand.  The  latter 
said  to  Adams  that  he  was  authorized  by 
Gage  to  assure  him  that  he  ( the  governor ) 
had  been  empowered  to  confer  upon  him 
such  beneflts  as  would  be  sati|(factory, 
upon  the  condition  that  he  would  engage 
to  cease  his  opposition  to  the  measures  of 
gOA^ernment.  He  also  obserA^ed  that  it 
Avas  the  advice  of  Governor  Gage  to  him 
not  to  incur  the  further  displeasure  of  his 
Majesty;  that  his  conduct  had  been  such 
as  made  him  liable  to  the  penalties  of  the 
Act  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Avhich  persons 
could  be  sent  to  England  for  trial  for  trea- 
son or  misprision  of  treason,  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  gOA'ernor  of  a  province;  but 
by  changing  his  political  course  he  Avould 


52 


ADAMS,    SAMUEL 


not  only  receive  great  personal  advantages, 
but  would  thereby  make  his  peace  with  his 
King.  Adams  listened  attentively,  and  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  colonel's  remarks  he 
asked  him  if  he  would  deliver  a  reply 
exactly  as  it  should  be  given.  He  assent- 
ed, when  Adams,  rising  from  his  chair  and 
assuming  a  determined  manner,  said, 
after  repeating  the  historical  words  al- 
ready quoted,  "  No  personal  considera- 
tion shall  induce  me  to  abandon  the  right- 
eous cause  of  my  country.  Tell  Governor 
Gage  it  is  the  advice  of  Samuel  Adams  to 
him  no  longer  to  insult  the  feelings  of  an 
exasperated  people." 

Protest  against  Taxation. — On  May  24, 
1764,  Samuel  Adams  addressed  the  fol- 
lowing protest  to  Royal  Tyler,  James 
Otis,  Thomas  Gushing,  and  Oxenbridge 
Thacher: 

Gentlemen, — Your  being  chosen  by  the 
freeholders  and  inhabitants  of  the  town 
of  Boston  to  represent  them  in  the  General 
Assembly  the  ensuing  year  affords  you 
the  strongest  testimony  of  that  confidence 
which  they  place  in  your  integrity  and 
capacity.  By  this  choice  they  have  dele- 
gated to  you  the  power  of  acting  in  their 
public  concerns  in  general  as  your  own 
prudence  shall  direct  you,  always  reserv- 
ing to  themselves  the  constitutional  right 
of  expressing  their  mind  and  giving  you 
such  instructions  upon  particular  matters 
as  they  at  any  time  shall  judge  proper. 

We  therefore,  your  constituents,  take 
this  opportunity  to  declare  our  just  ex- 
pectations from  you,  that  you  will  con- 
stantly use  your  power  and  influence  in 
maintaining  the  valuable  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  the  province,  of  which  this  town 
is  so  great  a  part,  as  well  those  rights 
which  are  derived  to  us  by  the  royal 
charter  as  those  which,  being  prior  to  and 
independent  of  it,  we  hold  essentially  as 
free-born  subjects  of  Great  Britain. 

That  you  will  endeavor,  as  far  as  you 
shall  be  able,  to  preserve  that  indepen- 
dence in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives which  characterizes  a  free  people, 
and  the  want  of  which  may  in  a  great 
measure  prevent  the  happy  efforts  of  a  free 
government,  cultivating  as  you  shall  have 
opportunity  that  iiarmony  and  union  there 
which  is  ever  desirable  to  good  men,  which 
is    founded   on    principles    of    virtue    and 


public  spirit,  and  guarding  against  any 
undue  weight  which  may  tend  to  disad- 
just  that  critical  balance  upon  which  our 
Constitution  and  the  blessings  of  it  do  de- 
pend. And  for  this  purpose  we  particu- 
larly recommend  it  to  you  to  use  your  en- 
deavors to  have  a  law  passed  whereby 
the  scats  of  such  gentlemen  as  shall  ac- 
cept of  posts  of  profit  from  the  crown  or 
the  governor,  while  they  are  members  of 
the  House,  shall  be  vacated  agreeably  to 
an  act  of  the  British  Parliament,  till  their 
constituents  shall  have  the  opportunity  of 
re-electing  them,  if  they  please,  or  of  re- 
turning others  in  their  room. 

Being  members  of  the  legislative  body, 
you  will  have  a  special  regard  to  the  mor- 
als of  this  people,  which  are  the  basis  of 
public  happiness,  and  endeavor  to  have 
such  laws  made,  if  any  are  still  wanting, 
as  shall  be  best  adapted  to  secure  them; 
and  we  particularly  desire  you  carefully 
to  look  into  the  laws  of  excise,  that  if  the 
virtue  of  the  people  is  endangered  by  the 
multiplicity  of  oaths  therein  enjoined,  or 
their  trade  and  business  is  unreasonably 
impeded  or  embarrassed  thereby,  the  griev- 
ance may  be  redressed. 

As  the  preservation  of  morals,  as  well 
as  of  property  and  right,  so  much  depends 
upon  the  impartial  distribution  of  justice, 
agreeable  to  good  and  wholesome  law; 
and  as  the  judges  of  the  land  do  depend 
upon  the  free  grants  of  the  General  As- 
sembly for  support,  it  is  incumbent  upon 
you  at  all  times  to  give  your  voice  for 
their  honorable  maintenance,  so  long  as 
they,  having  in  their  minds  an  indiffer- 
ence to  all  other  affairs,  shall  devote 
themselves  wholly  to  the  duties  of  their 
own  department  and  the  further  study  of 
the  law,  by  which  their  customs,  prece- 
dents, proceedings,  and  determinations  are 
adjusted  and  limited. 

You  will  remember  that  this  province 
hath  been  at  a  very  great  expense  in  carry- 
ing on  the  war,  and  that  it  still  lies  under 
a  very  grievous  burden  of  debt;  you  Avill 
therefore  use  your  utmost  endeavor  to 
promote  public  frugality  as  one  means  to 
lessen  the  public  debt. 

You  will  join  in  any  proposals  which 
may  be  made  for  the  better  cultivating 
the  lands  and  improving  the  husbandry 
of  the  province;  and  as  you  represent  a 
town  which  lives  by  its  trade,  we  expect 


53 


ADAMS,    SAMUEL 


in  a  very  particular  manner,  though  you 
make  it  the  object  of  your  attention  to 
support  our  commerce  in  all  its  just 
rights,  to  vindicate  it  from  all  unreasona- 
ble impositions  and  jDromote  its  prosperity. 
Our  trade  has  for  a  long  time  labored 
under  great  dicouragements,and  it  is  with 
the  deepest  concern  that  we  see  such  fur- 
ther difficulties  coming  upon  it  as  will  re- 
duce it  to  the  low  ebb,  if  not  totally  ob- 
struct and  ruin  it.  We  cannot  help  ex- 
pressing our  surprise  that  when  so  early 
notice  was  given  by  the  agent  of  the  inten- 
tions of  the  ministry  to  bvirden  us  with 
new  taxes,  so  little  regard  was  had  to  this 
most  interesting  matter  that  the  Court 
was  not  even  called  together  to  consult 
about  it  till  the  latter  end  of  the  year ;  the 
consequence  of  which  was  that  instruc- 
tions could  not  be  sent  to  the  agent,  though 
solicited  by  him,  till  the  evil  had  gone  be- 
yond an  easy  remedj^ 

There  is  no  room  for  further  delay;  we 
therefore  expect  that  you  will  use  your 
earliest  endeavors  in  the  General  Assem- 
bly that  such  methods  may  be  taken  as 
will  effectually  prevent  these  proceedings 
against  us.  By  a  proper  representation 
we  apprehend  it  may  easily  be  made  to 
appear  that  such  severities  will  prove  det- 
rimental to  Great  Britain  itself;  upon 
which  account  we  have  reason  to  hope  that 
an  application,  even  for  a  repeal  of  the 
act,  should  it  be  already  passed,  will  be 
successful.  It  is  the  trade  of  the  colonies 
that  renders  them  beneficial  to  the  mother 
country;  our  trade,  as  it  is  now  and  al- 
ways has  been  conducted,  centres  in  Great 
Britain,  and,  in  return  for  her  manufact- 
ures, affords  her  more  ready  cash  beyond 
any  comparison  than  can  possibly  be  ex- 
pected by  the  most  sanguinary  promoter 
of  these  extraordinary  methods.  We  are, 
in  short,  ultimately  yielding  large  supplies 
to  the  revenues  of  the  mother  country, 
while  we  are  laboring  for  a  very  moderate 
subsistence  for  ourselves.  But  if  our  trade 
is  to  be  curtailed  in  its  most  profitable 
branches,  and  burdens  beyond  all  possible 
bearing  laid  upon  that  which  is  suffered 
to  remain,  we  shall  be  so  far  from  being 
able  to  take  off  the  manufactures  of  Great 
Britain,  though  it  will  be  scarce  possi- 
ble for  us  to  earn  our  bread. 

But  what  still  heightens  our  appre- 
hensions   is    that    these    unexpected    pro- 


ceedings may  be  preparatory  to  new  tax- 
ations upon  us;  for  if  our  trade  may  be 
taxed,  why  not  our  lands?  Why  not  the 
jjroduce  of  our  lands  and  everything  we 
possess  or  make  use  of?  This  we  apprehend 
annihilates  our  charter  right  to  govern 
and  tax  ourselves.  It  strikes  at  our  British 
privileges,  which,  as  we  have  never  for- 
feited them,  we  hold  in  common  with  our 
fellow-subjects  who  are  natives  of  Britain. 
If  taxes  are  laid  upon  us  in  any  shape 
without  our  having  a  legal  representation 
where  they  are  laid,  are  we  not  reduced 
from  the  character  of  free  subjects  to  the 
miserable  state  of  tributary  slaves? 

We  therefore  earnestly  recommend  it 
to  you  to  use  your  utmost  endeavors  to 
obtain  in  the  General  Assembly  all  neces- 
sary instruction  and  advice  to  our  agent 
at  this  critical  juncture ;  that  while  he  is 
setting  forth  the  unshaken  loyalty  of  this 
province  and  this  town — its  unrivalled  ex- 
ertion in  supporting  his  Majesty's  gov- 
ernment and  rights  in  this  part  of  his 
dominions — its  acknowledged  dependence 
upon  and  subordination  to  Great  Britain, 
and  the  ready  submission  of  its  merchants 
to  all  just  and  necessary  regulations  of 
trade,  he  may  be  able  in  the  most  humble 
and  pressing  manner  to  remonstrate  for 
us  all  those  rights  and  privileges  which 
justly  belong  to  us  either  by  charter  or 
birth. 

As  his  Majesty's  other  Northern  Amer- 
ican colonies  are  embarked  with  us  in  this 
most  important  bottom,  we  further  desire 
you  to  use  your  endeavors  that  their 
weight  may  be  added  to  that  of  this  prov- 
ince, that  by  the  united  application  of  all 
who  are  aggrieved,  all  may  happily  obtain 
redress. 

Rights  of  the  Colonists. — On  Nov.  20, 
1772,  he  made  the  following  report: 


AS  MEN. 

Among  the  natural  rights  of  the  colo- 
nists are  these:  First,  a  right  to  life. 
Second,  to  liberty.  Thirdly,  to  property; 
together  with  the  right  to  support  and  de- 
fend them  in  the  best  manner  they  can. 
These  are  evident  branches  of,  rather  than 
deductions  from,  the  duty  of  self-preser- 
vation, commonly  called  the  first  law  of 
nature. 

All  men  have  a  right  to  remain  in  a 
state  of  nature  as  long  as  they  please,  and 


54 


ADAMS,    SAMUEL 


in  case  of  intolerable  oppression,  civil  or  far  as  possible  into  the  states  under  whose 

religious,  to  leave  the  society  they  belong  protection    they    enjoy    life,    liberty,    and 

to  and  enter  into  another.  property,  that  solecism  in  politics,  impe- 

When   men   enter   into    society   it   is   by  rium   in  imperio,   leading   directly   to   the 

voluntary  consent,  and  they  have  a  right  worst    anarchy    and    confusion,    civil    dis- 

to  demand  and   insist  upon   the  perform-  cord,  war,  and  bloodshed, 

ance  of  such  conditions  and  previous  lim-  The  natural  liberty  of  man  by  entering 

itations  as  form  an  equitable  original  com-  into  society  is  abridged  or  restrained,  so 

pact.  far  only  as  is  necessary  for  the  great  end 

Every  natural   right  not  expressly  giv-  of  society — the  best  good  of  the  whole. 

en  up,  or  from  the  nature  of  a  social  com-  In   the   state   of   nature   every   man   is, 

pact  necessarily  ceded,  remains.  under   God,   judge   and   sole   judge   of   his 

All  positive  and  civil  laws  should  con-  own  rights  and  of  the  injuries  done  him. 

form,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  law  of  nat-  By  entering  into  society  he  agrees  to  an 

ural  reason  and  equity.  arbiter  or   indifferent  judge  between  him 

As  neither  reason  requires  nor  religion  and  his  neighbors ;  but  he  no  more  re- 
permits  the  contrary,  every  man  living  in  nounces  his  original  right,  thereby  taking 
or  out  of  a  state  of  civil  society  has  a  a  cause  out  of  the  ordinary  course  of  law, 
right  peaceably  and  quietly  to  worship  and  leaving  the  decision  to  referees  or  in- 
God  according  to  the  dictates  of  his  con-  different  arbitrators.  In  the  last  case,  he 
science.  must  pay  the  referee  for  time  and  trouble. 

"  Just  and  true  liberty,  equal   and  im-  He  should  also  be  willing  to  pay  his  just 

partial  liberty,"  in  matters  spiritual  and  quota  for  the  support  of  the  government, 

temporal  is  a  thing  that  all  men  are  clear-  the    law,    and    the    Constitution,    the   end 

ly  entitled  to  by  the  eternal  and  immuta-  of  which  is  to  furnish  indifferent  and  im- 

ble  laws  of  God  and  nature,  as  well  as  by  partial  judges  in  all  cases  that  may  hap- 

the  laws  of  nations  and  all  well-grounded  jien,   whether   civil,   ecclesiastical,  marine, 

and    municipal    laws,    which    must    have  or  military, 

their  foundation  in  the  former.  The    natural    liberty   of   man    is    to    be 

In  regard  to  religion,  mutual  toleration  free  from  any  superior  power  on  earth, 
in  the  different  professions  thereof  is  what  and  not  to  be  under  the  will  or  legisla- 
all  good  and  candid  minds  in  all  ages  five  authority  of  man,  but  only  to  have 
have  ever  practised,  and  both  by  precept  the  law  of  nature  for  his  rule, 
and  example  inculcated  on  mankind.  It  In  the  state  of  nature  men  may,  as  the 
is  now  generally  agreed  among  Christians  patriarchs  did,  employ  hired  servants  for 
that  this  spirit  of  toleration,  in  the  fullest  the  defence  of  their  lives,  liberties,  and 
extent  consistent  with  the  being  of  civil  property,  and  they  shall  pay  them  reason- 
society,  is  the  chief  characteristical  mark  able  wages.  Government  was  instituted 
of  the  true  Church.  In  so  much  that  Mr.  for  the  purpose  of  common  defence,  and 
Locke  has  asserted  and  proved,  beyond  the  those  who  hold  the  reins  of  government 
possibility  of  contradiction  on  any  solid  have  an  equitable,  natural  right  to  an  hon- 
ground,  that  such  toleration  ought  to  be  orable  support  from  the  same  principle  that 
extended  to  all  whose  doctrines  are  not  "'  the  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire."  But 
subversive  of  society.  The  only  sects  then  the  same  community  which  they 
which  he  thinks  ought  to  be,  and  which  by  serve  ought  to  be  the  assessors  of  their 
all  wise  laws  are,  excluded  from  such  tol-  pay.  Governors  have  a  right  to  seek  and 
eration  are  those  who  teach  doctrines  sub-  take  what  they  please:  by  this,  instead  of 
versive  of  the  civil  government  under  being  content  with  the  station  assigned 
which  they  live.  The  Roman  Catholics,  or  them,  that  of  honorable  servants  of  the 
Papists,  are  excluded  by  reason  of  such  society,  they  would  soon  become  absolute 
doctrines  as  these:  That  princes  excom-  masters,  despots,  and  tyrants.  Hence,  as 
municated  may  be  deposed,  and  those  that  a  private  man  has  a  right  to  say  what 
they  call  heretics  may  be  destroyed  with-  wages  he  will  give  in  his  private  affairs, 
out  mercy;  besides  their  recognizing  the  so  has  a  community  to  determine  what 
Pope  in  so  absolute  a  manner,  in  sub-  they  will  give  and  grant  of  their  substance 
version  on  government,  by  introducirrg,  as  for   the   administration   of   public   affairs. 

55 


ADAMS,    SAMUEL 


And  in  both  cases  more  are  ready  to  ofTer 
their  service  at  the  proposed  and  stipu- 
lated price  than  are  able  and  willing  to 
perform  their  duty. 

In  short,  it  is  the  greatest  absurdity  to 
suppose  it  in  the  power  of  one,  or  of  any 
number  of  men,  at  the  entering  into  so- 
ciety to  renounce  their  essential  natural 
rights,  or  the  means  of  preserving  those 
rights,  when  the  grand  end  of  civil  govern- 
ment, from  the  very  nature  of  its  institu- 
tion, is  for  the  support,  protection,  and 
defence  of  those  very  rights;  the  principal 
of  which,  as  is  before  observed,  are  life, 
liberty,  and  property.  If  men,  through 
fear,  fraud,  or  mistake,  should  in  terms  re- 
nounce or  give  up  any  essential  natural 
right,  the  eternal  law  of  reason  and  the 
grand  end  of  society  would  absolutely  va- 
cate such  renunciation.  The  right  of  free- 
dom being  the  gift  of  God  Almighty,  it  is 
not  in  the  power  of  man  to  alienate  this 
gift  and  voluntarily  become  a  slave. 

AS    CHRISTIANS. 

These  may  be  best  understood  by  read- 
ing and  carefully  studying  the  institutes 
of  the  great  Law-giver  and  head  of  the 
Christian  Church,  which  are  to  be  found 
clearly  written  and  promulgated  in  the 
New  Testament. 

By  an  act  of  the  British  Parliament 
commonly  called  the  Toleration  Act,  every 
subject  in  England,  except  Papists,  etc., 
were  restored  to,  and  re-established  in,  his 
natural  right  to  worship  God  according 
to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience.  And 
by  the  charter  of  this  province  it  is  grant- 
ed, ordained,  and  established  (that  is,  de- 
clared as  an  original  right)  that  there 
shall  be  liberty  of  conscience  allowed  in 
the  worship  of  God  to  all  Christians,  ex- 
cept Papists,  inhabiting,  or  which  shall 
inhabit  or  be  resident  within,  such  prov- 
ince or  territory.  Magna  Charta  itself  is 
in  substance  but  a  constrained  declaration 
or  proclamation  and  promulgation  in  the 
name  of  King,  Lords,  and  Commons,  of  the 
sense  the  latter  had  their  original,  inher- 
ent, indefeasible,  natural  rights,  as  also 
those  of  free  citizens  equally  perdurable 
with  the  other.  That  great  author,  that 
gi-eat  jurist,  and  even  that  court  writer, 
Mr.  Justice  Blackstone,  holds  that  this 
recognition  was  justly  obtained  of  King 
John,  sword  in  hand.  And  peradventure 
it  must  be  one  day,  sword  in  hand,  again 

56 


rescued  and  preserved  from  total  destruc- 
tion and  oblivion. 

AS  SUBJECTS. 

A  commonwealth  or  state  is  a  body 
politic,  or  civil  society  of  men  united  to- 
gether to  promote  their  mutual  safety  and 
prosperity  by  means  of  their  union. 

The  absolute  right  of  Englishmen  and 
all  freemen,  in  or  out  of  civil  society, 
are  principally  personal  security,  personal 
liberty,  and  private  property. 

All  persons  born  in  the  British  Ameri- 
can Colonies  are  by  the  laws  of  God  and 
nature,  and  by  the  common  law  of  Eng- 
land, exclusive  of  all  charters  from  the 
Crown,  well  entitled,  and  by  acts  of  the 
British  Parliament  are  declared  to  be  en- 
titled, to  all  the  natural,  essential,  in- 
herent, and  inseparable  rights,  liberties, 
and  privileges  of  subjects  born  in  Great 
Britain  or  within  the  realm.  Among  these 
rights  are  the  following,  which  no  man, 
or  body  of  men,  consistently  with  their 
own  rights  as  men  and  citizens,  or  mem- 
bers of  society,  can  for  themselves  give  up 
or  take  away  from  others: 

First.  The  first  fundamental  positive 
law  of  all  commonwealths  or  states  is 
the  establishing  the  legislative  power.  As 
the  first  fundamental  natural-  law,  also, 
which  is  to  govern  even  the  legislative 
power  itself  is  the  preservation  of  the  so- 
ciety. 

Secondly.  The  legislative  has  no  right 
to  absolute  arbitrary  power  over  the  lives 
and  fortunes  of  the  people ;  nor  can  mor- 
tals assume  a  prerogative  not  only  too 
high  for  men,  but  for  angels,  and  there- 
fore reserved  for  the  Deity  alone. 

The  legislative  cannot  justly  assume  to 
itself  a  power  to  rule  by  extempore  arbi- 
trary decrees;  but  it  is  bound  to  see  that 
justice  is  dispensed,  and  that  the  rights  of 
the  subjects  be  decided  by  promulgated 
standing,  and  known  laws,  and  authorized 
independent  judges;  that  is,  independent, 
as  far  as  possible,  of  prince  and  people. 
There  should  be  one  rule  of  justice  for 
rich  and  poor,  for  the  favorite  at  court, 
and  the  countryman  at  the  plough. 

Thirdly.  The  supreme  power  cannot 
justly  take  from  any  man  any  part  of  his 
property  without  his  consent  in  person 
or  by  his  representative. 

These  are  some  of  the  first  principles 
of  natural  law  and  justice,  and  the  great 


ADAMS— ADEE 


barriers  of  all  free  states,  and  of  the  Brit-  Ireland  together;  yet  it  is  absurdly  ex- 
ish  constitution  in  particular.  It  is  ut-  pected  by  the  promoters  of  the  present 
terly  irreconcilable  to  these  principles,  and  measure  that  these,  with  their  posterity 
to  any  other  fundamental  maxims  of  the  to  all  generations,  should  be  easy  while 
common  law,  common-sense,  and  reason,  their  property  shall  be  disposed  of  by  a 
that  a  British  House  of  Commons  should  House  of  Commons  at  3,000  miles  dis- 
have  a  right  at  pleasure  to  give  and  grant  tant  from  them,  and  who  cannot  be 
the  property  of  the  colonists.  (That  the  supposed  to  have  the  least  care  or  con- 
colonists  are  well  entitled  to  all  the  es-  cern  for  their  real  interest,  but  must 
sential  rights,  liberties,  and  privileges  of  be  in  effect  bribed  against  it,  as  every 
men  and  freemen  born  in  Britain  is  niani-  burden  they  lay  on  the  colonists  is  so 
fest  not  only  from  the  colony  charters  in  much  saved  or  gained  to  themselves. 
general,  but  acts  of  the  British  Parlia-  Hitherto  many  of  the  colonists  have  been 
ment.)  The  statute  of  the  13th  of  Geo.  free  from  quit  rents;  but  if  the  breath 
II.,  c.  7,  naturalizes  every  foreigner  after  of  a  British  House  of  Commons  can 
seven  years'  residence.  The  words  of  the  originate  an  act  for  taking  away  all  our 
Massachusetts  charter  are  these:  "And  money,  our  lands  will  go  next,  or  be  sub- 
further,  our  will  and  pleasure  is,  and  we  ject  to  rack  rents  from  haughty  and  re- 
do hereby,  for  us,  our  heirs  and  successors,  lentless  landlords,  who  will  ride  at  ease 
grant,  establish,  and  ordain  that  all  and  while  we  are  trodden  in  the  dirt.  The 
every  of  the  subjects  of  us,  our  heirs  and  colonists  have  been  branded  with  the 
successors,  which  shall  go  to  and  inhabit  odious  names  of  traitors  and  rebels  only 
within  our  said  Province  or  Territory,  and  for  complaining  of  their  grievances.  How 
every  of  their  children  which  shall  happen  long  such  treatment  will  or  ought  to-  be 
to  be  born  there  or  on  the  seas  in  going  borne  is  submitted. 

thither    or    returning    from    thence,    shall        Addams,  Jane,  social  reformer ;  born  in 

have  and  enjoy  all  liberties  and  immunities  Cedarville,  111.,  Sept.  6,  1860;  was  gradu- 

of  free  and  natural  subjects  within  any  of  ated    at   Rockford    College   in    1881,    and, 

the  dominions  .of  us,   our  heirs   and   sue-  after    spending    some    time    in    study    in 

cessors,  to  all  intents,  constructions,  and  Europe,  established  the  Social  Settlement 

purposes  whatsoever,  as  if  they  and  every  of  Hull  House  in  Chicago,  of  which  she  be- 

one  of  them   were   born  within  this,   our  came    head    resident.      She    is    widely    es- 

realm  of  England."  teemed   for  her  writings  and   lectures   on 

Now  what  liberty  can  there  be  where  Social  Settlement  work, 
property  is  taken  away  without  consent?  Addicks,  John  Edward,  capitalist; 
Can  it  be  said  with  any  color  of  truth  born  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  21,  1841.  In- 
and  justice  that  this  continent  of  3,000  terested  in  gas  companies.  He  was  a  can- 
miles  in  length,  and  of  a  breadth  as  didate  for  United  States  Senator  from 
yet  unexplored,  in  which,  however,  it  is  Delaware  for  several  years,  but  failed  of 
supposed  there  are  5,000,000  of  people,,  election.  His  adherents  prevented  the 
has  the  least  voice,  vote,  or  influence  in  election  of  any  one,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  British  Parliament?  Have  they  alto-  Delaware  has  been  unrepresented  in  the 
gether  any  more  weight  or  power  to  return  United  States  Senate  for  several  years. 
a  single  member  to  that  House  of  Com-  Adee,  Al\'ey  Augustus,  diplomatist: 
mons  who  have  not  inadvertently,  but  de-  born  in  Astoria,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  27,  1842;  was 
liberately,  assumed  a  power  to  dispose  of  educated  privately.  On  Sept.  9,  1870,  he 
their  lives,  liberties,  and  properties,  than  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  American 
to  choose  an  emperor  of  China?  Had  the  legation  in  Madrid,  where  he  also  served 
colonists  a  right  to  return  members  to  at  different  times  as  charge  d'affaires ; 
the  British  Parliament,  it  would  only  be  July  9,  1877,  was  transferred  to  the  De- 
hurtful,  as,  from  their  local  situation  and  partment  of  State  in  Washington,  D.  C. ; 
circumstances  it  is  impossible  they  should  June  11,  1878,  became  chief  of  the  Diplo- 
ever  be  truly  and  properly  represented  matic  Bureau;  July  18,  1882,  third  assist- 
there.  The  inhabitants  of  this  country,  in  ant  Secretary  of  State;  and  Aug.  3,  1886, 
all  probability,  in  a  few  years,  will  be  more  second  assistant  Secretary  of  State.  He 
numerous  than  those  of  Great  Britain  and  was  present  when  the  peace  protocols  were 

57 


ADET— ABLER 


signed    between    the    United    States    and  n'ient,  in  this  respect,  violated  the  obliga- 

Spain,  in  Washington.  tions  of  treaties."     This  was  followed  by 

Adet,  Pierre  Augustus,  French  diplo-  a  summary  of  these  alleged  violations,  in- 

matist;  born  in  Nevers  in  1763.     He  was  eluding  the   circular   of    1793,   restraining 

ambassador  to  the  United  States  in  1795-  the  fitting-out  of  privateers  in  American 

97.     Here  he  interfered  too  much  in  local  v/aters;  the  law  of  1794,  prohibiting  hos- 

politics,   and   became  unpopular   with   the  tile    enterprises    or    preparations    against 

government  party.     He  issued  an  inflani-  nations  with  whom  the  United  States  were 

matory  address  to  the  American  people,  in  at  peace;  the  cognizance  of  these  matters 

which    he    accused    the   administration   of  taken  by  the  American  courts  of  law;  and 


Washington  with  violations  of  the  friend- 
ship which  once  existed  between  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  France.  On  Nov.  5,  1796, 
he  issued  the  famous  "  cockade "  procla- 
mation, or  order,  calling  upon  all  French- 
men in  the  United  States,  in  the  name  of 


the  admission  of  armed  British  vessels 
into  American  waters.  He  complained  of 
the  "  British  treaty "  as  inimical  to  the 
interests  of  France.  This  paper,  published 
in  the  Aurora,  was  intended  more  for  the 
American   people   than   for   the   American 


the  French  Directory,  to  mount  and  wear  government.  While  in  the  United  States 
the  tricolored  cockade,  "  the  symbol  of  a  he  was  a  busy  partisan  of  the  Repub-' 
liberty  the  fruit  of  eight  years'  toil  and  licans.  In  1796  he  presented  to  Con- 
five  years'  victories."  Adet  declared  in  gress,  in  behalf  of  the  French  nation,  the 
his  proclamation  that  any  Frenchman  who  tricolored  flag  of  France;  and  just  before 
might  hesitate  to  give  this  indication  of  he  left,  in  1797,  he  sent  to  the  Secre- 
adherence  to  the  republic  should  not  be  tary  of  State  the  famous  note  in  which  the 
allowed   the   aid   of   the   French   consular  Directory,    contrary   to   the   spirit   of   the 


chanceries  or  the  national  protection.  The 
tricolored  cockade  was  at  once  mounted, 
not  only  by  the  French  residents,  but  by 
many  American  citizens  who  wished  to 
signify  in  this  marked  manner  their  at- 
tachment to  the  French  Republic.  This 
"  cockade  proclamation,"  as  the  Federal- 
ists called  it  in  derision,  was  the  origin 
of  the  practice,  for  several  years,  of 
wearing  a  cockade  as  a  badge  of  party 
distinction. 


treaty  of  1778,  declared  that  the  flag  of 
the  republic  would  treat  all  neutral  flags 
as  they  permitted  themselves  to  be  treated 
by  the  English.  Soon  afterwards  Adet 
suspended  his  diplomatic  functions  and 
returned  to  France,  where  he  died  in  1832. 
Adirondack  Park,  a  tract  in  the 
Adirondack  Moimtain  region  covering 
Hamilton  county  and  parts  of  Essex, 
Franklin,  Herkimer,  and  St.  Lawrence 
counties ;  containing  numerous  mountains, 


Ten    days    after    the    issuance    of    this  peaks,  lakes,  and  woodlands.     It  was  set 

proclamation  he  sent  a  note  simultaneous-  apart  by  the  State  of  New  York  in  1892 

]y   to   the    State   Department   and   to   the  for  the  protection  of  the  watershed  of  the 

Aiirora — the     opposition     newspaper — de-  Hudson  and  other  rivers,  for  the  practical 

manding,    "  in    the    name    of   the    faith    of  study  of   forestry,   and  for   public  recrea- 

treaties  and  of  American  honor,  the  exe-  tion.     The    tract    has    an    area    of    4,387 


cution  of  that  contract  [treaty  of  1778] 
which  assured  to  the  United  States  their 
existence,  and  which  France  regarded  as  a 
pledge  of  the  most  sacred  union  between 
two  people,  the  freest  upon  earth."  He 
announced,  at  the  same  time,  "  the  resolu- 
tion of  a  government  terrible  to  its  ene- 
mies,  but  generous   to   its   allies."     With 


square  miles.  The  study  of  forestry  is 
here  carried  on  under  the  direction  of 
the  newly  established  State  School  of 
Forestry,  a  department  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity   ( q.  V. ) . 

Adler,  Felix,  educator;  born  in  Alzey, 
Germany,  Aug.  13,  1851 ;  was  graduated 
at  Columbia  University  in  1870  and  then 


grandiloquent   sentences  he  portrayed  the  studied  in  Germany.     In   1874-76  he  was 

disappointment   of   the    French   nation   in  Professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  Litera- 

not  finding  a  warm  friend  in  the  American  ture  at  Cornell  University;    and   in   1876 

government.     "  So    far   from   ofl['ering   the  he    founded    the    New    York    Society    of 

French  the  succor  which  friendship  might  Ethical  Culture,  before  which  he  has  since 

have     given,"     he     said,     "without    com-  lectured  on  Sundays.     On  May  5,  1901,  at 

promitting    itself,    the    American   govern-  its  twenty-fifth  anniversary,  in  recognition 

58 


ADMINISTRATIONS— AGAMENTICUS 


of  Dr.  Adler's  services,  the  society  pre- 
sented him  with  $10,000  as  a  nucleus  of  a 
larger  fund  the  income  of  which  is  to 
be  employed  in  developing  the  natural  gifts 
of  worthy  young  men  and  women.  Dr. 
Adler  is  a  member  of  the  editorial  board 
of  the  International  Journal  of  Ethics. 
His  publications  include  Creed  and  Deed; 
The  Moral  Instruction  of  Children,  etc. 

Administrations.  See  Presidential 
Administrations;  Cabinet,  President's; 
also  the  titles  of  the  several  Presidents. 

Admiral,  several  times  the  title  of  the 
highest  rank  in  the  United  States  naval 
service.  Prior  to  the  Civil  War  the  high- 
est rank  was  that  of  commodore.  In  1862 
Congress  established  the  rank  of  rear-ad- 
miral; in  1864  that  of  vice-admiral;  and 
in  1866  that  of  admiral,  in  each  case  the 
office  being  bestowed  on  David  G.  Farra- 
gut.  On  the  death  of  David  D.  Porter 
(1891),  who  by  law  had  succeeded  to  the 
titles  of  vice-admiral  and  admiral,  both 
these  grades  were  abolished,  and  the  grade 
of  rear-admiral  remained  the  highest  till 
1899,  when  that  of  admiral  was  again 
created  by  Congress  and  conferred  on 
George  Dewey.  Further  legislation  by 
Congress  in  that  year  increased  the  num-. 
ber  of  rear-admirals  from  six,  to  which  it 
had  been  reduced  in  1882,  to  eighteen,  and 
divided  these  officers  into  two  classes  of 
nine  each,  the  first  nine  corresponding  in 
rank  to  major-generals  in  the  army,  and 
the  second  to  brigadier-generals.  The 
same  act  made  the  increase  in  the  number 
of  rear-admirals  possible  by  abolishing  the 
grade  of  comtnodore,  and  advancing  the 
holders  of  that  grade  to  rear-admirals. 

Admiralty  Courts.  The  governor  of 
each  colony  was  vice-admiral,  with  the 
right  of  deciding  maritime  cases  person- 
ally, or  by  a  judge  appointed  by  him.  By 
the  Constitution  this  jurisdiction  is  now 
vested  in  the  federal  courts,  with  original 
jurisdiction  in  the  district  courts. 

Adventists,  also  known  as  Millerites, 
a  sect  in  the  United  States  founded  by 
William  Miller,  who  believed  that  the  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ  would  occur  in  Oc- 
tober, 1843.  As  the  expected  event  did  not 
occur  on  the  first  nor  succeeding  days  set 
for  it,  the  number  of  believers  decreased 
very  largely.  The  Adventists  of  to-day 
still  look  for  the  coming  of  Christ,  but  do 
not  fix  a  definite  time  for  it.    In  1900  the 


Adventists  wei-e  divided  into  six  bodies: 
Evangelical,  Advent  Christians,  Seventh- 
Day,  Church  of  God,  Life  and  Advent 
Union,  and  Churches  of  God  in  Jesus 
Christ,  and  together  reported  1,491  min- 
isters, 2,267  churches,  and  89,482  com- 
municants.     See   Miller,   William. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
a  religious  sect  established  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1816,  by  colored  members  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  first 
bishop  chosen  by  the  convention  that 
founded  the  Church  was  the  Rev.  Richard 
Allen.  In  1794,  under  his  direction,  the 
first  church  for  colored  Methodists  in  the 
United  States  was  built  in  Philadelphia. 
The  government  and  doctrine  of  the  Church 
is  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the 
body  from  which  it  withdrew.  Its  terri- 
tory is  divided  into  two  annual  confer- 
ences, and  it  has  a  general  conference 
which  meets  once  every  four  years.  In 
1900  it  reported  as  follows:  Ministers, 
.5.659;  churches,  5,775;  and  members, 
673,504. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
ZiON,  a  religious  sect,  foimded  in  New 
York  City  in  1796.  This  organization 
sprang  from  a  desire  of  colored  members 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  to  have 
a  separate  spiritual  fellowship  that  they 
might  be  more  helpful  to  each  other.  The 
first  annual  conference,  however,  was  not 
held  until  1821.  James  Varich  was  elect- 
ed bishop  in  the  following  year.  Until 
1880  bishops  held  office  for  four  years 
only,  but  in  that  year  an  act  was  jjassed 
making  the  bishopric  a  life  office.  The 
territory  of  this  Church  is  divided  into 
seven  districts,  over  each  of  which  there 
is  a  bishop.  In  1900  it  reported  as  fol- 
lows: Ministers,  3,155;  churches,  2,906; 
and  members,  536,271. 

Agamenticus,  the  name  given  in  1636 
to  the  region  lying  between  the  mountain 
and  the  sea,  now  comprising  York  county. 
Me.  It  was  within  the  grant  given  to 
Gorges  and  Mason.  There  a  city  was 
formed,  and  incorporated  in  1641,  in  imi- 
tation of  English  municipalities,  with  a 
mayor  and  aldermen.  The  city  was  called 
Gorgeana.  The  occupants  of  the  land  in 
Agamenticus  were  tenants  at  will  of  the 
proprietor.  There  English  apple-seeds 
were  planted  and  thrived,  and  one  of  the 
trees  that  sprang  up  lived  and  bore  fruit 


59 


AGANA— AGASSIZ 


annually  so  late  as  1875,  when  it  was  cut 
down.    See  Maine  ;  York. 

Agana,  the  principal  town  and  district 
of  the  island  of  Guam,  the  largest  of  the 
Ladrone  Islands,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
about  1,500  miles  east  of  Luzon,  in  the 
Philippines.  As  a  result  of  the  war 
between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  the 
former  took  possession  of  this  island,  and 
in  the  following  year  established  a  seat  of 
government  in  this  town  with  Capt.  Rich- 
ard P.  Leary,  U.  S.  N.,  as  the  first  gov- 
ernor. The  population  of  the  island  is 
between  eight  and  nine  thousand;  three- 
fourths  of  the  people  live  in  the  district  of 
x^gana,  and  four-fifths  of  this  number,  or 
5,249,  in  the  to^vn.  Under  American  con- 
trol the  town  and  its  vicinity  speedily  took 
the  appearance  of  greater  activity  and 
prosperity  than  was  ever  before  seen  there; 
and  the  process  of  Americanizing  con- 
tinued with  excellent  results  till  Nov. 
13,  1900,  when  both  the  town  and  the. 
island  were  swept  by  a  typhoon,  in  which 
the  United  States  auxiliary  cruiser  To- 
semite  was  wrecked  on  a  coral  reef,  after 
drifting  60  miles  from  her  anchorage. 
The  navy  department  promptly  sent  relief 
in  the  form  of  food,  clothing,  and  building 
materials  to  the  people,  who  had  become 
greatly  attached  to  their  new  national 
connection.    See  Guam. 

Agassiz,  Alexander,  naturalist;  born 
in  Neuchfitel,  Switzerland,  Dec.  17,  1835; 
son  of  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz ;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1849;  and  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1855,  and  at  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  in  1857.  He  was 
curator  of  the  Natural  History  Muse- 
um, in  Cambridge,  in  1874-85;  has  since 
been  engaged  in  important  zoological  in- 
vestigations; and  became  widely  known  by 
his  connection  with  the  famous  Calumet 
and  Hecla  copper-mines.  The  University 
of  St.  Andrews  conferred  the  honorary 
degree  of  LL-D.  upon  him,  April  2,  1901. 

Agassiz,  Elizabeth  Cabot,  naturalist 
and  educator;  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
1823;  daughter  of  Thomas  G.  Cary;  was 
married  to  Prof.  Louis  Agassiz  in  1850. 
In  1865  she  accompanied  her  husband  on 
his  expedition  to  Brazil,  and  in  1871-72 
was  on  the  Hassler  expedition.  She 
greatly  aided  her  husband  in  his  studies 
and  writings;  was  joint  author  with  her 
son   of   Seaside   Studies   in    'Natural   His- 


tory; published  Louis  Agassiz:  Uis  Life 
and  Correspondence ;  and  was  president 
of  the  Harvard  "  Annex,"  now  Radclifi'e 
CJollege,  from  its  organization  till  1899, 
when  she  resigned. 

Agassiz,  Louis  John  Rudolph,  nat- 
uralist; born  in  Motier  parish,  near 
Neuchatel,  Switzerland,  May  28,  1807.  He 
was  of  Huguenot  descent,  was  thorough- 
ly educated  at  Heidelberg  and  Munich, 
and  received  the  honorary  degree  of  Ph.D. 
He  prosecuted  his  studies  in  natural  his- 
tory in  Paris,  where  Cuvier  offered  him 
liis  collection  for  the  purpose.  The  liber- 
ality of  Humboldt  enabled  him  to  publish 
his  great  work  (1834-44)  on  Fossil  Fish- 
es, in  5  volumes,  with  an  atlas.  He  ar- 
rived in  Boston  in  1846,  and  lectured  there 


LOnS   AGASSrZ. 

on  the  Animal  Kingdom  and  on  Glaciers. 
In  the  summer  of  1847  the  superintendent 
of  the  Coast  Survey  tendered  him  the  fa- 
cilities of  that  service  for  a  continuance 
of  his  scientific  investigations.  Professor 
Agassiz  settled  in  Cambridge,  and  was 
made  Professor  of  Zoology  and  Geology  of 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  at  its  foun- 
dation in  1848.  That  year  he  made,  with 
some  of  his  pupils,  a  scientific  exploration 
of  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  He  after- 
wards explored  the  southern  coasts  of  the 
United  States,  of  Brazil,  and  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  An  account  of  his 
exj^lorations  on  the  Brazilian  coast  was 
given  in  A  Journey  to  Brazil,  by  Mrs. 
Agassiz,  in  1867.  He  received  the  Copley 
Medal  from  the  Royal  Society  of  London; 


60 


AGAWAM— AGRARIAN    PARTY 


from  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris, 
the  Monthyon  Prize  and  the  Cuvier  Prize; 
the  Wollaston  Medal  from  the  Geological 
Society  of  London;  and  the  Medal  of 
Merit  from  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  was 
a  member  of  many  scientific  societies,  and 
the  universities  of  Dublin  and  Edinburgh 
conferred  on  him  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  Professor  Agassiz  published  valu- 
able scientific  works  in  Europe  and  in  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Dec.  14,  1873. 

Aga'wam,  the  Indian  name  of  Ipswich, 
Mass.;  settled  in  1033;  incorporated  under 
the  present  name  in  1634.  See  Boston; 
Massachusetts. 

Age  of  Reason,  the  title  of  a  work 
written  by  Thomas  Paine  ( g.  v.) ,  and 
noted  in  its  day  for  its  extreme  freedom 
of  thought.  See  Ingersoll,  Robert 
Green. 

Agnew,  Cornelius  Pea,  physician  and 
surgeon;  born  in  New  York  City,  Aug. 
8,  1830;  was  graduated  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege in  1849,  and  at  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons  in  1852,  subsequently 
continuing  his  studies  in  Europe.  He  be- 
came surgeon-general  of  the  State  of  New 
York  in  1858,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War  was  appointed  medical  director 
of  the  New  York  State  Volunteer  Hospital. 
During  the  war  he  was  also  one  of  the 
most  influential  members  of  the  United 
States  Sanitary  Commission  (q.  v.) . 
Dr.  Agnew  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Columbia  College  School  of  Mines.  He 
died  in  New  York,  April  8,  1888. 

Agnew,  Daniel,  jurist;  born  in  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.,  Jan.  5,  1809;  removed  to  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  where  he  practised  law;  dis- 
trict judge  in  1851;  Supreme  Court  judge 
in  1863;  and  chief-justice  of  the  State  in 
1873;  resigned  in  1879.  He  wrote  Oui' 
National  Constitution,  History  of  Penn- 
sylvania, etc. 

Agnew,  David  Hayes,  anatomist  and 
author;  born  in  Lancaster  county, Pa., Nov. 
24,  1818;  was  graduated  at  the  Medical 
Department  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1838;  became  professor  in  the 
Philadelphia  School  of  Anatomy;  demon- 
strator of  anatomy  in  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  surgeon  at  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Orthopaedic  hospitals,  all  in  Philadelphia. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  became  widely 


known  as  a  daring  and  successful  operator 
in  cases  of  gunshot  wounds.  After  the 
war  he  was  elected  Professor  of  Operative 
Surgery  and  of  the  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Surgery  at  the  University  of  Pennsj'l- 
vania.  Dr.  Agnew  was  the  consulting  and 
operating  surgeon  in  the  case  of  President 
Garfield  in  1881.  Among  his  numerous 
publications  are  Practical  Anatomy; 
Anatomy  and  Its  Relation  to  Medicine  and 
Surgery;  and  The  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Surgery.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
March  22,  1892. 

Agnew,  James,  a  British  general ;  came 
to  America  late  in  1775;  participated  in 
the  military  movements  in  and  about  Bos- 
ton ;  and  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of 
Long  Island,  where,  and  in  subsequent 
campaigns,  he  commanded  the  4th  Brigade 
of  the  royal  army.  He  accompanied  ex- 
Governor  Tryon  in  his  marauding  expedi- 
tion to  Danbury,  Conn.,  in  the  spring  of 
1777.  He  was  slightly  wounded  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Brandy  wine-  (Sept.  11),  and  in  the 
battle  of  Germantown  (Oct.  4,  1777)  he 
was  killed. 

Agnus,  Felix,  journalist;  born  in 
Lyons,  France,  July  4,  1839;  was  edu- 
cated in  the  College  of  Jolie  Clair,  near 
Paris;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1860, 
and  in  the  following  year  entered  the 
Union  army  in  Duryea's  Zouaves  (5th 
New  York  Volunteers).  At  Big  Bethel  he 
saved  the  life  of  Gen.  Judson  Kilpatrick. 
He  aided  in  recruiting  the  165th  New 
York  Volunteers,  of  which  he  was  made 
captain;  in  1862  he  participated  in  the 
siege  of  Port  Hudson,  La.;  afterwards 
v\'as  promoted  major  and  lieutenant-colo- 
nel. He  next,  served  in  the  19th  Corps 
under  Sheridan  and  in  the  Department 
of  the  South.  On  March  13,  1865,  he  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  in  August  of  the  same  year  was 
mustered  out  of  the  service.  After  the 
war  he  became  the  editor  and  publisher 
of  the  Baltimore  American. 

Agrarian  Party,  a  political  organiza- 
tion in  Germany  inspired  in  1869,  and 
practically  founded  in  1876.  The  mem- 
bers in  recent  years  have  become  widely 
noted  for  their  opposition  to  German  com- 
mercial relations  with  the  United  States, 
especially  in  the  matters  of  all  kinds  of 
food-stuflFs.  In  1898  and  1899  this  oppo- 
sition assumed  a  phase  that  was  exceed- 


61 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    PEOPLE 

ingly  annoying  to  the  German  govern-  direct  influence  of  high  German  oflicials, 
ment,  and  the  defeat  of  many  Agrarians  who  feared  a  disturbance  of  commercial 
for   the  Reichstag  was   attributed  to   the    relations  with  the  United  States. 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    PEOPLE 


Agreement  of  the  People,  a  document 
drawn  up  in  October,  1647,  and  presented 
in  the  British  House  of  Commons  on  Jan. 
20,  1648.  The  document,  which  follows, 
should  be  read  in  connection  with  the 
Magna  Charta,  the  Bill  of  Rights,  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  and  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence,  all  of  which  are 
reflected  in  our  national  Constitution. 

Having,  by  our  late  labours  and  haz- 
ards, made  it  appear  to  the  world  at  how 
high  a  rate  we  value  our  just  freedom,  and 
God  having  so  far  owned  our  cause  as  to 
deliver  the  enemies  thereof  into  our  hands, 
we  do  now  hold  ourselves  boiuid,  in  mu- 
tual duty  to  each  other,  to  take  the  best 
care  Ave  can  for  the  future,  to  avoid  both 
the  danger  of  returning  into  a  slavish 
condition  and  the  chargeable  remedy  of 
another  war:  for  as  it  cannot  be  imagined 
that  so  many  of  our  countrymen  would 
have  opposed  us  in  this  quarrel  if  they 
had  understood  their  own  good,  so  may  we 
hopefully  promise  to  ourselves,  that  when 
our  common  rights  and  liberties  shall  be 
cleared,  their  endeavours  will  be  disap- 
pointed that  seek  to  make  themselves 
our  masters.  Since  therefore  our  former 
oppressions  and  not-yet-ended  troubles, 
have  been  occasioned  either  by  want  of 
frequent  national  meetings  in  council,  or 
by  the  undue  or  unequal  constitution 
thereof,  or  by  rendering  those  meetings 
ineffectual,  we  are  fully  agreed  and  re- 
solved, God  willing,  to  provide,  that  here- 
after our  Representatives  be  neither  left 
to  an  uncertainty  for  times  nor  be  un- 
equally constituted,  nor  made  useless  to 
the  ends  for  which  they  are  intended. 
In  order  whereunto  we  declare  and 
agree. 

First,  that,  to  prevent  the  many  incon- 
veniences apparently  arising  from  the 
long  continuance  of  the  same  persons  in 
supreme  authority,  this  present  Parlia- 
ment end  and  dissolve  upon,  or  before, 
the  last  day  of  April,  1649. 

Secondly,  that  the  people  of  England 
(being   at    this    day   very   unequally   dis- 


62 


tributed  by  counties,  cities,  and  boroughs, 
for  the  election  of  their  Representatives) 
be  indifferently  proportioned;  and,  to  this 
end,  that  the  Representatives  of  the  whole 
nation  shall  consist  of  400  persons,  or 
not  above;  and  in  each  county,  and  the 
places  thereto  subjoined,  there  shall  be 
chosen,  to  make  up  the  said  Representa- 
tives at  all  times,  the  several  numbers 
here  mentioned,  viz. : 

Kent^  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and  Parish- 
es therein,  except  such  as  are  hereunder 
particularly  named,  10  ;  Canterbury,  with 
the  Suburbs  adjoining  and  Liberties  there- 
of, 2  ;  Rochester,  with  the  Parishes  of 
Chatham  and  Stroud,  1  ;  The  Cinque  Ports 
in  Kent  and  Sussex,  viz.,  Dover,  Romney, 
Hythe,  Sandwich,  Plastings,  with  the 
Towns  of  Rye  and  Winchelsea,  3. 

Sussex,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and  Par- 
ishes therein,  except  Chichester,  8  :  Chi- 
chester, with  the  Suburbs  and  Liberties 
thereof,   1. 

Southampton  County,  with  the  Boroughs, 
Towns,  and  Parishes  therein,  except  such 
as  are  hereunder  named,  8  ;  Winchester, 
with  the  Suburbs  and  Liberties  thereof,  1  ; 
Southampton  Town  and  the  County  there- 
of,   1. 

DoRSETSHiEE,  With  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Dorchester,  7 ; 
Dorchester,    1. 

Devonshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are  here- 
under particularly  named,  12 ;  Exeter,  2 ; 
Plymouth,  2  ;  Barnstaple,  1. 

Cornwall,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  8. 

Somersetshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are 
hereunder  named,  8  ;  Bristol,  3  ;  Taunton- 
Dean,  1. 

Wiltshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Salisbury,  7  ;  Sal- 
isbury, 1. 

Berkshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Reading,  5  ;  Read- 
ing, 1. 

Surrey,  with  the  Boroughs.  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Southwark,  5 ; 
Southwark,  2. 

Middlesex,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are  here- 
under named.  4  :  London,  8  ;  Westminster 
and  the  Duchy,  2. 

Hertfordshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  6. 

Buckinghamshire,  with  the  Boroughs, 
Towns,  and  Parishes  therein,  6. 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    PEOPLE 


Oxfordshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are 
hereunder  named,  4  ;  Oxford  City,  2  ;  Ox- 
ford University,  2. 

Gloucestershire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  Gloucester,  7  ; 
Gloucester,  2. 

Herefordshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  Hereford,  4  ; 
Hereford,  1. 

Worcestershire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  Worcester,  4  ; 
Worcester,   2. 

Warwickshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  Coventry,  5  ; 
Coventry,   2. 

NoRTHAiiPTOxsHiRE,  with  the  Boroughs, 
Towns,  and  Parishes  therein,  except  North- 
ampton, 5  ;  No7tliamptoii,  1. 

Bedfordshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  4. 

Cambridgeshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are 
hereunder  particularly  named,  4 ;  Cam- 
bridge University,  2  ;  Cambridge  Town,  2. 

Essex,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and  Par- 
ishes therein,  except  Colchester,  11  ;  Col- 
chester, 2. 

Suffolk,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are  here- 
after named,  10  ;  Ipsivich,  2  ;  St.  Edmund's 
Bury,   1. 

Norfolk,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are  here- 
under named,  9 ;  Norwich,  3  ;  Lynn,  1  ; 
Yarmouth,   1. 

Lincolnshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  the  City  of 
Lincoln  and  the  Town  of  Boston,  11  ;  Lin- 
coln, 1  ;  Boston,  1. 

Rutlandshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and   Parishes   therein,    1. 

Huntingdonshire,  with  the  Boroughs, 
Towns,  and  Parishes  therein,  3. 

Leicestershire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  Leicester,  5  ; 
Leicester,   1. 

Nottinghamshire,  with  the  Boroughs, 
Towns,  and  Parishes  therein,  except  Not- 
tingham, 4  ;  Nottingham,  1. 

Derbyshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Derby,  5  ;  Der- 
by, 1. 

Staffordshire,  with  the  City  of  Lichfield, 
the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and  Parishes  there- 
in, 6. 

Shropshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Shrewsbury,  6 ; 
Shrewsbury,  1. 

Cheshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Chester,  5  ;  Ches- 
ter, 2. 

Lancashire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  Manchester,  6 ; 
Manchester  and  the  Parish,  1. 

Yorkshire,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are  here- 
after named,  15  ;  York  City  and  the  County 
thereof,  3  :  Kingston  upon  Hull  and  the 
County  thereof,  1  ;  Leeds  Town  and  Par- 
ish, 1. 

Durham    County    Palatine,    with    the    Bor- 

63 


oughs.  Towns,  and  Parishes  therein,  except 
Durham  and  Gateside,  3  ;  Durham  City,  1. 

Northumberland,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  except  such  as  are 
hei'eunder  named,  3  ;  Newcastle  upon  Tyne 
and  the  County  thereof,  with  Gateside,  2  ; 
Berwick,  1. 

Cumberland,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns,  and 
Parishes  therein,  3. 

Westmoreland,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and  Parishes  therein,  2. 

Wales 

Anglksea,  with  the  Parishes  therein 2 

Brecknock,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes  therein 3 

Cardigan,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes  therein 3 

Carmarthen,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes  therein 3 

Carnarvon,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes   therein 2 

Denbigh,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes   therein 2 

Flint,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Parishes 
therein    1 

Monmouth,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes  therein 4 

Glamorgan,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes   therein  4 

Merioneth,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Par- 
ishes  therein 2 

Montgomery,  with  the  Boroughs  and 
Parishes    therein 3 

Radnor,  with  the  Boroughs  and  Parishes 
therein 2 

Pejibroke,  with  the  Boroughs,  Towns, 
and    Parishes    therein 4 

Provided,  that  the  first  or  second  Rep- 
resentative may,  if  they  see  cause,  assign 
the  remainder  of  the  400  representers,  not 
hereby  assigned,  or  so  many  of  them  as 
they  shall  see  cause  for,  unto  such  counties 
as  shall  appear  in  this  present  distribu- 
tion to  have  less  than  their  due  propor- 
tion. Provided  also,  that  where  any  city 
or  borough,  to  which  one  representer  or 
more  is  assigned,  shall  be  found  in  a  due 
proportion,  not  competent  alone  to  elect  a 
representer,  or  the  number  of  representers 
assigned  thereto,  it  is  left  to  future  Rep- 
resentatives to  assign  such  a  number  of 
parishes  or  villages  near  adjoining  to  such 
city  or  borough,  to  be  joined  therewith  in 
the  elections,  or  may  make  the  same  pro- 
portionable. 

Thirdly.  That  the  people  do,  of  course, 
choose  themselves  a  Representative  once  in 
two  years,  and  shall  meet  for  that  purpose 
upon  the  first  Thursday  in  every  second 
May,  by  eleven  in  the  morning;  and  the 
Representatives  so  chosen  to  meet  upon 
the  second  Thursday  in  the  June  follow- 
ing, at  the  usual  place  in  Westminster,  or 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    PEOPLE 


such  other  place  as,  by  the  foregoing  Rep- 
resentative, or  the  Council  of  State  in  the 
interval,  shall  be,  from  time  to  time,  ap- 
pointed and  published  to  the  people,  at  the 
least  twenty  days  before  the  time  of  elec- 
tion: and  to  continue  their  sessions  there, 
or  elsewhere,  imtil  the  second  Thursday  in 
December  following,  unless  they  shall  ad- 
journ or  dissolve  themselves  sooner;  but 
not  to  continue  longer.  The  election  of 
the  first  Representative  to  be  on  the  first 
Thursday  in  May,  1649;  and  that,  and  all 
future  elections,  to  be  according  to  the 
rules  prescribed  for  the  same  purpose  in 
this  Agreement,  viz.  1.  That  the  electors  in 
every  division  shall  be  natives  or  denizens 
of  England ;  not  persons  receiving  alms, 
but  such  as  are  assessed  ordinarily  tow- 
ards the  relief  of  the  poor ;  no  servants 
to,  and  receiving  wages  from,  any  partic- 
ular person;  and  in  all  elections,  except 
for  the  Universities,  they  shall  be  men  of 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  or  upwards,  and 
housekeepers,  dwelling  within  the  division 
for  which  the  election  is:  provided,  that 
(until  the  end  of  seven  years  next  ensuing 
the  time  herein  limited  for  the  end  of  this 
present  Parliament)  no  person  shall  be  ad- 
mitted to,  or  have  any  hand  or  voice  in, 
such  elections,  who  hath  adhered  unto  or 
assisted  the  King  against  the  Parliament 
in  any  of  the  late  wars  or  insurrections; 
or  who  shall  make  or  join  in,  or  abet,  any 
forcible  opposition  against  this  Agree- 
ment. 2.  That  such  persons,  and  such 
only,  may  be  elected  to  be  of  the  Repre- 
sentative, who,  by  the  rule  aforesaid,  are 
to  have  voice  in  elections  in  one  place  or 
other.  Provided,  that  of  those  none  shall 
be  eligible  for  the  first  or  second  Repre- 
sentative, who  have  not  voluntarily  assist- 
ed the  Parliament  against  the  King,  either 
in  person  before  the  14th  of  June,  1645, 
or  else  in  money,  plate,  horse,  or  arms, 
lent  upon  the  Propositions,  before  the  end 
of  May,  1643;  or  who  have  joined  in,  or 
abbetted,  the  treasonable  engagement  in 
London,  in  1647;  or  who  declared  or  en- 
gaged themselves  for  a  cessation  of  arms 
with  the  Scots  that  invaded  this  nation 
the  last  summer;  or  for  compliance  with 
the  actors  in  any  insurrections  of  the 
same  summer;  or  with  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  or  his  accomplices,  in  the  revolted 
fleet.  Provided  also,  that  such  persons  as, 
by  the  rules  in  the  preceding  Article,  are 


not  capable  of  electing  until  the  end  of 
seven  years,  shall  not  be  capable  to  be 
elected  until  the  end  of  fourteen  years 
next  ensuing.  And  we  desire  and  recom- 
mend it  to  all  men,  that,  in  all  times,  the 
persons  to  be  chosen  for  this  great  trust 
may  be  men  of  courage,  fearing  God  and 
hating  covetousness ;  and  that  our  Rep- 
resentatives would  make  the  best  provi- 
sions for  that  end.  3.  That  whoever,  by 
the  rules  in  the  two  preceding  Articles, 
are  incapable  of  electing,  or  to  be  elected, 
shall  presume  to  vote  in,  or  be  present  at, 
such  election  for  the  first  or  second  Rep- 
resentative; or,  being  elected,  shall  pre- 
sume to  sit  or  vote  in  either  of  the  said 
Representatives,  shall  incur  the  pain  of 
confiscation  of  the  moiety  of  his  estate,  to 
the  use  of  the  public,  in  case  he  have  any 
visible  estate  to  the  value  of  £50,  and  if 
he  has  not  such  an  estate,  then  shall  in- 
cur the  pain  of  imprisonment  for  three 
months.  And  if  any  person  shall  forcibly 
oppose,  molest  or  hinder  the  people,  capa- 
ble of  electing  as  aforesaid,  in  their  quiet 
and  free  election  of  representers,  for  the 
first  Representative,  then  each  person  so 
offending  shall  incur  the  penalty  of  confis- 
cation of  his  whole  estate,  both  real  and 
personal ;  and,  if  he  has  not  an  estate  to 
the  value  of  £50,  shall  suffer  imprison- 
ment during  one  whole  year  without  bail 
or  mainprize.  Provided,  that  the  offender 
in  each  case  be  convicted  within  three 
months  next  after  the  committing  of  his 
offence,  and  the  first  Representative  is  to 
make  further  provision  for  the  avoiding 
of  these  evils  in  future  elections.  4.  That 
to  the  end  all  officers  of  state  may  be  cer- 
tainly accountable,  and  no  faction  made  to 
maintain  corrupt  interests,  no  member  of 
a  Council  of  State,  nor  any  officer  of  any 
salary-forces  in  army  or  garrison,  nor  any 
treasurer  or  receiver  of  public  money, 
shall,  while  such,  be  elected  to  be  of  a 
Representative;  and  in  case  any  such 
election  shall  be,  the  same  to'  be  void. 
And  in  case  any  la'wyer  shall  be  chosen 
into  any  Representative  or  Council  of 
State,  then  he  shall  be  incapable  of  prac- 
tice as  a  lawyer  during  that  trust.  5.  For 
the  more  convenient  election  of  Represent- 
atives, each  county,  wherein  more  than 
three  representers  are  to  be  chosen,  with 
the  town  corporate  and  cities,  if  there  be 
any,  lying  within  the  compass  thereof,  to 


64 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    PEOPLE 


which  no  representers  are  herein  assigned, 
shall  be  divided  by  a  due  proportion  into 
so  many,  and  such  parts,  as  each  part  may 
elect  two,  and  no  part  above  three  rep- 
resenters. For  the  setting  forth  of  which 
divisions,  and  the  ascertaining  of  other 
circumstances  hereafter  expressed,  so  as  to 
make  the  elections  less  subject  to  confu- 
sion or  mistake,  in  order  to  the  next  Rep- 
resentative, Thomas  Lord  Grey  of  Groby, 
Sir  John  Danvers,  Sir  Henry  Holcroft, 
knights;  Moses  Wall,  gentleman;  Samuel 
Moyer,  John  Langley,  Wm.  Hawkins, 
Abraham  Babington,  Daniel  Taylor,  Mark 
Hilsley,  Rd.  Price,  and  Col.  John  White, 
citizens  of  London,  or  any  five  or  more  of 
them,  are  intrusted  to  nominate  and  ap- 
point, under  their  hands  and  seals,  three 
or  more  fit  persons  in  each  county,  and  in 
each  city  and  borough,  to  which  one  rep- 
resenter  or  more  is  assigned,  to  be  as 
Commissioners  for  the  ends  aforesaid,  in 
the  respective  counties,  cities  and  bor- 
oughs; and,  by  like  writing  under  their 
hands  and  seals,  shall  certify  into  the  Par- 
liament Records,  before  the  11th  of  Feb- 
ruary next,  the  names  of  the  Commission- 
ers so  appointed  for  the  respective  coun- 
ties, cities  and  boroughs,  which  Commis- 
sioners, or  any  three  or  more  of  them,  for 
the  respective  counties,  cities  and  bor- 
oughs, shall  before  the  end  of  February 
next,  by  writing  under  their  hands  and 
seals,  appoint  two  fit  and  faithful  persons, 
or  more,  in  each  hundred,  lathe  or  wapen- 
take, within  the  respective  counties,  and 
in  each  ward  Avithin  the  City  of  London, 
to  take  care  for  the  orderly  taking  of  all 
voluntary  subscriptions  to  this  Agreement, 
by  fit  persons  to  be  employed  for  that  pur- 
pose in  every  parish;  who  are  to  return 
the  subscription  so  taken  to  the  persons 
that  employed  them,  keeping  a  transcript 
thereof  to  themselves ;  and  those  persons, 
keeping  like  transcripts,  to  return  the 
original  subscriptions  to  the  respective 
Commissioners  by  whom  they  were  ap- 
pointed, at,  or  before,  the  14th  day  of 
April  next,  to  be  registered  and  kept  in 
the  chief  court  within  the  respective  cities 
and  boroughs.  And  the  said  Commission- 
ers, or  any  three  or  more  of  them,  for  the 
several  counties,  cities  and  boroughs,  re- 
spectively, shall,  where  more  than  three 
representers  are  to  be  chosen,  divide  such 
counties,  as  also  the  City  of  London,  into 
1.— E  fi 


so  many,  and  such  parts  as  are  afore- 
mentioned, and  shall  set  forth  the  bounds 
of  such  divisions;  and  shall,  in  every 
county,  city  and  borough,  where  any  rep- 
resenters are  to  be  chosen,  and  in  every 
such  division  as  aforesaid  within  the  City 
of  London,  and  within  the  several  coun- 
ties so  divided,  respectively,  appoint  one 
place  certain  wherein  the  people  shall 
meet  for  the  choice  of  the  representers; 
and  some  one  fit  person,  or  more,  inhabit- 
ing within  each  borough,  city,  county  or 
division,  respectively,  to  be  present  at  the 
time  and  place  of  election,  in  the  nature 
of  Sheriff's,  to  regulate  the  elections;  and 
by  poll,  or  otherwise,  clearly  to  distin- 
guish and  judge  thereof,  and  to  make  re- 
turn of  the  person  or  persons  elected,  as  is 
hereafter  expressed;  and  shall  likewise,  in 
writing  under  their  hands  and  seals,  make 
certificates  of  the  several  divisions,  with 
the  bounds  thereof,  by  them  set  forth,  and  of 
the  certain  places  of  meeting,  and  persons, 
in  the  nature  of  Sheriff",  appointed  in  them 
respectively  as  aforesaid;  and  cause  such 
certificates  to  be  returned  into  the  Parlia- 
ment Records  before  the  end  of  April  next ; 
and  before  that  time  shall  also  cause  the 
same  to  be  published  in  every  parish 
within  the  counties,  cities  and  boroughs 
respectively;  and  shall  in  every  such 
parish  likewise  nominate  and  appoint,  by 
warrant  under  their  hands  and  seals,  one 
trusty  person,  or  more,  inhabiting  there- 
in, to  make  a  true  list  of  all  the  persons 
within  their  respective  parishes,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  rules  aforegoing,  are  to 
have  voice  in  the  elections;  and  expressing 
who  amongst  them  are,  by  the  same  rules,, 
capable  of  being  elected;  and  such  Jist, 
with  the  said  warrant,  to  bring  in  and  re- 
turn, at  the  time  and  place  of  election, 
unto  the  person  appointed  in  the  nature  of 
Sheriff',  as  aforesaid,  for  that  borough, 
city,  county  or  division  respectively; 
which  person  so  appointed  as  Sheriff,  be- 
ing present  at  the  time  and  place  of  elec- 
tion; or,  in  case  of  his  absence,  by  the 
space  of  one  hour  after  the  time  limited 
for  the  peoples'  meeting,  then  any  person 
present  that  is  eligible,  as  aforesaid,  whom 
the  people  then  and  there  assembled  shall 
choose  for  that  end,  shall  receive  and  keep 
the  said  lists  and  admit  the  persons  there- 
in contained,  or  so  many  of  them  as  are 
present,  unto  a  free  vote  in  the  said  elec- 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    PEOPLE 


t,ion;  and,  having  first  caused  this  Agree- 
ment to  be  publicly  read  in  the  audience 
of  the  people,  shall  proceed  unto,  and  reg- 
ulate and  keep  peace  and  order  in  the  elec- 
tions ;  and,  by  poll  or  otherwise,  openly 
distinguish  and  judge  of  the  same;  and 
thereof,  by  certificate  or  writing  under 
the  hands  and  seals  of  himself,  and  six 
or  more  of  the  electors,  nominating  the 
person  or  persons  duly  elected,  shall  make 
a  true  return  into  the  Parliament  Records 
within  twenty-one  days  after  the  election, 
under  pain  for  default  thereof,  or,  for 
making  any  false  return,  to  forfeit  £100 
to  the  public  use;  and  also  cause  indent- 
ures to  be  made,  and  unchangeably  sealed 
and  delivered,  between  himself  and  six  or 
more  of  the  said  electors,  on  the  one  part, 
and  the  persons,  or  each  person,  elected 
severally,  on  the  other  part,  expressing 
their  election  of  him  as  a  representer  of 
them  according  to  this  Agreement,  and 
his  acceptance  of  that  trust,  and  his  prom- 
ise accordingly  to  jjerform  the  same  with 
faithfulness,  to  the  best  of  his  understand- 
ing and  ability,  for  the  glory  of  God  and 
good  of  the  people.  This  course  is  to 
hold  for  the  first  Representative,  which  is 
to  provide  for  the  ascertaining  of  these 
circumstances  in  order  to  future  Repre- 
sentatives. 

Fourthly.  That  150  members  at  least 
be  always  present  in  each  sitting  of  the 
Representative,  at  the  passing  of  any  law 
or  doing  of  any  act  whereby  the  people 
are  to  be  bound;  saving,  that  the  num- 
ber of  sixty  may  take  a  House  for  debates 
or  resolutions  that  are  preparatory  there- 
unto. 

Fifthly.  That  the  Representative  shall, 
within  twenty  days  after  their  first  meet- 
ing, appoint  a  Council  of  State  for  the 
managing  of  public  affairs,  until  the  tenth 
day  after  the  meeting  of  the  next  Repre- 
sentative, unless  that  next  Representative 
think  fit  to  put  an  end  to  that  trust  soon- 
er. And  the  same  Council  to  act  and  pro- 
ceed therein,  according  to  such  instruc- 
tions and  limitations  as  the  Representa- 
tive shall  give,  and  not  otherwise. 

Sixthly.  That  in  each  interval  between 
biennial  Representatives,  the  Council  of 
State,  in  case  of  imminent  danger  or  ex- 
treme necessity,  may  summon  a  Represent- 
ative to  be  forthwith  chosen,  and  to  meet; 
so    as    the    Session    thereof    continue    not 


above  eighty  days;  and  so  as  it  dissolve 
at  least  fifty  days  before  the  appointed 
time  for  the  next  biennial  Representa- 
tive; and  upon  the  fiftieth  day  so  preced- 
ing it  shall  dissolve  of  course,  if  not  oth- 
erwise dissolved  sooner. 

Seventhly.  That  no  member  of  any  Rep- 
resentative be  made  either  receiver,  treas- 
urer, or  other  officer  during  that  employ- 
ment, saving  to  be  a  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  State. 

Eighthly.  That  the  Representatives 
have,  and  shall  be  understood  to  have,  the 
supreme  trust  in  order  to  the  preservation 
and  government  of  the  whole;  and  that 
their  power  extend,  without  the  consent  or 
concurrence  of  any  other  person  or  per- 
sons, to  the  erecting  and  abolishing  of 
Courts  of  Justice  and  public  offices,  and 
to  the  enacting,  altering,  repealing  and 
declaring  of  laws,  and  the  highest  and 
final  judgment,  concerning  all  natural  or 
civil  things,  but  not  concerning  things 
spiritual  or  evangelical.  Provided  that, 
even  in  things  natural  and  civil,  these  six 
particulars  next  following  are,  and  shall 
be,  understood  to  be  excepted  and  reserved 
from  our  Representatives,  viz.  1.  We  do 
not  empower  them  to  impress  or  constrain 
any  person  to  serve  in  foreign  war,  either 
by  sea  or  land,  nor  for  any  military  ser- 
vice within  the  kingdom;  save  that  they 
may  take  order  for  the  forming,  training, 
and  exercising  of  the  people  in  a  military 
way,  to  be  in  readiness  for  resisting  of 
foreign  invasions,  suppressing  of  sudden 
insurrections,  or  for  assisting  in  execu- 
tion of  the  laws;  and  may  take  order  for 
the  employing  and  conducting  of  them  for 
those  ends;  provided,  that,  even  in  such 
cases,  none  be  compellable  to  go  out  of 
the  county  he  lives  in,  if  he  procure  an- 
other to  serve  in  his  room.  2.  That,  after 
the  time  herein  limited  for  the  commence- 
ment of  the  first  Representative,  none  of 
the  people  may  be  at  any  time  questioned 
for  anything  said  or  done  in  relation  to 
the  late  wars  or  public  differences,  other- 
wise than  in  execution  or  pursuance  of  the 
determinations  of  the  present  House  of 
Commons,  against  such  as  have  adhered  to 
the  King,  or  his  interest,  against  the  peo- 
ple; and  saving  that  accomptants  for  pub- 
lic moneys  received,  shall  remain  account- 
able for  the  same.  3.  That  no  securities 
given,  or  to  be  given,  by  the  public  faith 


66 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    PEOPLE 

of  the  nation,  nor  any  engagements  of  the  conversation.  3.  That  such  as  profess  faith 
public  faith  for  satisfaction  of  debts  and  in  God  by  Jesvis  Christ,  however  differing 
damages,  shall  be  made  void  or  invalid  by  in  judgment  from  the  doctrine,  worship  or 
the  next  or  any  future  Representative;  discipline  publicly  held  forth,  as  afore- 
except  to  such  creditors  as  have,  or  shall  said,  shall  not  be  restrained  from,  but 
have,  justly  forfeited  the  same:  and  sav-  shall  be  protected  in,  the  profession  of 
ing,  that  the  next  Representative  may  con-  their  faith  and  exercise  of  religion,  ac- 
firm  or  make  null,  in  part  or  in  whole,  all  cording  to  their  consciences,  in  any  place 
gifts  of  lands,  moneys,  offices,  or  other-  except  such  as  shall  be  set  apart  for  the 
wise,  made  by  the  present  Parliament  to  public  worship;  where  we  provide  not  for 
any  member  or  attendant  of  either  House,  them,  unless  they  have  leave,  so  as  they 
4.  That,  in  any  laws  hereafter  to  be  made,  abuse  not  this  liberty  to  the  civil  in- 
no  person,  by  virtue  of  any  tenure,  grant,  jury  of  others,  or  to  actual  disturbance  of 
charter,  patent,  degree  or  birth,  shall  be  the  public  peace  on  their  parts.  Neverthe- 
privileged  from  subjection  thereto,  or  from  less,  it  is  not  intended  to  be  hereby  pro- 
being  bound  thereby,  as  well  as  others.  5.  vided,  that  this  liberty  shall  necessarily 
That  the  Representative  may  not  give  extend  to  Popery  or  Prelacy.  4.  That  all 
judgment  upon  any  man's  person  or  estate,  laws,  ordinances,  statutes,  and  clauses  in 
where  no  law  hath  before  provided;  some  any  law,  statute,  or  ordinance  to  the  con- 
only  in  calling  to  account  and  punishing  trary  of  the  liberty  herein  provided  for,  in 
public  officers  for  abusing  or  failing  in  the  two  particulars  next  preceding  con- 
their  trust.  6.  That  no  Representative  cerning  religion,  be,  and  are  hereby,  re- 
may  in  any  wise  render  up,  or  give,  or  pealed  and  made  void, 
take  away,  any  of  the  foundations  of  com-  Tenthly.  It  is  agreed  that  whosoever 
mon  right,  liberty,  and  safety  contained  shall,  "by  force  of  arms,  resist  the  orders 
in  this  Agreement,  nor  level  men's  estates,  of  the  next  or  any  future  Representa- 
destroy  property,  or  make  all  things  com-  tive  (except  in  case  where  such  Repre- 
mon;  and  that,  in  all  matters  of  such  sentative  shall  evidently  render  up,  or 
fundamental  concernment,  there  shall  be  give,  or  take  away  the  foundations  of  com- 
a  liberty  to  particular  members  of  the  said  mon  right,  liberty,  and  safety,  contained 
Representatives  to  enter  their  dissents  in  this  Agreement),  he  shall  forthwith, 
from  the  major  vote.  after  his  or  their  such  resistance,  lose  the 
Ninthly.  Concerning  religion,  we  agree  benefit  and  protection  of  the  laws,  and 
as  followeth:— 1.  It  is  intended  that  the  shall  be  punishable  with  death,  as  an  ene- 
Christian  Religion  be  held  forth  and  rec-  my  and  traitor  to  the  nation.  Of  the 
ommended  as  the  public  profession  in  things  expressed  in  this  Agreement:  the 
this  nation,  which  we  desire  may,  by  the  certain  ending  of  this  Parliament,  as  in 
grace  of  God,  be  reformed  to  the  greatest  the  first  Article;  the  equal  or  proportion- 
purity  in  doctrine,  worship  and  discipline,  able  distribution  of  the  number  of  the  rep- 
according  to  the  Word  of  God;  the  in-  resenters  to  be  elected,  as  in  the  second; 
structing  the  people  thereunto  in  a  public  the  certainty  of  the  people's  meeting  to 
way,  so  it  be  not  compulsive;  as  also  the  elect  for  Representatives  biennial,  and 
maintaining  of  able  teachers  for  that  end,  their  freedom  in  elections;  with  the  cer- 
and  for  the  confutation  or  discovering  tainty  of  meeting,  sitting  and  ending  of 
of  heresy,  error,  and  whatsoever  is  con-  Representatives  so  elected,  which  are  pro- 
trary  to  sound  doctrine,  is  allowed  to  be  vided  for  in  the  third  Article;  as  also  the 
provided  for  by  our  Representatives;  the  qualifications  of  persons  to  elect  or  be 
maintenance  of  which  teachers  may  be  out  elected,  as  in  the  first  and  second  particu- 
of  a  public  treasury,  and,  we  desire,  not  lars  under  the  third  Article;  also  the 
by  tithes:  provided,  that  Popery  or  Prel-  certainty  of  a  number  for  passing  a  law 
acy  be  not  held  forth  as  the  public  way  or  or  preparatory  debates,  provided  for  in  the 
profession  in  this  nation.  2.  That,  to  the  fourth  Article;  the  matter  of  the  fifth 
public  profession  so  held  forth  none  be  Article,  concerning  the  Council  of  State, 
compelled  by  penalties  or  otherwise;  but  and  of  the  sixth,  concerning  the  calling, 
only  may  be  endeavoured  to  be  won  by  sitting  and  ending  of  Representatives  ex- 
sound  doctrine,  and  the  example  of  a  good  traordinary;  also  the  power  of  Represent- 

67 


AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGES— AGRICULTURAL    IMPLEMENTS 


atives  to  be,  as  in  the  eighth  Article,  and 
limited,  as  in  the  six  reserves  next  follow- 
ing the  same:  likewise  the  second  and 
third  Particulars  under  the  ninth  Article 
concerning  religion,  and  the  whole  matter 
of  the  tenth  Article;  all  these  we  do  ac- 
count and  declare  to  be  fundamental  to 
our  common  right,  liberty,  and  safety:  and 
therefore  do  both  agree  thereunto,  and  re- 
solve to  maintain  the  same,  as  God  shall 
enable  us.  The  rest  of  the  matters  in  this 
Agreement  we  account  to  be  useful  and 
good  for  the  public;  and  the  particular 
circumstances  of  numbers,  times,  and 
places,  expressed  in  the  several  Articles, 
we  account  not  fundamental;  but  we  find 
them  necessai-y  to  be  here  determined,  for 
the  making  the  Agreement  certain  and 
practicable,  and  do  hold  these  most  con- 
venient that  are  here  set  down;  and  there- 
fore do  positively  agree  thereunto.  By 
the  appointment  of  his  Excellency  the 
Lord-General  and  his  General  Council  of 
Officers. 

Agricultural  Colleges.  In  1857,  the 
late  Justin  S.  Morrill,  then  Chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  Agriculture  of  the  na- 
tional House  of  Representatives,  intro- 
duced a  bill  appropriating  to  the  several 
States  a  portion  of  the  public  lands  for 
the  purpose  of  encouraging  institutions  for 
the  advancement  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts.  The  bill  lingered  in  Con- 
gress (having  been  vetoed  by  President 
Buchanan)  until  July,  1862,  when  it  be- 
came a  law.  The  act  provided  that  each 
State  should  receive  a  quantity  of  land 
equal  in  value  to  $30,000  for  each  of  its 
Senators  and  Representatives  in  Congress 
under  the  census  of  1860,  to  establish  at 
least  one  college  in  each  State  where  "  all 
the  needful  sciences  for  the  practical  avo- 
cations of  life "  should  be  taught,  and 
"  where  agriculture,  the  foundation  of  all 
present  and  future  prosperity,  may  look 
for  troops  of  earnest  friends  studying  its 
familiar  and  recondite  economies."  It  pro- 
vided that  all  expenses  of  location,  man- 
agement, taxation,  etc.,  should  be  paid  by 
the  respective  State  treasurers,  that  the 
entire  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  the  land 
may  forever  remain  undiminished,  and 
that  every  State  receiving  the  grant  must 
provide  an  institution  Avithin  five  years 
from  the  date  of  filing  its  acceptance  of 
the  grant.     Every  State  in  the  Union  has 


established  one  or  more  of  these  industrial 
colleges,  with  ample  equipments,  in  which 
persons  of  both  sexes  may  equally  enjoy 
the  benefits  of  the  institution.  Each 
student  is  paid  a  stipulated  sum  of  money 
for  every  hour  of  labor  given  to  the  in- 
stitution; and  by  this  means  students 
are  materially  aided  in  defraying  the  ex- 
penses of  their  education. 

At  the  close  of  the  school  year  1898-99, 
there  were  in  the  several  States  and  Terri- 
tories a  total  of  fifty  agricultural  and  me- 
chanical colleges  for  white  students,  and 
fourteen  for  the  colored  race.  The  receipts 
of  the  year  were:  From  the  federal  gov- 
ernment under  the  original  and  subse- 
quent acts  of  Congress,  $1,769,716,  from 
State  and  Territorial  treasuries,  $2,.570,- 
427;  and  from  other  sources,  $1,852,873 — 
a  total  of  $6,193,016.  There  were  2,655 
men  and  312  women  teachers,  26,121  men 
and  9,337  women  students,  4,390  students 
in  the  purely  agricultural  course,  and 
6,730  students  in  the  four  engineering 
courses.  The  expenditures  were  $4,544,- 
376. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations. 
The  United  States  appropriates  about 
$15,000  yearly  to  each  of  the  States  and 
Territories  which  have  established  such 
stations.  The  first  was  that  of  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  in  1875.  There  are  now  sixty 
such  stations,  of  which  fifty-four  receive 
financial  aid  from  the  United  States. 

Agricultural  Implements.  The  United 
States  for  many  years  has  led  the  world  in 
the  invention  and  use  of  appliances  for 
tilling  the  soil.  The  extension  of  farming 
to  large  areas,  as  in  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
and  the  Dakotas,  where  farms  of  60,000 
acres  are  not  unusual,  has  called  for  quick- 
er means  of  ploughing,  sowing,  and  reaping 
than  is  i30ssible  by  hand.  Hence  inventive 
genius  has  recognized  the  new  conditions 
and  provided  ploughs,  seeding-machines, 
cultivators,  reapers,  binders,  and  other  ap- 
paratus operated  by  horse  and  steam-pow- 
er. The  invention  of  the  mowing-ma- 
chine is  coeval,  in  our  country,  with  the 
reaping-machine.  The  "  Manning  "  mower 
was  invented  in  1831.  That  and  the 
"  Ketcham  "  (1844)  held  the  place  of  su- 
perior excellence  until  about  1850,  when 
other  inventors  had  made  improvements. 
In  1850  less  than  5,000  mowing-machines 
had   been  made   in   our   country.     Within 


68 


AGRICULTURAL     IMPLEMENTS 


a  quarter  of  a  century  afterwards  a  mow- 
ing-machine was  considered  indispensable 
to  every  farm.  Tlie  American  machines 
are  the  best  in  the  world,  and  are  sold  all 
over  Europe  and  South  America. 

The  plough  used  in  this  country  during 
the  colonial  period  was  made  of  wood, 
covered  with  sheet-iron,  the  share  being  of 
wrought-iron.  In  1793,  Thomas  Jefferson, 
who  had  been  experimenting  on  his  Vir- 
ginia farm,  invented  an  improved  mould- 
board,  which  would  turn  a  furrow  with- 
out breaking  it.  In  1797,  Charles  New- 
bold,  of  Burlington,  N.  J.,  invented  a  cast- 
iron  plough,  and  spent  about  $30,000  in 
perfecting  it.  It  proved  a  great  loss  and 
failure  to  him,  however,  for  the  report 
spread  among  the  farmers  that  the  new 
plough  "poisoned  the  soil,  ruined  the  crops, 
and  promoted  the  growth  of  rocks  " ;  and, 
as  they  refused  to  use  it,  the  manufacture 
of  the  new  invention  ceased.  About  1804 
Daniel  Peacock  patented  a  plough  having 
its  mould-board  and  landside  of  cast-iron 
and  separate,  while  its  share  was  of 
wrought-iron,  edged  with  steel.  Jethro 
Wood,  of  Scipio,  N.  Y.,  patented  improve- 
ments on  this  in  1819,  and  the  prejudice 
against  new  inventions  among  farmers 
having  somewhat  abated,  he  did  a  very 
successful  business  as  a  maker  of  these 
implements,  and  his  plans  have  been  the 
basis  of  most  all  those  of  modern  construc- 
tion. The  first  steam-plough  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  was  patented  by  E.  C.  Bellin- 
ger, of  South  Carolina,  in  1833,  but  did 
not  come  into  practical  use  until  much 
later. 

Perhaps  the  "  Great  Plough,"  invented  by 
Daniel  Webster,  which  was  twelve  feet 
long,  drawn  by  four  yoke  of  oxen,  and 
turned  a  furrow  two  feet  wide  and  one 
foot  deep,  may  be  regarded  as  the  un- 
wieldy precursor  of  the  admirable  and 
efficient  sulky  ploughs  of  later  times.  The 
value  of  inventive  genius  to  the  farmer, 
however,  is  not  shown  as  much  in  the  im- 
provements of  the  plough  as  in  the  mowers 
and  reaping-machines  which  to-day  take 
the  places  of  sickle,  scythe,  and  cradle, 
laboriously  wielded  by  our  forefathers. 
The  first  reaping-machine  in  America  was 
patented  in  1803  by  Richard  French  and 
John  J.  Hankins.  One  wheel  of  the  ma- 
chine ran  in  the  grain,  and  the  cutting 
was  done  by  a  number  of  scythes  which  re- 


volved on  a  pivot.  It  did  not  prove  very 
successful.  Two  or  three  other  like  ma- 
chines were  patented  in  the  following  twen- 
ty-five years.  In  1831  the  Manney  mower 
was  patented,  which  was  the  first  success- 
ful machine  of  the  kind. 

In  1833,  Mr.  Obed  Hussey,  of  Cincinnati, 
0.,  patented  a  reaper,  with  saw-toothed 
cutters  and  guards,  which  was  immediate- 
ly jtiit  into  practical  operation,  and  proved 
thoroughly  satisfactory.  In  1834,  Cyrus 
H.  McCormick,  then  of  Virginia,  and  late 
of  Chicago,  took  out  the  first  patent  on 
his  reaper,  which  has  since  come  into  such 
general  use.  This  reaper,  with  improve- 
ments patented  in  1845  and  1847,  received 
the  first  prize  at  the  World's  Fair  of  1851, 
where  American  reapers  were  first  intro- 
duced to  the  notice  of  Europeans.  At  the 
International  Exhibition  at  Paris,  in  1855, 
American  reapers  were  brought  into  com- 
petition with  others,  each  machine  being 
allowed  to  cut  an  acre  of  standing  oats 
near  Paris.  The  American  reaper  did  its 
work  in  twenty-two  minutes,  the  English 
in  sixty,  and  an  Algerian  in  seventy-two. 
It  used  a  cutter  similar  to  that  of  Hus- 
sey's  machine,  its  main  features  being  the 
reel,  the  divider,  the  receiving  platform 
for  the  grain,  and  the  stand  for  the  raker. 
American  reaping-machines  are  now  used 
all  over  Europe  where  cereals  abound. 
The  automatic  rake  was  patented  by  a 
Mr.  Seymour,  of  Brockport,  N.  Y.,  in  1851, 
and  in  1856  Mr.  Dorsey,  of  Maryland, 
patented  the  revolving  rake,  which  was 
improved  upon  by  Samuel  Johnston,  of 
Brockport,  in  1865.  The  first  self-binder 
was  patented  by  C.  W.  and  W.  W.  Marsh 
in  1858. 

The  first  threshing-machine  used  here 
was  largely  modelled  after  the  invention  of 
Andrew  Meikle,  a  Scotchman,  patented  in 
Great  Britain  in  1788,  but  this  has  since 
been  changed  in  detail,  till  scarcely  more 
than  the  outline  of  the  original  plan  is 
left.  The  fanning-machine  was  originally 
invented  in  Holland,  though  largely  im- 
proved and  altered  by  American  inven- 
tions. An  agricultural  implement  of  great 
importance  to  one  part  of  the  country,  at 
least,  is  the  cotton-gin.  The  first  machine 
of  this  kind  was  invented  by  M.  De- 
breuil,  a  French  planter  of  Louisiana,  but 
did  not  prove  successful.  Whitney's  cot- 
ton-gin. which  did  succeed,  and  increased 


69 


AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETIES— AGRICULTURE 


the  production  of  cotton  tenfold  in  two 
years,  was  invented  in  1793. 

The  census  of  1890  reported  910  es- 
tablishments engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  agricultural  implements.  These  had  a 
capital  investment  of  $145,313,997,  em- 
ployed 42,544  persons,  paid  $21,811,761  for 
wages,  and  $31,603,265  for  materials  used 
in  construction,  and  turned  out  imple- 
ments valued  at  $81,271,651.  In  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1900,  the  exporta- 
tion of  American-made  agricultural  imple- 
ments aggregated  in  value  $16,094,886. 

Agricultural  Societies.  The  first  so- 
ciety in  the  United  States  was  formed  by 
planters  of  South  Carolina  in  1784,  and  it 
is  yet  in  existence.  The  next  year  the 
"  Philadelphia  Society  for  Promoting  Ag- 
riculture "  was  formed,  and  in  1791  citi- 
zens of  New  York  organized  a  similar  so- 
ciety. In  1792  the  "Massachusetts  Soci- 
ety for  Promoting  Agriculture "  was  or- 
ganized. These  were  city  institutions,  and 
not  composed  of  practical  farmers.  They 
dealt  with  facts  and  theories.  The  ma- 
jority of  husbandmen  then  did  not  hear 
nor  heed  their  appeals  for  improvements. 
But  finally  the  more  intelligent  of  that 
class  of  citizens  became  interested,  and  a 
convention  of  practical  farmers  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  held  in  1809,  result- 
ed in  the  formation  of  the  "  Columbian 
Agricultural  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Rural  and  Domestic  Economy."  They  of- 
fered premiums;  and  their  fair,  held  in 
May,  1810,  is  believed  to  be  the  first 
exhibition  of  its  kind  in  this  country. 
Elkanah  Watson  {q.  v.)  founded  the 
"Berkshire  (Mass.)  Agricultural  Society  " 
in  1810,  and  there  was  a  grand  "  Agri- 
cultural Fair  and  Cattle  Show  "  at  Pitts- 
field  in  September,  1811.  It  was  the  first 
of  the  county  fairs  held  in  this  country. 
From  that  time  until  now  there  has  been, 
at  first  a  gradual,  and  then  a  rapid,  in- 
crease in  such  institutions ;  and  now  they 
exist  in  every  State  and  Territory  of  the 
Union. 

Agriculture.  Nothing  can  more  ade- 
quately demonstrate  the  remarkable  devel- 
opment of  the  agricultural  industry  in  the 
United  States  than  the  statement  of  the 
value  of  the  exports  of  the  products  of 
agriculture  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1900.  Impressive  as  these  fig- 
ures are,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 


they  represent  the  surplus  of  production 
over  domestic  requirements.  The  total 
domestic  exports  aggregated  in  value  $1,- 
370,476,158,  and  of  this  total  the  share  of 
agricultural  products  was  $835,912,952,  or 
60.99  per  cent,  of  the  entire  value.  In  the 
preceding  year  the  percentage  was  65.19; 
but  in  1899-1900  the  exports  of  domestic 
manufactures  increased  to  an  unprecedent- 
ed extent,  and  caused  a  lowering  of  the 
agricultural  percentage.  In  the  period 
quoted  the  export  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments rose  in  value  to  $16,094,886. 

The  following  details,  covering  the  cal- 
endar year  1899,  show  still  more  striking- 
ly the  great  value  of  this  industry  and  its 
most  productive  crops:  Wheat,  acreage 
under  cultivation,  44,592,516;  production, 
in  bushels,  547,303,846;  value,  $319,545,- 
259 — corn,  acreage,  82,108,587;  production, 
2,078,143,933;  value,  $629,210,110— oats, 
acreage,  26,341,380;  production,  796,177,- 
713;  value,  $198,167,975— rye,  acreage, 
1,659,308;  production,  23,961,741;  value, 
$12,214,118 — buckwheat,  acreage,  670,148; 
production,  11,094,473;  value,  $6,183,675 
- — barley,  acreage,  2,878,229;  production, 
73,381,563;  value,  $29,594,254— potatoes, 
acreage,  2,581,353;  production,  228,783,- 
232;  value,  $89,328,832— hay,  acreage, 
41,328,462;  production,  in  tons,  56,655,- 
756;  value,  $411,926,187— cotton  (1898- 
99),  production,  in  bales,  11,189,205; 
value,  $305,467,041.  Here  are  nine 
branches  of  this  great  industry,  which 
in  a  single  crop-year  yielded  products  of 
an  aggregate  value  of  $2,001,637,451. 

The  extent  of  domestic  agricultural  op- 
erations is  still  further  shown  in  the  re- 
ports of  the  census  of  1890.  The  number 
of  farms  exceeding  three  acres  in  extent 
was  4,564,641,  aggregating  623,218,619 
acres,  of  which  357,616,755  acres  were  im- 
proved; and  the  number  of  farms  culti- 
vated by  owners  was  3,269,728.  Farm 
valuations  included  land,  fences,  and  build- 
ings, $13,279,252,649,  and  implements  and 
machinery,  $494,247,467.  The  estimated 
value  of  all  farm  products  in  the  preceding 
year  was  $2,460,107,454.  It  is  to  be  noted 
here  that  the  value  of  the  nine  principal 
crops  in  the  calendar  year  1899  w^as  only 
$458,470,003  less  than  the  value  of  all 
crops  in  1889. 

In  the  matter  of  farm  and  ranch  ani- 
mals it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  clearly 


70 


AGRICULTUEE— AGUINALDO 


between  those  used  in  strict  fai'ming  op- 
erations and  those  that  would  more  nat- 
urally be  included  under  stock-raising.  In 
its  official  reports  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture aggregates  all  such  stock.  On 
Jan.  1,  1900,  the  number  and  value  of 
these  animals  were  as  follows:  Horses, 
13,537,524;  value,  $603,969,442— mules, 
2,086,027;  value,  $111,717,092  —  milch 
cows,  16,292,360;  value,  $614,812,106— 
other  cattle,  27,610,054;  value,  $689,486,- 
260— and  sheep,  41,883,065;  value,  $122,- 
665,913— a  total  value  of  $2,042,650,813. 
It  is  curious  to  note  here  that  for  several 
years  past  the  values  of  the  chief  crop  pro- 
ductions and  of  the  farm  and  ranch  ani- 
mals have  closely  approximated  each  other. 

Agriculture,  Department  of.  See 
Cabinet,  President's. 

Aguadilla,  the  name  of  a  district  and 
of  its  principal  town  and  port  in  the  ex- 
treme northwestern  part  of  the  island  of 
Porto  Rico.  The  district  is  bounded  on 
the  north  and  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  east  by  the  district  of  Arecibo,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  district  of  Mayaguez. 
The  town  is  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
and  has  a  population  of  about  5,000. 
Industries  in  the  town  and  vicinity  con- 
sist of  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  cof- 
fee, tobacco,  and  cocoa-nuts,  and  the  dis- 
tillation of  rum  from  molasses.  Three 
establishments  in  the  town  prepare  coffee 
for  exportation.  The  climate  is  hot  but 
healthful,  and  yellow  fever  rarely  occurs. 

Aguadores,  a  port  in  the  province  of 
Santiago,  Cuba,  a  few  miles  east  of  the 
entrance  to  Santiago  harbor.  On  June  6, 
1898,  the  defences  at  this  place,  as  well  as 
the  shore  batteries  off  Santiago,  were  bom- 
barded by  Admiral  Sampson,  ten  vessels  of 
all  grades  being  engaged  and  operating  in 
a  double  line.  This  movement  was  exe- 
cuted for  the  purpose  of  concentrating  the 
attention  of  the  Spaniards  to  this  point 
in  order  to  secure  the  success  of  operations 
at  Caimanera,  in  the  Bay  of  Guantanamo, 
40  miles  east  of  Santiago,  which  were 
carried  out  on  the  following  day. 

Aguinaldo,  Emilio,  leader  of  the  Phil- 
ippine insurgents  in  their  insurrection 
against  Spanish  authority,  in  1896,  and 
organizer  and  president  of  the  so-called 
Filipino  Pepublic;  was  born  in  Imus,  in 
the  province  of  Cavite,  in  Luzon,  in  1870. 
He  is  a  Chinese  mestizo    (of  Chinese  and 


Tagalog  parentage),  and  received  his  early 
education  at  the  College  of  St.  Jean  de 
Lateran  and  the  University  of  St.  Tomas, 
in  Manila.  Later  he  became  the  protege 
of.  a  Jesuit  priest,  and  was  for  a  time  a 
student  in  the  medical  department  of  the 
Pontifical  University  of  Manila.  In  1883 
he  went  to  Hong-Kong,  became  interested 
in  military  affairs,  learned  something  of 


KMILIO   AGUINALDO. 


the  English,  French,  and  Chinese  lan- 
guages, and  through  his  reputation  for 
ability,  shrewdness,  and  diplomacy,  and 
his  personal  magnetism,  gained  great  in- 
fluence with  his  countrymen.  In  the  re- 
bellion of  1896  he  was  a  commanding  fig- 
ure, and  was  at  the  head  of  the  diplomatic 
party,  which  succeeded  in  making  terms 
with  the  Spanish  government,  the  latter 
paying  a  large  sum  to  the  Philippine 
leaders.  In  Hong-Kong  he  quarrelled 
with  his  associates  over  the  division  of 
this  money,  and  went  to  Singapore,  where 
he  remained  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
Spanish-American  War. 

Aguinaldo  presented  himself  to  Admiral 
Dewey  at  Cavite  shortly  after  the  battle 
of  Manila  Bay,  and  was  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  organize  the  Filipinos  against 
the  Spanish  authority;  but  no  promises 
were  made  to  him,  and  the  insurgents  were 
never   officially  recognized  by  the  Ameri- 


71 


AGUINALDO 


cans.  The  cruel  treatment  of  the  Spanish 
prisoners  by  the  Filipinos,  and  their  claim 
to  the  right  of  sacking  the  city,  after  the 
capture  of  Manila,  soon  caused  serious 
relations  between  the  natives  and  the 
United  States  officers.  On  June  12,  1898, 
Aguinaldo  organized  his  so-called  Filipino 
Republic,  with  himself  as  president,  and 
soon  proclaimed  himself  dictator.  He  or- 
ganized an  extensive  conspiracy  among  the 
native  population  of  Manila,  with  the  in- 
tention of  massacring  the  entire  American 
and  foreign  population  of  the  city ;  but 
the  plot  was  discovered  and  failed.  He 
protested  against  the  Spanish-American 
treaty  of  peace,  which  ceded  the  Philippine 
Islands  to  the  United  States,  and  on  the 
evening  of  Feb.  4,  1899,  his  troops  at- 
tacked the  American  lines  in  the  suburbs 
of  Manila. 

This  caused  the  immediate  ratification 
of  the  treaty  by  the  United  States  Senate. 
The  Filipinos,  under  Aguinaldo,  made  a 
strong  resistance  to  the  Americans,  and  it 
was  not  till  after  the  close  of  the  rainy 
season  that  they  could  be  followed  up  in 
the  oi>en  field.  Early  in  1900  the  organ- 
ized insurrection,  which  was  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  Tagalog  nationality,  Avas 
broken  up.  Aguinaldo  was  driven  into 
hiding,  and  reports  of  his  death  had 
persistent  circulation.  Later  in  the  year, 
the  insurgents,  encouraged  by  the  possible 
change  of  administration  in  the  United 
States,  actively  renewed  hostilities ;  but, 
discouraged  by  their  repeated  failures  in 
their  attacks  on  the  American  troops,  and 
the  news  of  the  re-election  of  President 
McKinley,  they  began  giving  up  the  strug- 
gle and  surrendering  in  large  bodies  to  the 
American  officers.  Aguinaldo  himself  Avas 
captured  by  Gen.  Frederick  Funston 
(q.  V.)  on  March  23,  1901,  at  his  hiding- 
place  in  Palanan,  Isabella  Province.  Luzon, 
and  Avas  immediately  taken  to  Manila. 

He  had  been  located  by  means  of  the 
capture  of  his  secret  cipher  code  in  a 
drugrstore  in  Manila,  from  Avhich  the  in- 
surgents had  been  furnished  Avith  medical 
supplies.  As  soon  as  his  hiding-place  Avas 
knoAvn,  General  Funston  planned  the 
scheme  for  his  capture.  He  chose  a  num- 
ber of  nati\^e  troops,  informing  them  that 
they  Avere  to  pass  themselves  off  as  Agui- 
naldo's  expected  reinforcements.  Four 
Tagalogs  who  had  been  officers  in  the  in- 


surgent army  Avere  first  selected,  and  then 
seventy  -  eight  trustworthy  Maccabebe 
scouts  were  picked  out.  Besides  General 
Funston  this  expedition  Avas  accompanied 
by  Captain  Hazzard,  of  the  1st  United 
States  CaA'alry,  and  Lieutenant  Mitchell 
and  Captain  NcAvton,  of  the  34th  Infantry. 
On  March  6,  at  4  p.m.,  the  expedition  em- 
barked on  the  gunboat  Vickshurg  at  Ca- 
vite.  At  2  A.M.  on  the  14th  General  Fun- 
ston and  his  party  Avere  landed  Avithin  a 
short  distance  of  Baler,  about  20  miles 
south  of  Casiguran,  the  place  nearest  the 
reported  headquarters  of  Aguinaldo,  suit- 
able for  a  base  of  operations.  As  the 
Vickshurg  had  displayed  no  lights  and  had 
used  extreme  precaution,  not  the  slightest 
suspicion  Avas  excited  by  the  landing.  An 
ex-colonel  of  the  insurgent  army  Avas  the 
nominal  commander  of  the  expedition. 
About  twenty  Maccabebes  Avere  dressed  in 
the  insurgent  uniform,  the  rest  being  at- 
tired in  the  ordinary  dress  of  the  country. 
The  American  officers,  who  Avere  dressed 
as  privates,  posed  as  prisoners.  When  the 
party  arrived  at  Casiguran  a  message  was 
forAA^arded  to  Auginaldo  that  the  re-en- 
forcements he  had  ordered  Avere  on  their 
AA'ay  to  Palanan,  and  a  further  statement 
Avas  enclosed  that  there  had  been  an  en- 
gagement Avith  Americans,  five  of  Avhom, 
with  Krag  rifles,  had  been  captured.  In 
six  days  the  expedition  marched  90 
miles  over  a  most  difficult  country.  When 
Avithin  8  miles  of  Aguinaldo's  camp 
the  fact  that  he  sent  provisions  proved  the 
ruse  had  thus  far  worked  admirably.  On 
March  23  the  party  reached  the  camp, 
where  Aguinaldo  received  the  supposed  of- 
ficers at  his  house,  located  on  the  Palanan 
River.  After  a  brief  conversation  Avith 
him  the  party  quietly  excused  themselves, 
ond  at  once  orders  Avere  given  to  fire  upon 
Aguinaldo's  body-guard,  who  fled  in  con- 
sternation. Tavo  of  them,  hoAvever,  were 
killed  and  eighteen  wounded.  During  this 
engagement  the  American  officers  rushed 
into  Aguinaldo's  house,  and  succeeded  in 
taking  him.  Colonel  Villa,  his  chief  of 
staff,  and  Santiago  Barcelona,  the  insur- 
gent treasurer.  After  remaining  tAVO  days 
in  the  camp  the  party  returned  to  the 
coast,  Avhere  the  Vickshurg,  Avhich  was  in 
Avaiting,  receiA'ed  them,  and  conA^eyed  the 
entire   party  to  Manila. 

On  April  2  he  subscribed  and  SAVore  to 


72 


AGTJINALDO 


the  following  declaration  which  had  been 
prepared  by  the  American  military  au- 
thorities for  use  in  the  Philippines: 

'■'  I,  ,  hereby  renounce  all  allegi- 


According  to  the  censored  press  of  Manila 
during  ttie  month  of  October  only  thirty-sis 
Filipinos  in  various  provinces  were  hanged  ; 
the  totals  for  the  month  of  November  and 
December  were  the  same,  and  during  the  first 
ten  days  of  this  month  the  United  States 
courts-martial  have  condemned  to  the  same 
inhuman  death  the  following  : 

Fifteen   in    San   Isidro    (Doroteo   Noul   and 


anee  to  any  and  all  so-called  revolutionary 
governments  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  recognize  and  accept  the  supreme  au- 
thority of  the  United  States  of  America  his  fellow-martyrs),  nine  in  Tayabas,  one  in 
therein;  I  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  will  ^^ler,  one  in  Bolinao,  one  in  Pangasinan, 
,  ,  J,  ..,  J  11  •  J.  i.1,  i  one  in  Donsol,  and  three  in  Tayaba,  a  total 
bear  true  faith  and  allegiance^  to  that  ^f  twenty-eight  death  sentences  in  ten  days, 
government;  that  I  will  at  all  times  con-  according  to  information  given  the  Manila 
duct  myself  as  a  faithful  and  law-abiding  P^ss  by  the  staff  of  the  enemy. 

citizen  of  the  said  islands,  and  will  not,  ^JZ.t1^'f°''  H  ^^^  ^^,'%.^^^  f\l^^''^  ^^^^ 

.  1111  committed    another    violation    of    the    Geneva 

either   directly   or    indirectly,   hold    corre-  international  treaty  by  employing  against  us 

spondence  with  or  give  intelligence  to  an  our   own   countrymen,    who   have   sold   them- 

enemy   of    the   United    States,    nor    will    I  selves  to  them,  sowing  by  this  atrocious  meas- 

,.•^11  i     J.         1  XI    i-  ure    the    seeds    of    a    civil    war,    which    could 

abet,  harbor,  or  protect  such  enemy;  that  ^^^y    ^.^u    ^^^^j.    ^fter    this    war,    which    is 

1  impose  upon  myself  these  voluntary  ob-  desolating   this   poor   country,    if   those    now 

ligations  without  any  mental  reservations  counted    as    traitors    should   form    a    regular 

or  purpose  of  evasion,  so  help  me  God."  ^^^^P'   ^hus   making   more  and   — ----- 


more    remote 
the  coming  of  the  long-sought-for  peace. 

I  protest,  therefore,  before  God  and  the 
honorable  men  of  the  whole  world,  in  the 
name  of  the  Philippine  people,  against  such 
iniquitous  measures,  and  for  our  own  de- 
fence : 

I  order  and  command — ■ 
Article  I.  All  guerilla  chiefs  as  soon  as 
they  capture  any  armed  American  citizen, 
shall  talje  him  into  the  interior  at  once,  and 
shall  communicate  with  the  chief  of  the  near- 
surgents,  published  at  Madrid,  Spain,  and  est  American  detachment,  urgently  request- 
appears    in    the    issue    of    that    paper    of    i^g  the  exchange  of  prisoners  at  the  rate  of 

March    10,    1901.      A    translation    of    the  "^^^tlf'l'V'  ^°'  T'^  t^^T  f^'t'^'Z''  °.^  ^^^ 

.  .     .     '  .  mi      i-  11       •  many  who  are  condemned  to  death  by  them, 

article  is  here  given:   The  following  proc-  and  who  expect  to  be  led  to  execution  at  any 

lamation    has    been    recently    received    by  moment,  and  informing  him  that  he  would  be 

this    paper,    which    will    probably    satisfy  i-esponsible  for  the  reprisals  which  we  would 


His  Last  Proclamation. — Copies  of  what 
was  probably  the  full  text  of  the  last 
proclamation  issued  by  Aguinaldo  previ- 
ous to  his  capture  by  General  Funston 
were  received  at  the  War  Department  in 
Washington  in  March,  1901.  The  procla- 
mation was  contained  in  the  Filipinos' 
Anti-Europa,  the  organ  of  the  Filipino  in- 


the  clamor  of  all  Filipinos: 
Don  Emilio  Aguinaldo  y  Famy,  President  of 
the  Philippine  Republic,  Captain-General, 
and  General-in-Chief  of  her  army  : 
Heart-broken  groans  of  the  oppressed  and 
of  their  unfortunate  families,  and  energetic 
protests  from  the  entire  people  of  the  Philip- 
pines, come  to  my  far-off  camp  on  account  of 
the  unheard-of  cruelties  and  scornful  vio- 
latiors  of  the  most  elementary  laws  of  war 
committed  by  the  imperialists  who,  under  pre- 
text of  some  American  having  been  killed, 
hang  their  prisoners  of  war  by  means  which 
are  both  repugnant  and  inhuman,  the  agony 
lasting  about  fifteen  minutes,  according  to 
the  press  of  Manila,  or  otherwise  submitting 
them  to  unheard-of  tortures,  according  to  the 
official  communications  from  my  various  com- 
manding generals ;  and  if  this  were  not 
sufficient,  the  military  governor  of  the  in- 
vading army  has  proclaimed  martial  law, 
placing  beyond  the  protection  of  law  not 
only  Filipinos  under  arms,  but  also  all  peace- 
ful residents,  whom  they  arrest  and  deport 
without  giving  them  a  hearing,  almost  al- 
ways for  no  other  purpose  than  to  loot  their 
houses  and  treasures,  or  to  await  a  ransom  or 
bribe  for  their  liberty. 


73 


see  ourselves  obliged  to  take  in  our  just  de- 
fence. If  said  American  chief  should  refuse 
to  make  the  exchange  requested,  the  Ameri- 
can prisoners  shall  be  shot,  whatever  be  their 
number,  which  punishment  is  fixed  in  the 
Spanish  penal  code,  which  we  have  adopted 
for  those  who  attack  our  national  integrity, 
if  in  four  days  after  the  exchange  requested 
the  execution  of  some  Filipino  sentenced  by 
the  Americans  should  be  announced. 

Article  II.  Preference  should  also  be  given 
in  exchange  of  prisoners  to  deported  Filipinos, 
and  to  those  who  have  rendered  signal  service 
to  the  cause  of  our  independence. 

Article  III.  The  promoters  of  the  so-called 
Federal  party  shall  be  submitted  as  traitors 
to  a  most  summary  court-martial,  and  those 
who  stimulate  the  invaders  to  pursue  and 
prosecute  our  fellow-countrymen  who  do  not 
wish  to  identify  themselves  therewith  shall 
be  punished  with  special  severity,  and  after 
those  who  are  guilty  have  been  sentenced, 
they  shall  be  captured  and  punished  wherever 
they  may  be,  and  by  any  means  which  may  be 
possible. 

'Article  IV.  The  commanding  generals  and 
all  guerilla  chiefs  in  their  respective  dis- 
tricts are  entrusted  with  and  responsible  for 
a  speedy  execution  of  this  general  order. 


AGUINALDO— ALABAMA 


Given  in  tlie  capital  of  the  republic  on 
Jan.  17,  1901.  E.  Aguinaldo. 

There  is  a  seal  in  purple  ink,  consisting 
of  a  sun  and  three  stars,  and  the  words, 
"  Philippine  Republic,  OlKce  of  the  Presi- 
dent." 

Address  of  Submission. — After  his  capt- 


See  Atkinson,  Edwaed;  Luzon;  Ma- 
nila; Philippine  Islands. 

Ainsworth,  Frederick  Crayton,  mili- 
tary oflicer ;  born  in  Woodstock,  Vt.,  Sept. 
11,  1852:  was  appointed  a  iirst  lieutenant 
and  assistant  surgeon  in  the  United  States 
army  in  1874;  promoted  major  and  sur- 
geon in  1891;  colonel  and  chief  of  the  Rec- 


ure  Agumaldo  was  fully  informed  of  the        -,        ,  t>       •       r^^xt      ■     j^i     ttt      t^ 

,,'=.,,.        .       n         +       f  j-i,  1,-     o™  ^nd  Pension  Office  m  the  War  Depart 

actual  situation  m  all  parts  of  the  archi-  ^ 

pel  ago,  not  only  by  the  United  States  mili- 
tary, naval,  and  civil  authorities,  but  by 
many  of  his  former  generals  and  support- 


ers who  had  surrendered.  He  was  thus 
led  to  issue  the  following  address  to  the 
Filipinos,  which  was  published  in  Manila 
on  April  19: 

"  I  believe  I  am  not  in  error  in  presuming 
that  the  unhappy  fate  to  which  my  adverse 
fortune  has  led  me  is  not  a  surprise  to  those 
who  have  been  familiar  with  the  progress  of 
the  war.  The  lessons  taught  with  a  full 
meaning,  and  which  have  recently  come  to 
my  knowledge,  suggest  with  irresistible  force 
that  a  complete  termination  of  hostilities 
and  lasting  peace  are  not  only  desirable,  but 


ment  in  1892;  and  brigadier-general  in 
1899.  He  invented  and  introduced  the 
index-record  card  system,  by  the  use  of 
which  the  full  military  history  of  any  sol- 
dier may  be  immediately  traced.  About 
50,000,000  of  these  cards  have  been  placed 
on  file,  and  their  introduction  has  resulted 
in  a  yearly  saving  of  more  than  $400,000. 
In  1898  he  succeeded  Gen.  George  W. 
Davis  as  supervisor  of  the  publication  of 
the  official  records  of  the  Civil  War. 

Aitken,  Robert,  publisher;  born  in 
Scotland  in  1734;  arrived  in  Philadelphia 
in  1769;  was  a  practical  printer,  and  pub- 
lished the  Pennsylvania  Magazine,  or  Amer- 


absolutely    essential    to    the    welfare    of    the    ican  Monthly  Museum,   1775-76.     He  was 


I'hilippine  Islands. 

"  The  Filipinos  have  never  been  dismayed 
at  their  weakness,  nor  have  they  faltered  in 
following  the  path  pointed  out  by  their  forti- 
tude and  courage.  The  time  has  come,  how- 
ever, in  which  they  find  their  advance  along 
this  path  to  be  impeded  by  an  irresistible 
force  which,  while  it  restrains  them,  yet  en- 
lightens  their   minds  and  opens  to  them  an- 


a  warm  Whig,  and  was  thrown  into  prison 
by  the  British  in  1777.  He  issued  the  first 
American  edition  of  the  Bible  in  1782. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  July,  1802. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  Treaty.  See  Louis- 
burg. 

Akerman,    Amos    Tappan,    statesman; 


other    course    presenting    them    the   cause   of    born  in  NeAV  Hampshire  in  1823.     Served 

in  the  Confederate  army.     He  was  United 
States  district  attorney  for  Georgia,  1866- 
70;  Attorney-General  of  the  United  States 
1870-72.    He  died  Dec.  21,  1880. 
Alabama.     The  soil  of  this  State  was 


peace.  This  cause  has  been  joyfully  em- 
braced by  the  majority  of  my  fellow-coun- 
trymen, who  have  already  united  around  the 
glorious  sovereign  banner  of  the  United 
States. 

"  In    this   banner    they    repose   their   trust, 
and    believe    that    under    its    protection    the  .      ,rx«    m, 

Filipino  people  will  attain  all  those  promised    first  trodden  by  Europeans  m  1540.   ihese 
liberties  which  they  are  beginning  to  enjoy,    were  the  followers  of  De  Soto  (q.  v.) .     In 


The  country  has  declared  unmistakably  in 
favor  of  peace.  So  be  it.  There  has  been 
enough  blood,  enough  tears,  and  enough 
desolation.  This  wish  cannot  be  ignored  by 
the  men  still  in  arms  if  they  are  animated  by 
a  desire  to  serve  our  noble  people,  which  has 
thus  clearly  manifested  its  will.  So  do  I 
respect  this  will,  now  that  it  is  known  to  me. 

"  After  mature  deliberation,  I  resolutely 
proclaim  to  the  world  that  I  cannot  refuse 
to  heed  the  voice  of  a  people  longing  for 
peace  nor  the  lamentations  of  thousands  of 
families  yearning  to  see  their  dear  ones  en- 
joying the  liberty  and  the  promised  gen- 
erosity of  the  great  American  nation. 

"  By  acknowledging  and  accepting  the 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States  throughout 
the  Philippine  Archipelago,  as  I  now  do.  and 
without  any  reservation  whatsoever,  I  be- 
lieve that  I  am  serving  thee,  my  beloved 
country.     May  happiness  be  thine." 


1702,  Bienville,  the  French  governor  of 
Louisiana,  enter- 
ed Mobile  Bay, 
and  built  a  fort 
and  trading- 
house  at  the 
mouth  of  Dog 
River.  In  1711 
the  French 
founded  Mobile, 
and  there  a  col- 
ony prospered 
for  a  while.  Ne- 
gro   slaves    were 

first   brought    into    this    colony    by    three 
French    ships    of   war    in    1721.       By   the 


STATE   SEAL  OF  ALABAMA. 


74 


ALABAMA 


treaty  of  1763  this  region  was  transferred  the  State  was  represented.  William 
by  France  to  Great  Britain.  Alabama  Brooks  was  chosen  president.  There  was 
formed  a  portion  of  the  State  of  Georgia,  a  powerful  infusion  of  Union  sentiment 
but  in  1798  the  country  now  included  in  in  the  convention,  which  endeavored  to 
the  States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  postpone  a  decision,  under  the  plea  of  the 
was  organized  as  a  Territory  called  Mis-  desirableness  of  co-operation.  A  commit- 
sissippi.  After  the  Creeks  disappeared  tee  of  thirteen  was  appointed  to  report  an 
(see  Creek  Indians)  the  region  of  Ala-  Ordinance  of  Secession.  It  was  submitted 
bama  was  rapidly  settled  by  white  people,  on  the  10th.  It  was  longer  than  any  oth- 
and  in  1819  it  entered  the  Union  as  a  er  already  adopted,  but  similar  in  tenor. 
State.  The  slave  population  increased  They  assumed  that  the  commonwealth, 
more  rapidly  than  the  white.  In  the  Dem-  which  had  been  created  by  the  national 
ocratic  National  Convention  that  was  held  government  first  a  Territory,  and  then  a 
at  Charleston  in  1860  the  delegates  of  Ala-  State  (1819),  had  "delegated  sovereign 
bama  took  the  lead  in  seceding  from  the  powers  "  to  that  government,  which  were 
convention.  now  "  resumed  and  vested  in  the  people  of 

In  October  of  that  year,  Herschell  V.  the  State  of  Alabama."  The  convention 
Johnson,  the  candidate  for  Vice-President  favored  the  formation  of  a  confederacy 
on  the  Douglas  ticket,  declared,  in  a  speech  of  slave-labor  States,  and  formally  invited 
at  the  Cooper  Institute,  New  York,  that  the  others  to  send  delegates  to  meet  those 
Alabama  was  ripe  for  revolt  in  case  Mr.  of  Alabama,  in  general  convention,  on 
Lincoln  should  be  elected;  that  it  was  Feb.  4,  at  Montgomery,  for  consulta- 
pledged  to  withdraw  from  the  Union,  and  tion  on  the  subject.  The  convention  was 
had  appropriated  $200,000  for  military  not  harmonious.  Union  men  were  not  to 
contingencies.  The  governor  suggested  se-  be  put  down  without  a  struggle.  There 
cession  at  the  beginning  of  November ;  and  was  a  minority  report  on  Secession;  and 
in  December,  1860,  the  conference  of  the  some  were  for  postponing  the  act  until 
Methodist  Church,  South,  sitting  at  Mont-  March  4,  with  a  hope  of  preserving 
gomery,  declared  "  African  slavery  as  it  the  Union.  Nicholas  Davis,  from  north- 
existed  in  the  Southern  States  of  the  ern  Alabama,  declared  his  belief  that  the 
republic,  a  wise,  beneficent,  humane,  and  people  of  his  section  would  not  submit  to 
righteous  institution,  approved  of  God,  any  disunion  scheme,  when  Yancey 
and  calculated  to  promote,  to  the  highest  (q.  v.)  denounced  him  and  his  fellow-citi- 
possible  degree,  the  welfare  of  the  slave;  zens  of  that  region  as  "  tories,  traitors, 
that  the  election  of  a  sectional  President  and  rebels,"  and  said  they  "  ought  to  be 
of  the  United  States  was  evidence  of  the  coerced  into  submission."  Davis  was  not 
hostility  of  the  majority  to  the  people  of  moved  by  these  menaces,  but  assured  the 
the  South,  and  which  in  fact,  if  not  in  Confederates  that  the  people  of  his  section 
form,  dissolves  the  compact  of  union  be-  would  be  ready  to  meet  their  enemies  on 
tween  the  States."  Northern  Alabama  the  line  and  decide  the  issue  at  the  point 
was  opposed  to  the  movement.  of    the    bayonet.      The   final    vote    on    the 

Elections  for  members  of  a  State  eon-  Ordinance  of  Secession  was  taken  at 
vention  in  Alabama  were  held  Dec.  24,  2  p.m.  on  Jan.  11,  and  resulted  in  sixty- 
1860,  and  as  in  some  of  the  other  States,  one  yeas  to  thirty  -  nine  nays.  An  im- 
the  politicians  were  divided  into  "  Seces-  mense  mass-meeting  was  immediately  held 
sionists "  and  "  Co-operationists."  The  in  front  of  the  State  -  house,  and  timid 
latter  were  also  divided;  one  party  wish-  "co-operationists"  assured  the  multitude 
ing  the  co-operation  of  all  the  slave-labor  that  their  constituents  would  support  the 
States,  and  the  other  caring  only  for  the  ordinance.  A  Secession  flag,  which  the 
co-operation  of  the  cotton-producing  \\'omen  of  Montgomery  had  presented  to 
States.  The  vote  for  all  but  ten  counties  the  convention,  was  raised  over  the  capi- 
was,  for  secession,  24,445 ;  and  for  co-oper-  ial.  In  Mobile,  when  the  news  reached 
ation,  33,685.  In  the  ten  counties,  some  that  city,  101  guns  were  fired  in  honor  of 
were  for  secession  and  some  for  co-opera-  Alabama,  and  fifteen  for  Florida.  At 
tion.  In  the  convention  assembled  at  night  the  city  blazed  with  fireworks,  the 
Montgomery,  Jan.  7,  1861,  every  county  in    favorite  pieces  being  the  Southern  Cross 

75 


ALABAMA 


and  the  Lone  Star.  The  convention  had 
voted  against  the  reopening  of  the  slave- 
trade,  and  adjourned  on  Jan.  30,  1861. 

A  week  before  the  Secession  Ordinance 
^A'as  adopted,  volunteer  troops,  in  accord- 
ance vsrith  an  arrangement  made  with  the 
governors  of  Louisiana  and  Georgia,  and 
by  order  of  the  governor  of  Alabama,  had 
seized  the  arsenal  at  Mount  Vernon,  about 
30  miles  above  Mobile,  and  Fort  Mor- 
gan, at  the  entrance  to  Mobile  Har- 
bor, about  30  miles  below  the  city.  The 
Mount  Vernon  arsenal  was  captured  by 
four  Confederate  companies  commanded  by 
Captain  Leadbetter,  of  the  United  States 
Engineer  Corjjs,  and  a  native  of  Maine. 
At  dawn  (Jan.  4,  1861)  they  surprised 
Captain  Reno,  who  was  in  command  of 
the  arsenal,  and  the  Alabama  Confederates 
thus  obtained  15,000  stands  of  arms,  150,- 
000  pounds  of  gunpowder,  some  cannon, 
and  a  large  quantity  of  munitions  of 
war. 

The  Alabama  Senators  and  Representa- 
tives withdrew  from  Congress  Jan.  21, 
1861.  On  March  13,  a  State  convention 
ratified  the  constitution  adopted  by  the 
Confederate  Congress.  The  authorities  of 
the  State  seized  the  national  property 
within  its  borders,  and  sent  troops  to  Flor- 
ida to  assist  in  capturing  Fort  Pickens 
and  other  public  works  there.  Alabama 
sent  a  commissioner  to  Washington  as  an 
ambassador,  but  he  was  not  received.  Dur- 
ing the  war  that  ensued,  Alabama  bore  her 
share  of  the  burden,  and  her  cities  and 
plantations  suflered  from  the  ravages  of 
the  conflict.  Wilson's  cavalry  raid  through 
the  State  caused  great  destruction  of 
property.  During  the  war  Alabama  fur- 
nished 122,000  troops  to  the  Confederate 
army,  of  whom  35,000  were  killed  or 
wounded.  Montgomery,  in  the  interior  of 
the  State,  was  the  Confederate  capital  un- 
til July,  1861,  when  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  removed  to  Richmond.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  a  provisional  governor 
for  Alabama  was  appointed  (June  21, 
1865),  and  in  September  a  convention  re- 
ordained  the  civil  and  criminal  laws,  ex- 
cepting such  as  related  to  slavery;  de- 
clared the  Ordinance  of  Secession  and  the 
State  war-debt  null ;  passed  an  ordinance 
against  slavery;  and  provided  for  an  elec- 
tion of  State  officers,  who  were  chosen  in 
November.     The   government  thus   consti- 


tuted remained  in  force  until  superseded 
by  military  rule  in  1867.  In  November  of 
that  year  a  convention  formed  a  new  con- 
stitution for  the  State,  which  was  ratified 
Feb.  4,  1868.  State  officers  and  members 
of  Congress  having  been  duly  chosen,  and 
all  requirements  complied  with,  Alabama 
became  entitled  to  representation  in  Con- 
gress; and  on  July  14,  1868,  the  military 
relinquished  to  the  civil  authorities  all 
legal  control.  The  Fourteenth  and  Fif- 
teenth Amendments  to  the  national  Con- 
stitution were  ratified  by  Alabama,  the 
latter  Nov., 16,  1870.  Population  in  1890, 
1,508,073;  in  1900,  1,828,697.  See  United 
States — Alabama,  in  vol.  ix. 

GOVERNORS   OF  THE   MISSISSIPPI  TERRITORY. 
Including  the  present  States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 


Name 


Winthrop  Sargent. . . , 
Wm.  C.  C.  Claiborne. 

Robt.  Williams 

David  Holmes 


TeriM  of  Office 


1799  to  1801 

1801  "  1805 

1805  "  1809 

1809  "  1817 


GOVERNOR   OF   THE   TERRITORY   OF   ALABAMA. 
Wm.  WyattBibb |     Mar.  1817    to    Nov.  1819 


GOVERNORS   OF   THE   STATE   OF   ALABAMA. 


Wm.  Wyatt  Bibb Nov, 

Thomas  Bibb July 

Israel  Pickens Nov, 

John  Murphy 

Gabriel  Moore 

Saml.  B.  Moore Mar. 

John  Gayle Nov. 

Clement  C.  Clay 

Hugh  McVay July, 

Arthur  P.  Bagby Nov. 

Benj.   Fitzpatrick 

Joshua  L.  Martin 

Reuben  Chapman 

Henry  Walking  Collier. . 

John  A.  Winston 

Andrew  B.  Moore 

John  Gill  Shorter 

Thomas  H.  Watts . 

Interregnum  of  two  m 


Lewis  E.  Parsons  ! . , 
Robt.  M.  Patton  . . . 

Wm.  H.  Smith 

Robt.  B.  Lindsay  . . 

David  B.  Lewis 

Geo.  S.  Houston 

Rufus  W.  Cobb 

Edward  N.  O'Neal. 

Thomas  Seay 

Thomas  G.  Jones. . 
William  C.  Gates. .. 
Joseph  F.  Johnston 

W.  J.  Samford* 

W.  D.  Jelks 


June 
Dec, 
July, 
Nov.. 


1819  to 

1820  " 

1821  " 
1825  " 
1829  " 
1831  " 
18.31  " 
1835  " 
1837  " 
1837  " 
1841  " 
1845  " 
184T  " 
1849  " 
1853  " 
1857  " 
1861  " 
1863  " 

onths. 

,1865  to 

1865  " 


July, 
Nov. , 


Mar. 
Nov. 


July, 
Nov., 


Apr., 

Dec, 
July, 
Nov.. 


1870  ' 

1872  ' 

1874  ' 

1878  ' 

1882  ' 

18S6  ' 

1890  ' 

1894  ' 

1896  ' 

1900  ' 

1901  ' 
W.  J,  Saiiiford  died  June  12,  1901. 


1820 
1821 
1825 
1829 
1831 
1831 
1835 
1837 
1837 
1841 
1845 
1847 
1849 
1853 
1857 
1861 
1863 
1865 

1865 
1868 
1870 
1872 
1874 
1878 
1882 
1886 
1890 
1894 
1896 
1900 
1901 
1902 


70 


ALABAMA— ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


UNITED  STATES  SENATORS  FROM  THE  STATE  OF 
ALABAMA. 


Names. 

No.  of 

Congress. 

Date. 

William  R.  King 

16th 

to  28th 

1819  to 

1844 

John  W.  Walker 

Kith 

'•  17th 

1819    " 

1822 

William  Kelley 

17th 

"  19th 

1823   " 

1825 

Henry  Chambers 

19th 

1825   " 

1826 

Israel  Pickens 

19  Ih 

to  20th 

1826 

John  McKinley 

19th 

"  22d 

1826  to 

1831 

22d 
2.5th 

"  25th 
"  27th 

1831    " 
1837   " 

1837 

Clement  C.  Clay 

1841 

Arthur  P.  Bagby 

27th 

"  30th 

1841   " 

1848 

Dixon  H.  Lewis 

2Hth 

'•  30th 

1844   " 

1848 

William  R.  King 

30th 

"  32d 

1848   " 

1852 

Benj.  Fitzpatrick 

30th 

"  3tjth 

1848   " 

1861 

Jeremiah  Clemens.    ... 

31st 

•'  33d 

1849    " 

1853 

Clement  C.  Clay,  Jr 

33d 

"  36th 

1853   " 

1861 

37th,  38th,  and  39th  Congresses  vacant. 


George  E.  Spencer. 

Williard  Warner 

George  Goldthwaite. .. 

John  T.  Morgan , 

James  L.  Pugh 

Edmund  W.  Fettus... 


40th  to  46th 
40th   "  42d 
42d     "  45th 

45th   "   

47th  "  .55th 
55th  "  


1868  to  1879 
1868  ■•  1871 
1872  "  1877 

1877  "  

1880  "  1897 
1897   "   


Alabama,  The,  Confederate  man-of- 
war;  a  British  vessel,  manned  chiefly  bj' 
British  subjects  at  a  British  port;  armed 
with  British  cannon,  and  provided  with 
coal  and  other  supplies  from  British  soil. 
She  had  no  acknowledged  flag,  nor  recog- 
nized nationality,  nor  any  accessible  port 
to  which  she  might  send  her  prizes,  nor 
any  legal  tribunal  to  adjudge  her  captures. 
She  was  commanded  by  Raphael  Semmes, 
a  native  of  Maryland,  and  roamed  the  seas, 
plundering  and  destroying  vessels  belong- 
ing to  American  citizens.  Her  command- 
er avoided  contact  with  American  armed 
vessels,  but- finally  encountered  the  Kear- 


THE   ALABAMA. 


surge,  Capt.  John  A.  Winslow,  off  Cher- 
bourg, France,  in  the  summer  of  1864.  On 
June  19  Semmes  went  out  of  the  harbor 
of  Cherbourg  to  fight  the  Eearsarge.     The 


Alabama  was  accompanied  by  a  French 
frigate  to  a  point  beyond  the  territorial 
waters  of  France.  At  a  distance  of  7 
miles  from  the  Cherbourg  breakwater,  the 
Kearsarge  turned  and  made  for  the  Con- 
federate cruiser,  when,  within  1,200  yards 
of  her,  the  latter  opened  fire.  After  re- 
ceiving two  or  three  broadsides,  the  Kear- 
sarge responded  with  telling  eff"ect.  They 
fought  for  an  hour,  the  steamers  moving 
in  a  circle.  At  the  end  of  the  hour  the 
Alabama  was  at  the  mercy  of  her  antag- 
onist, her  flag  down,  and  a  white  flag 
displayed  over  her  stern.  Respecting  this, 
Winslow  ceased  firing.  Two  minutes  af- 
terwards the  Alabama  fired  two  guns 
at  the  Kearsarge,  and  attempted  to  run 
to  the  protection  of  the  French  neutral 
waters,  not  more  than  3  miles  distant. 
Winslow  opened  fire  again,  and  very  soon 
a  boat  came  to  his  vessel  from  the  Ala- 
hama,  saying  she  had  surrendered  and  was 
fast  sinking.  Just  then  the  Deerhound 
passed  by,  w-hen  W^inslow  humanely  asked 
her  owner  to  assist  him  in  saving  the  crew 
of  the  Alabama,  which,  in  twenty  minutes, 
went  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  Kear- 
sarge rescued  sixty-five  of  the  crew;  the 
Deerhound  picked  up  Semmes,  his  officers, 
and  a  few  mariners,  and  carried  them 
away  from  the  lawful  custody  of  Winslow, 
to  England.  There  Semmes  was  received 
with  great  honor.  The  Kearsarge  had 
three  men  badly  wounded — one  of  them 
mortally.  The  Alabama  had  nine  men 
killed  and  twenty-one  wounded.  See  Ar- 
bitration, TRiBrxAL  OF;  Joint  High 
Commission. 

Alabama  Claim.s,  The,  a  series  of 
claims  against  Great  Britain  for  losses 
sustained  by  the  United  States  through 
depredations  on  her  commerce  by  Con- 
federate vessels  fitted  out  or  supplied  in 
English  ports.  As  finally  presented  they 
wore  as  follows: 


No 


Alabama 58  

Boslnn 1  

Chickamauga 3  

Florida 38  

Georgia 5  

Nashville 1  

Retribution 2  

Sallie 1  

Shenandoah 40 

Sumter 3 

Tallahassee  17  

For  losses  from  increased  war  premiums.. 


77 


;,  547. 609. 86 

400.00 

95,6.54  85 

,698.609.34 

383,976.50 

69,1536.70 

20, 334,  .52 

5,540.00 

1,488,320.31 

10,695.83 

579,955.55 

,120,79.5.1.5 

$19,021,428.61 


ALABAMA    LETTER— ALASKA 

See  Arbitration,  Tribunal  of;   Joint  in  each  case.     The  commander  of  the  be- 

HiGH  Commission.  leaguered  garrison  sent  many  couriers  to 

Alabama  Letter,  The.  Henry  Clay,  San  Felipe  for  assistance,  but  only  a  hand- 
Whig  candidate  for  President  in  1844,  ful  of  men  succeeded  in  reaching  the  fort, 
had  a  fair  prospect  for  election  when  his  As  the  siege  jDrogressed  provisions  grew 
letter  to  a  friend  in  Alabama,  on  the  an-  scarce,  and  the  defenders  of  Alamo,  worn 
nexation  of  Texas,  appeared  in  the  North  by  the  labors  of  the  defence  and  broken 
Alabamian,  on  Aug.  16.  It  was  repre-  in  health,  although  not  in  spirits,  were 
sented  by  his  adversaries  as  a  complete  hourly  becoming  less  able  to  hold  their 
change  of  policy  on  his  part.  The  Whig  posts.  March  6  a  combined  attack  was 
campaign  became  "  defensive  "  from  this  made  by  the  entire  forces  of  the  besiegers ; 
time,  and  resulted  in  defeat.  See  Clay,  twice  they  assaulted  the  posts,  and  Avere 
Henry.  as  often  driven  back  with  heavy  loss  by 

Alamo,   Fort,   a   structure  in   San  An-  the    Texan    troops.      A    hand-to-hand    en- 

tonio,  Tex.;    erected   for  a   mission  build-  counter    ensued,    which    the    Texans,    few 

ing  in   1744;   used  for  religious   purposes  and   feeble,   were   unable   to   sustain,   and 

till   1793,  when,  on  account  of  the  great  but   six  of  their   devoted  band   remained, 

strength    of    its    walls,    it   was    converted  Among  this  number  was  the  famous  Davy 

into  a  fort.     In  the  struggle  by  Texas  for  Crockett,    who,    with    the   others,    surren- 

iudependence,    the    most    sanguinary    and  dered,   under   promise   of   protection;    but 

heroic    conflict    of    the    border    warfare,  when  they  were  taken  before  Santa  Ana 

which  merged  into  the  Mexican  War,  oc-  were,  upon  his  command,  instantly  cut  to 

curred   there — a   conflict  which   for   years  pieces,  Crockett  having  been  stabbed  by  a 

was   familiar   to  Americans   as   the  Ther-  dozen     swords.      Other     barbarities     were 

mopylse  of  Texas.     The  fort  was  about  an  committed,   such   as   collecting  the  bodies 

acre    in    extent,    oblong,    and    surrounded  of  the  slain  in  the  centre  of  the  Alamo, 

by    a    wall    8    or    10    feet    in    height    by  and,    after    horribly    mutilating    the    re- 

3    feet    in    thickness.      A    body    of    Tex-  mains,  burning  them.     Only  three  persons, 

ans,  under  the  command  of  Col.  William  a   woman,   a    child,   and   a    servant,   were 

Barrett  Travis,  retired  into  the  fort  early  spared.      A    few   weeks    after    Santa   Ana 

in  1836,  upon  the  dismantling  of  San  An-  was  routed  with  immense  loss,  and  him- 

tonio  by   Sam   Houston,   and   then    Santa  self  captured  in  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto, 

Ana,  with  a  large  force,  invested  the  fort  where    the    Texans    raised    the    war    cry, 

Feb.  23.     The  Texans  numbered  only  140  "Remember  the  Alamo!"     It  is  estimated 

men,  while  the  Mexican  army  was  4,000  that  during  the  siege  of  Fort  Alamo  the 

strong.     The  enemy  took  possession  of  the  Mexican     losses     aggregated     over     1,600 

town,  then  erected  batteries  on  both  sides  men.     For   many  years,   indeed  until   the 

of   the   river,   and   for   twenty-four   hours  close    of    the    Mexican    War,    the    Texans 

bombarded   the   fort,   during  which,   it   is  only  needed  to  be  roused  to  deeds  of  valor 

stated,    over    200    shells    were    discharged  by  the  recollection  of  the  massacre  at  the 

into  it,  but  without  injuring  a  man.     The  Alamo,    and    dearly    did    the    neighboring 

attacking    forces    made    several    vigorous  republic   pay   for   the  butchery   by   Santa 

assaults   on   the   fort,   but   were   repulsed  Ana  and  his  forces. 


ALASKA 

Alaska,  an  unorganized  Territory  of  population,  according  to  revised  census  re- 
the  United  States,  formerly  known  as  port  of  1890,  32,052;  estimated  population 
"  Russian  America ":  occupying  the  region  in  1899,  about  40,000;  seat  of  admin- 
of  the  extreme  northwestern  portion  of  istration,  Sitka.  The  Rvissians  acquired 
North  America;  lying  north  of  the  paral-  possession  of  this  Territory  by  right  of 
lei  of  lat.  50°  40' ]Sr.,and  west  of  the  merid-  discovery  by  Vitus  Bering,  in  1741.  He 
ian  of  long.  140°  W. ;  also  including  many  discovered  the  crowning  peak  of  the  Alas- 
islands  lying  ofT  the  coast;  area,  as  far  as  ka  moimtains,  JNIount  St.  Elias,  on  July 
determined  in  1900,  531,000  square  miles;  18.     That  mountain  rises  to  a  height  of 

78 


ALASKA 


18,024  feet  above  the  sea.  Other  notable 
altitudes,  as  ascertained  by  the  United 
States  Meteorological  Survey  and  an- 
nounced in  1900,  are:  Blackburn  Moun- 
tain, 12,500  feet;  Black  Mountain,  12,500 
feet;  Cook  Mountain,  13,750  feet;  Crillon 
Mountain,  15,900  feet;  Drum  Mountain, 
13,300  feet;  Fairweather  Mountain,  15,292 
feet;  Hayes  Mountain,  14,500  feet;  Iliam- 
na  Peak,  12,066  feet;  Kimball  Mountain, 
10,000  feet;  Laperouse  Mountain,  10,750 
feet;  Lituya  Mountain,  11,852  feet;  Mount 
McKinley,"^  20,464  feet ;  Sanford  Mountain, 
14,000  fe'et;  Seattle  Mountain,  10,000  feet; 
Tillman  Mountain,  13,300  feet;  Vancouver 
Mountain,  15,666  feet;  and  Wrangel  Moun- 
tain, 17,500  feet. 

The  entire  coast  -  line  measures  over 
4,000  miles,  taking  into  account  the 
smaller  indentations.  The  climate  in  some 
parts  is  most  agreeable.  In  the  interior  are 
numerous  lakes.  Its  valleys  are  fertile; 
its  streams  abound  with  fish  and  its  for- 
ests with  game;  and  its  islands  have  af- 
forded the  most  extensive  and  richest  fur- 
seal  fishing  in  the  world.  Sitka,  or  New 
Archangel,  the  capital  of  Alaska,  is  the  old- 
est settlement.  It  was  founded  by  Russian 
fur-traders  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
country  was  a  sort  of  independent  prov- 
ince, under  the  rule  of  the  Russian- Amer- 
ican Fur  Company,  to  whom  it  was  grant- 
ed by  the  Emperor  Paul  in  1799.  It  was 
invested  with  the  exclusive  right  of  hunt- 
ing and  fishing  in  the  American  waters 
of  the  Czar.  The  charter  of  the  company 
expired  in  1867,  when  the  government  de- 
clined to  renew  it.  In  1865-67  the  coun- 
try was  explored  by  a  scientific  corps  sent 
out  by  the  United  States  to  select  a  route 
for  the  Russo-American  telegraph  line — a 
project  which  was  abandoned  in  conse- 
quence of  the  successful  laying  of  the  At- 
lantic cable.  Early  in  1867  negotiations 
were  begun  for  the  purchase  of  the  Terri- 
tory by  the  United  States,  and  a  treaty 
to  that  effect  was  ratified  by  the  United 
States  Senate  May  20  the  same  year. 
The  price  paid  was  $7,200,000.  In  October 
Gen.  Lovell  H.  Rousseau,  a  commissioner 
for  the  purpose,  formally  took  possession 
of  the  region.  The  Territory  remained 
under  military  government  till  1884,  when 
a  district  government  was  established  and 
a  land  office  opened.  This  form  of  admin- 
istration proved  adequate  till  the  remark- 


able discoveries  of  gold  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Klondike  and  Yukon  rivers, 
in  1897,  attracted  thousands  of  miners  to 
those  regions,  and  soon  made  necessary 
larger  means  of  communication.  A  num- 
ber of  bills  were  introduced  into  Congress 
for  the  purpose  of  providing  the  Territory 
with  the  form  of  government  prescribed 
for  the  other  Territories;  but  up  to  the 
time  of  writing  the  only  movements  in  this 
direction  were  the  extension  of  a  number 
of  laws  of  Oregon  to  the  Territory;  a 
gradual  increase  in  the  number  of  execu- 
tive officers ;  and  the  creation  by  the  Presi- 
dent, in  1900,  of  a  new  military  depart- 
ment comprising  the  entire  Territory. 

While  it  was  long  believed  that  the  Ter- 
ritory possessed  vast  riches  in  minerals, 
the  chief  industries  were  those  connected 
with  sealing  and  salmon-fisheries  till 
about  1895.  In  that  year  the  United 
States  government  organized  the  first  ex- 
pedition to  make  a  thorough  investigation 
of  the  mineral  properties.  The  geological 
survej'  has  since  been  continued  with  most 
fruitful  results,  and  early  in  1900  the 
Director  of  the  Survey  completed  plans  for 
thorough  surveys  and  explorations  by  both 
geological  and  topographical  experts,  es- 
pecially to  supplement  the  important  work 
of  his  bureau  in  1898,  and  to  acquire  a 
fuller  knowledge  of  the  remarkable  Cape 
Nome  district  and  its  extension  in  the 
Seward  Peninsula.  This  work  was  expect- 
ed to  occupy  several  years. 

As  a  result  of  explorations  prior  to 
1900,  mining  operations  on  a  large  scale 
were  undertaken,  first  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  boundary-line  between  the  United 
States  and  the  British  possessions,  and 
then,  as  other  fields  were  disclosed,  along 
the  coast  section  and  on  some  of  the  near^ 
by  islands.  During  the  season  of  1899 
the  last-mentioned  region  gave  indications 
of  outrivalling  the  famous  Klondike  and 
Yukon  fields.  The  rush  of  miners  to  the 
interior  fields,  and  the  indiscriminate 
staking  of  claims,  soon  led  to  a  conflict 
between  the  American  and  Canadian  min- 
ers concerning  the  boundary-line.  Both 
parties  claimed  territorial  rights  to  the 
richest  fields  then  known,  and  to  avoid  a 
state  of  anarchy  that  seemed  imminent, 
the  United  States  and  the  Canadian  au- 
thorities undertook,  first,  a  separate,  and 
then  a  joint,  survey  of  the  region  in  dis- 


79 


ALASKA 


pute.  Each  party  naturally  claimed  more  lations  for  the  protection  of  the  revenue 
territory  than  the  other  was  willing  to  as  the  Canadian  government  may  pre- 
concede,  and,  as  a  result,  the  delimitation  scribe,  to  carry  with  them  over  such  part 
of  the  boundary  was  made  one  of  the  sub-  or  parts  of  the  trail  between  the  said 
jects  for  determination  by  the  Anglo-  points  as  may  lie  on  the  Canadian  side 
American  Commission  (q.  v.)  appointed  of  the  temporary  line  such  goods  and 
in  1898  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  a  articles  as  they  desire,  without  being 
plan  for  the  settlement  of  all  matters  required  to  pay  any  customs  duties  on 
in  controversy  between  the  United  States  such  goods  and  articles;  and  from  said 
and  Canada.  The  commission,  after  sev-  junction  to  the  summit  of  the  peak  east 
eral  sessions  in  Canada  and  the  United  of  the  Chilkat  River,  marked  on  the  afore- 
States,  failed  to  reach  an  agreement  on  said  map  No.  10  of  the  United  States 
the  matters  submitted  to  it,  and  in  1899  Commission  with  the  number  5,410  and 
a  modus  vivendi  was  signed  by  the  on  the  map  No.  17  of  the  aforesaid  Brit- 
representatives  of  both  governments,  ish  Commission  with  the  number  5,490. 
This  agreement  fixed  the  boundary  provi-  On  the  Dyea  and  Skagway  trails,  the 
sionally,  and  went  into  operation  on  Oct.  summits  of  the  Chilkoot  and  White 
20.     Under  the  agreement  no  part  of  its  passes. 

territory  was   surrendered  by  the  United  It  is  understood,  as  formerly  set  forth 

States,   and  none  of   the   rights   of  either  in  communications  of  the  Department  of 

government  were  prejudiced  by  it.  State  of  the  United  States,  that  the  citi- 

Modus  Vivendi  of  1899. — The  following  zens  or  subjects  of  either  power  found  by 

is  the  text  of  the  agreement:  this    arrangement   within    the    temporary 

jurisdiction  of  the   other   shall   suffer   no 

It   is   hereby   agreed   between   the   gov-  diminution    of   the   rights    and    privileges 

ernments  of  the  United  States  and  Great  which  they  now  enjoy. 

Britain    that    the    boundary-line    between  The   government   of   the   United    States 

Canada   and   the   Territory  of  Alaska,   in  will  at  once  appoint  an  officer  or  officers, 

the  region  about  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,  in  conjunction  with  an  officer  or  officers  to 

shall  be  provisionally  fixed,  without  preju-  be  named  by  the  government  of  her  Bri- 

diee  to  the  claims  of  either  party  in  the  tannic   Majesty,   to   mark   the    temporary 

permanent    adjustment    of    the    interna-  line    agreed    upon    by    erection    of    posts, 

tional  boundary,  as  follows:  stakes,    or    other    appropriate    temporary 

In   the   region   of   the   Dalton   Trail,    a  marks, 

line  beginning  at  the  peak  west  of  Porcu-  Alaska  in  Transition. — After  the  United 

pine  Creek,  marked  on  the  map  No.  10  of  States   obtained   possession   of   the   Terri- 

the   United   States   Commission,   Dec.    31,  tory  the  sealing  industry  was  for  several 

1895,  and  on  sheet  No.   18  of  the   British  years  prosecuted  with  a  vigor  that  led  to 

Commission,  Dec.  31,  1S95,  with  the  num-  such   a   decrease   in   the   number   of   seals 

ber'  6,500;   thence  running  to  the  Klehini  that  the  government  was  obliged  to  enact 

(or  Klaheela)    River   in  the   direction   of  stringent  laws  for  the  conservation  of  the 

the  peak  north  of  that  river,  marked  5,020  seals,  in  order  to  check  the  indiscriminate 

on   the  aforesaid  United  States  map  and  slaughter  and   prevent  the   total   destruc- 

5,025     on     the     aforesaid     British     map ;  tion   of   the    industry.     These   laws,   how- 

thence   following  the  high  or   right  bank  ever,  have  been  constantly  violated,  with 

of  the  said  Klehini  River  to  the  junction  the    result    that    the    fur  -  seal    has    been 

thereof   with   the    Chilkat   River,    a   mile  nearly     exterminated     in     these     waters, 

and  a  half,  more  or  less,   north   of  KIu-  Some  compensation  for  this  loss  has  been 

kwan — -provided    that    persons    proceeding  found    in    a    remarkable    increase    in    the 

to  or  from  Porcupine  Creek  shall  be  freely  supply  of  food  fishes. 

permitted    to    follow    the    trail    between  Large  as  was  the  knowledge  of  Alaska 

the   said   creek   and  the   said   junction  of  and   its   manifold   interests   and  resources 

the  rivers,  into  and  across  the  Territory  that  had  been  acquired  up  to  1900,  much 

on   the   Canadian   side   of   the   temporary  of   its  vast   expanse  remained  practically 

line   wherever    the    trail    crosses    to    such  an   unknown   region,   depending  upon  the 

side,  and  subject  to  such  reasonable  regu-  government  surveys  then  in  progress  and 

80 


ALASKA— ALASKAN  BOUNDARY 

the  resistless  pushing  forward  of  gold-  Alaskan  Boundary,  The.  Prof.  J. 
hunters  for  the  disclosure  of  new  wonders  B.  Mooee  (q.  v.)  contributes  the  follow- 
and  material  attractions.  The  entire  ing  discussion  of  the  conflicting  claims 
reo-ion  on  both  sides  of  the  boundary-line  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  re- 
was   in   a   transition   state,   and   both   the  lation  to  the  boundary-line. 

United   States   and   the  Canadian  govern-  

nients,  aided  by  commercial  and  religious  In  his  message  of  Dec.  2,  1872,  Presi- 
organizations,  were  pushing  forward,  as  dent  Grant,  i-eferring  to  the  settlement  of 
rapidly  as  the  face  of  the  country  would  the  San  Juan  Water  Boundary,  remarked 
permit,  the  advantages  of  civilization  that  this  award  left  us,  "  for  the  first 
hitherto  unknown  in  that  bleak  region,  time  in  the  history  of  the  United  States 
Early  in  1898  an  aerial  railway  was  con-  as  a  nation,  without  a  question  of  dis- 
structed  over  the  Chilkoot  Pass  to  Lake  puted  boundary  between  our  territory 
Linderman,  a  unique  enterprise  that  short-  and  the  possessions  of  Great  Britain  on 
ened  the  time  between  tidewater  and  the  this  continent."  In  making  this  state- 
headwaters  of  the  Yukon  River  from  a  ment.  President  Grant  Avas  not  unmindful 
month  to  a  day,  and  removed  the  perils  of  the  fact  that  the  boundary  between  the 
and  hardships  of  former  travels.  At  the  British  possessions  and  Alaska,  as  defined 
end  of  that  year  the  first  section  of  the  in  the  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 
first  railroad  built  in  Alaska  was  com-  Kussia  of  1825,  had  not  been  surveyed  and 
pleted.  This  Avas  the  White  Pass  and  marked.  No  dispute  in  regard  to  this 
Yukon  Railroad,  projected  to  extend  from  line  had  then  arisen;  and,  with  a  view  to 
Skao-way  to  Fort  Selkirk.  The  section  prevent  the  occurrence  of  any,  he  made 
ended  at  Summit,  the  highest  point  of  the  the  following  recommendation: 

divide.     The  road  was  completed  through  

to   Lake   Bennett   in    1899.     At   the   same        "  Experience   of   the   difficulties   attend- 

time    the    Canadian    government    had    se-,  ing  the  determination  of  our  admitted  line 

lected    five    routes    for    railways    in    the'  of  boundary,  after  the  occupation  of  the 

Yukon  region,  which  it  was  thought  might  Territory  and  its  settlement  by  those  owing 

be  provided  with  sea-coast  outlets  in  the  allegiance  to   the   respective  governments, 

territory  of  the  United  States.  points  to  the  importance  of  establishing. 

In  1900  the  all-water  route  to  the  Klon-  by   natural   objects   or   other   monuments, 

dike  was  2,705  miles  from  Seattle  to  St.  the  actual  line  between  the  territory  ac- 

Michael,  and  1,313  miles  up  the  Yukon  to  quired  by  purchase  from  Russia  and  the 

DaAvson,    the   voyage    taking   about    seven  adjoining    possessions    of    her    Britannic 

weeks.    The  most  feasible  land  route  start-  Majesty.     The  region  is  now  so  sparsely 

ed   from   the   head   of   Lynn   Canal.      The  occupied   that   no   conflicting   interests   of 

Dyea,   or   Chilkoot   Pass,   route  leads   527  individuals  or  of  jurisdiction  are  likely  to 

miles  northwest  to  Dawson.   The  Skagway,  interfere   to   the   delay   or   embarrassment 

or  White  Pass,  route  is  somewhat  longer  of  the  actual  location  of  the  line.     If  de- 

and  more  difficult  than  the  Chilkoot.     The  ferred    until    population    shall    enter    and 

Dalton  route,  which  crosses  the  Chilkoot  occupy  the  Territory,  some  trivial  contest 

Pass,  joins  the  others  at  Fort  Selkirk.    Up  of    neighbors    may    again    array    the    two 

to  that  year  the  Chilkoot  and  the  Teslin  governments   in   antagonism.     I   therefore 

routes  were  the  most  popular.     New  rail-  recommend  the  appointment  of  a  commis- 

roads  are  in  process  of  construction.     See  sion,  to  act  jointly  with  one  that  may  be 

United  States— Alaska,  in  vol.  ix.  appointed   on  the  part  of   Great   Britain, 

„  _        to  determine  the  line  between  our  Terri- 

GOVERNORS   OF   THE   TERRITORY.  \  .    K^     ^  a    ^-\,  +     „,•    ^    „    ^..„ 

tory  of  Alaska  and  the  coterminous  pos- 

MiLiTART  GOVERNOR.  scssions  of  Great  Britain." 

Gen.   Lovell   H.   Rousseau 1867  —        j^y     correspondence     published     in     the 

CIVIL  GOVERNORS.  Canadian    Sessional    Papers,    this    recom- 

John  H.  Kinkead 1884-85  mendation  appears  to  have  been  inspired 

Alfred   P.    Swineford 1885-89  ijy   representations,    originating    with    the 

jImeTsheafrer: : !  ! ! !  ! !  ! ! ! !  ! ! !  1  !  ilsg'l?  government  of  Canada,  and  commumcated 

John  G.  Brady 1897-1901  through    the    British    minister    at    Wash- 

I.— F  81 


ALASKAN     BOUNDARY 


ington,  as  to  the  desirableness  of  definitely 
marking  the  boundary.  No  action  upon 
the  recommendation  was  taken;  but  an 
estimate  then  made  by  United  States  offi- 
cials as  to  the  probable  cost  and  duration 
of  the  task  of  surveying  and  marking  the 
line  as  laid  down  in  the  treaty  placed  the 
cost  at  about  $1,500,000  and  the  time  at 
nine  years  for  field  operations  and  at  least 
an  additional  year  for  office  work. 

In  January,  1886,  the  minister  of  the 
United  States  in  London,  acting  under 
instructions,  proposed  the  appointment  of 
a  joint  commission,  which  should  designate 
and  establish  the  boundary-line,  or  else 
report  such  data  as  might  afford  a  basis 
for  its  establishment  by  a  new  treaty.  The 
Dominion  government,  to  whom  this  pro- 
posal was  referred,  expressed  the  opinion 
that  a  preliminary  survey  was  "  preferable 
to  a  formally  constituted  joint  commis- 
sion," and  suggested  that  such  a.  survey 
"  would  enable  the  two  governments  to 
establish  a  satisfactory  basis  for  the  de- 
limitation of  the  boundary,  and  demon- 
strate whether  the  conditions  of  the  con- 
vention of  1825  are  applicable  to  the  now 
more  or  less  known  features  of  the  coun- 
try." 

Early  in  1888  several  informal  con- 
ferences were  held  in  Washington  between 
Prof.  W.  H.  Dall,  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  and  Dr.  George  M. 
Dawson,  of  Canada,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing the  boundary  and  elucidating,  so 
far  as  the  information  then  in  existence 
enabled  them  to  do,  the  questions  which 
might  be  involved  in  it.  The  result  of 
these  conferences  was  communicated  to 
Congress. 

A  further  step  was  taken  in  the  con- 
vention between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  of  July  22,  1892,  by  which 
it  was  agreed  that  a  coincident  or  joint 
survey  should  be  made  "  with  a  view  to 
ascertainment  of  the  facts  and  data  neces- 
sary to  the  permanent  delimitation  of  the 
said  boundary-line  in  accordance  with  the 
spirit  and  intent  of  the  existing  treaties 
in  regard  to  it  between  Great  Britain  and 
Russia  and  between  the  United  States  and 
Russia."  The  time  for  the  report  of  the 
commissioners  under  this  stipulation  was 
extended  by  the  supplemental  convention 
of  Feb.  3,  1894,  to  Dec.  31,  1895.  Joint 
surveys    and    a    joint   report   were   made, 


but  no  recommendations  as  to  the  boun- 
dary. 

By  the  protocol  of  May,  1898,  it  was 
agreed  that  the  joint  international  com- 
mission to  be  organized  thereunder  should 
endeavor  to  adopt  "  provisions  for  the  de- 
limitation and  establishment  of  the 
Alaska-Canadian  boundary  by  legal  and 
scientific  experts  if  the  commission  shall 
so  decide,  or  otherwise."  Under  this 
clause,  it  is  understood  that  the  commis- 
sion has  failed  to  reach  an  agreement,  and 
the  question  still  remains  open.  It  is  our 
purpose  to  disclose,  in  general  outlines, 
in  what  the  dispute  consists. 

By  a  ukase  dated  July  8,  1799,  the  Em- 
peror Paul  I.  of  Russia,  having  in  view 
the  benefits  resulting  to  his  empire  from 
the  hunting  and  trading  carried  on  by 
Russian  subjects  "  in  the  northeastern 
seas  and  along  the  coasts  of  America," 
conceded  to  the  Russian-American  Com- 
pany the  right  to  "  have  the  use  of  all 
hunting-grounds  and  establishments  now 
[then]  existing  on  the  northeastern  (sic) 
coast  of  America,  from  the  .  .  .  55th 
degree  [of  north  latitude]  to  Bering 
Strait,"  as  well  as  the  right  "  to  make 
new  discoveries  not  only  north  of  the  fifty- 
fifth  degree,"  but  farther  to  the  south,  and 
"  to  occupy  the  new  lands  discovered,  as 
Russian  possessions,"  if  they  were  not 
previously  occupied  by  or  dependent  upon 
another  nation. 

Still  further  privileges  were  granted  to 
the  Russian-American  Company  by  the 
famous  ukase  issued  by  the  Emperor 
Alexander,  Sept.  7,  1821,  by  which  the  pur- 
suit of  commerce,  whaling  and  fishing,  and 
of  all  other  industry,  on  all  islands,  ports, 
and  gulfs,  "  including  the  whole  of  the 
northwest  coast  of  America,  beginning 
from  Bering  Strait  to  the  51st  degree 
of  northern  latitude,"  was  exclusively 
granted  to  Russian  subjects,  and  foreign 
vessels,  except  in  case  of  distress,  were 
forbidden  "  not  only  to  land  on  the  coasts 
and  islands  belonging  to  Russia,  as  stated 
above,  but  also  to  approach  them  within 
less  than  100  Italian  miles." 

This  extension  by  Russia  of  her  claim 
of  dominion  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
America  from  the  55th  parallel  of 
north  latitude  down  to  the  51st,  coupled 
with  the  new  claim  of  exclusive  ma- 
rine   jurisdiction    of    100    Italian    miles 


82 


ALASKAN    BOUNDARY 


along  the  coast,  called  forth  protests  both 
from  the  United  States  and  from  Great 
Britain.  Both  these  powers  claimed  ter- 
ritory north  of  the  51st  parallel,  as 
well  as  the  right  freely  to  navigate  the 
ocean  and  to  fish  and  trade  with  the 
natives  on  unoccupied  coasts.  Russia  met 
their  protests  with  an  offer  of  negotiation. 

This  offer  was  accepted.  In  the  negotia- 
tions which  ensued,  Russia  was  represent- 
ed by  Count  Nesselrode,  minister  for  for- 
eign affairs,  and  M.  Poletica.  Great  Brit- 
ain was  represented  first  by  Sir  Charles 
Bagot,  and  then  by  Stratford  Canning; 
the  United  States  by  Henry  Middleton. 
The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  at 
one  time  entertained  the  intention  of  act- 
ing jointly,  but,  finding  that  their  terri- 
torial claims  were  to  some  extent  conflict- 
ing, they  carried  on  their  negotiations  with 
Russia  separately. 

The  negotiations  between  the  United 
States  and  Russia  ended  in  a  convention, 
signed  at  St.  Petersburg,  April  17,  1824, 
which  will  hereafter  be  referred  to  as  the 
convention  of  1824.  As  to  the  territorial 
question,  it  was  agreed  that  no  establish- 
ment should  be  formed  by  the  United 
States  on  the  northwest  coast  north  of 
lat.  54°  40'  N.,  nor  by  Russia  south  of  that 
parallel.  As  to  navigation,  fishing,  and 
trading,  the  right  of  navigation  and  of 
fishing  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  acknowl- 
edged unqualifiedly  and  in  perpetuity;  and 
it  was  agreed  that  during  a  term  of  ten 
years  the  ships  of  both  powers  might  fre- 
quent "  the  interior  Seas,  Gulfs,  Harbors, 
and  Creeks  upon  the  coast "  in  question, 
for  the  purpose  of  fishing  and  trading  with 
the  natives.  No  resort,  however,  was  to 
be  made  by  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  any  point  where  there  was  a  Russian 
establishment,  without  the  permission  of 
the  governor;  and  a  reciprocal  rule  was 
to  be  observed  by  Russian  subjects  as  to 
United  States  establishments.  From  the 
commerce  permitted  by  the  convention, 
fire-arms  and  liquors  were  excluded. 

So  far  as  dominion  was  concerned,  the 
practical  effect  of  this  treaty  was  to  leave 
it  to  Great  Britain  and  Russia  to  divide 
the  territory  north  of  lat.  54°  40'  N., 
and  to  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain to  divide  that  to  the  south. 

Great  Britain  and  Russia  settled  their 
maritime  and  territorial  differences  by  a 


convention  signed  at  St.  Petersburg  on 
Feb.  28,  1825,  which  will  hereafter  be  re- 
ferred to  as  the  convention  of  1825.  This 
convention  defines,  in  Articles  III.  and  IV., 
the  boundary  between  Alaska  and  the 
British  possessions  as  it  exists  to-day.  The 
treaty  of  1867,  ceding  Alaska  to  the 
United  States,  describes  the  eastern  limits 
of  the  cession  by  incorporating  the  defini- 
tion given  in  the  convention  of  1825.  This 
convention  was  signed  only  in  French, 
which  is  therefore  the  official  text;  but 
there  accompanies  it,  in  the  British  pub- 
lications, an  English  "  translation,"  which 
in  the  main  fairly  reproduces  the  original. 
These  texts,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  the 
boundary,  are  as  follows: 


"  III.  La  ligne  de 
demarcation  entre  les 
Possessions  des  Hautes 
Parties  Contractantes 
sur  la  Cote  du  Conti- 
nent et  les  lies  de 
I'Amerique  Nord  Quest, 
sera  trac6e  ainsi  qu'il 
suit: — 


"  A  partir  du  Point 
le  plus  meridional  de 
Vile  dite  Prince  of 
Wales,  lequel  Point  se 
trouve  sous  la  paral- 
lele  du  54  me  de- 
gre  40  minutes  de 
latitude  Nord,  et  en- 
tie  le  ISlme  et  le 
ISSwe  degre  de 
longitude  Quest  (M6- 
ridien  de  Greenwich), 
la  dite  ligne  remon- 
tera  au  Nord  le  long 
de  la  passe  dite  Port- 
land Channel,  jusqu'au 
Point  de  la  terre 
ferme  oH  elle  atteint 
le  56me  degre  de  lati- 
tude Nord:  de  ce  der- 
nier point  la  ligne  de 
demarcation  suivra  la 
crSte  des  montagnes 
situees  parallelement 
a  la  Cote,  jusqu'au 
point  d' intersection 
du  141me  degrt  de 
longitude  Quest  (meme 
Meridieti) ;  et  finale- 
ment  du  dit  point  d'in- 
tersection,  la  mime 
ligne  meridienne  du 
141me  degre  formera, 
dans  son  prolonge- 
ment  jusqu'd,  la  mer 
Glaciate,  la  limite 
entre  les  Possessions 
Russes       et       Britan- 


"  III.  The  line  of 
demarcation  between 
the  Possessions  of  the 
High  Contracting 

Parties  upon  the 
Coast  of  the  Conti- 
nent and  the  Islands 
of  America  to  the 
North-West,  shall  be 
drawn  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  : 

"  Commencing  from 
the  southernmost 

point  of  the  Island 
called  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  which 
point  lies  in  the  par- 
allel of  54  degrees 
40  minutes.  North 
Latitude,  and  between 
the  131st  and  133d 
Degree  of  West  Longi- 
tude (Meridian  of 
Greenwich),  the  said 
line  shall  ascend  to 
the  North  along  the 
Channel  called  Port- 
land Channel,  as  far 
as  the  Point  of  the 
Continent  where  it 
strikes  the  56th  De- 
gree of  North  Lati- 
tude :  from  this  last 
mentioned  Point  the 
line  of  demarcation 
shall  follow  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountains 
situated  parallel  to 
the  coast,  as  far  as 
the  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  141st  De- 
gree of  West  Longi- 
tude (of  the  same  Me- 
ridian) ;  and,  finally, 
from  the  said  point  of 
intersection,  the  said 
Meridian  Line  of  the 
141st  Degree,  in  its 
prolongation  as  far  as 


83 


ALASKAN    BOUNDARY 


niques  ^r  le  Conti- 
nent de  VAmirique 
Nord  Quest. 


"  IV.  II  est  en- 
tendu,  par  rapport  a, 
la  ligne  de  demarca- 
tion determinee  dans 
I' Article   precedent: 

"  1.  Que  rile  dite 
Prince  of  Wales  ap- 
partiendra  toute  en- 
tier  e  a   la  Russie: 

"  2.  Que  partout  oil 
la  Crete  des  montagnes 
qui  s'etendent  dans 
une  direction  paral- 
lele  a  Cote  depuis 
le  56me  degre  de 
latitude  Nord  au 
point  d'intersection  du 
141me  degre  de  longi- 
tude Quest,  se  trouve- 
rait  a  la  distance  de 
plus  de  dix  lieues  ma- 
rines de  I'Ocean,  la 
limite  entre  les  Pos- 
sessions Britanniques 
et  la  lisiere  de  Cote 
mentionnee  ci-dess'us 
comme  devant  appar- 
tenir  d  la  Russie, 
sera  forniee  par  une 
ligne  parallele  aux 
sinuosites  de  la  Cote, 
et  qui  ne  pourra  ja- 
mais en  6tre  eloignee 
que  de  dix  lieues  ma- 
rines." 


the  Frozen  Ocean, 
shall  form  the  limit 
between  the  Russian 
and  British  Posses- 
sions on  the  Conti- 
nent of  America  to 
the  North-West. 

"  IV.  With  refer- 
ence to  the  line  of 
demarcation  laid  down 
in  the  preceding  Arti- 
cle, it  is  understood  : 

"  1st.  That  the  Isl- 
and called  Prince  of 
Wales  Island  shall  be- 
long wholly  to  Rus- 
sia. 

"  2d.  That  wherever 
the  summit  of  the 
mountains  which  ex- 
tend in  a  direction 
parallel  to  the  Coast, 
from  the  56th  degree 
of  North  Latitude  to 
the  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  141st  de- 
gree of  West  Longi- 
tude, shall  prove  to 
be  at  the  distance  of 
more  than  ten  marine 
leagues  from  the 
Ocean,  the  limit  be- 
tween the  British 
Possessions  and  the 
line  of  Coast  which 
is  to  belong  to  Rus- 
sia, as  above  men- 
tioned, shall  be  form- 
ed by  a  line  parallel 
to  the  windings  of  the 
Coast,  and  which 
shall  never  exceed  the 
distance  of  ten  ma- 
rine leagues  there- 
from." 


It  was  further  provided  (Art.  V.)  that 
neither  party  should  form  establishments 
within  the  limits  thus  assigned  to  the 
other,  and,  specifically,  that  British  sub- 
jects should  not  form  any  establishment, 
"  either  upon  the  coast,  or  upon  the  border 
of  the  continent  {soit  siir  la  cote,  soit  sur 
la  lisiere  de  terre  ferine)  comprised  with- 
in the  limits  of  the  Russian  possessions." 

As  to  navigation,  fishing,  and  trading, 
the  convention  of  1825  included  sub- 
stantially the  same  provisions  as  that  of 
1824.  The  right  of  navigation  and  fishing 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  was  acknowledged. 
For  the  space  of  ten  years  the  ships  of 
the  two  powers  were  to  be  at  liberty  to 
frequent  "  the  inland  Seas,  the  Gulfs, 
Havens,  and  Creeks  on  the  Coast  "  in  ques- 
tion. Permission  to  land  at  points  where 
there  were  establishments  was  to  be   ob- 


tained from  the  governor.  Trade  with  the 
natives  in  fire-arms  and  liquors  was  pro- 
hibited. Besides  these  stipulations,  it  was 
agreed  (Art.  VI.)  that  British  subjects, 
whether  arriving  from  the  ocean  or  from 
the  interior  of  the  continent,  should  "  for- 
ever enjoy  the  right  of  navigating  freely 
.  .  .  all  the  rivers  and  streams  which, 
in  their  course  towards  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
may  cross  the  line  of  demarcation  upon  the 
line  of  coast  described  in  Article  III.  of 
the  present  convention";  and  that,  for  the 
space  of  ten  years,  the  port  of  Sitka,  or 
Novo  Archangelsk,  should  be  "  open  to  the 
Commerce  and  Vessels  of  British  sub- 
jects." 

An  examination  of  the  boundary  defined 
in  Articles  III.  and  IV.  of  the  convention 
of  1825  shows  that  it  is  scientifically  di- 
visible into  two  distinct  sections,  first,  the 
line  from  the  southernmost  point  of  Prince 
of  Wales  Island,  through  Portland  Chan- 
nel and  along  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tains parallel  to  the  coast,  to  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  141st  meridian  of  longi- 
tude; and,  second,  the  line  from  this  point 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  With  the  latter  sec- 
tion, which  is  merely  a  meridian  line,  and 
as  to  which  the  United  States  and  Cana- 
dian surveys  exhibit  no  considerable  dif- 
ference, we  are  not  now  concerned.  The 
section  as  to  which  material  differences 
have  arisen  is  the  first. 

The  principal  differences  in  this  quarter 
are  two  in  number,  first,  as  to  what  chan- 
nel is  meant  by  Portland  Channel  (some- 
times called  Portland  Canal)  ;  and,  sec- 
ond, as  to  what  is  the  extent  of  the  line  or 
strip  of  coast  (le  lisiere  de  cote)  which 
was  assigned  to  Russia.  The  latter  differ- 
ence, since  it  is  the  more  complicated,  we 
will  consider  first. 

As  has  been  seen,  the  easterly  limit  of 
the  lisiere,  from  the  point  where  the  line 
strikes  the  fifty-sixth  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, was  to  follow  "  the  summit  of  the 
mountains  situated  parallel  to  the  coast," 
except  that,  where  this  summit  should 
prove  to  be  more  than  ten  marine  leagues, 
or  thirty  miles,  from  the  ocean,  the  limit 
was  to  be  formed  "  by  a  line  parallel  to 
the  windings  of  the  coast,  and  which  shall 
never  exceed  the  distance  of  ten  marine 
leagues  therefrom."  On  the  part  of 
Canada  two  theories  as  to  this  line  have 
been  advanced:    (1)   that  it  should  follow. 


84 


ALASKAN    BOUNDARY 


not  the  actual  windings  (sinuosites)  but 
the  general  trend  of  the  coast,  so  as  to 
intersect  or  cross  the  headlands  of  some 
of  the  bays  and  inlets,  especially  in  the 
Lynn  Canal,  and  give  Great  Britain  one 
or  more  ports  on  tide-water ;  and  ( 2 )  that 
the  coast  whose  windings  are  to  be  fol- 
lowed is  not  the  shore  of  the  mainland, 
but  that  of  the  adjacent  islands,  border- 
ing on  the  ocean.*     The  United  States,  on 


the  other  hand,  has  maintained  that  the 
coast  whose  windings  were  to  be  follawed 
was  the  coast  of  the  mainland,  the  design 
of  the  convention  being  to  giA'e  to  Russia 
the  control  of  the  whole  of  the  shore  of  the 
mainland,  and  of  the  islands,  bays,  gulfs, 
and    inlets    adjacent    thereto.      In    other 

*  On  the  sketch-map  accompanying  this  ar- 
ticle, the  Canadian  claim  is  given  as  shown 
on  the  •'  Map  of  the  Province  of  British  Co- 
lumbia, compiled  by  direction  of  Hon.  G.  B. 
Martin,  Chief  Commissioner  of  Lands  and 
Works,  Victoria,  B.  C.  1893."  This  claim 
would  give  Dyea,  Skagway,  Pyramid  Harbor, 
and  various  other  points,  and  a  long  stretch 
of  tide-water,  to  Canada.  Canada  offered  to 
give  up  her  claims  on  Dyea  and  Skagway 
if  the  United  States  would  give  Pyramid 
Harbor  to  her.  The  United  States  refused 
to  consider  the  question. 


words,  Russia  was  to  have  exclusive  do- 
minion of  tide-water  and  of  a  continuous 
strip  of  territory  bordering  upon  it,  while 
Great  Britain  was  to  have  the  interior 
country,  with  a  right  of  free  navigation  of 
streams  crossing  the  Russian  territory  on 
their  way  to  the  sea. 

That  this  was  the  design  of  the  conven- 
tion may  be  shown,  first,  by  the  record  of 
its  negotiation. 

The  principal  object  on  the  part  of 
Great  Britain  was  to  obtain  the  withdraw- 
al by  Russia  of  the  claim  made  in  the 
ukase  of  1828  to  exclusive  jurisdiction 
over  the  Pacific  Ocean — a  claim  which  in- 
volved the  right  to  navigate  a  vast  extent 
of  ocean  and,  incidentally,  the  right  of 
passage  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  through  Bering  Straits.  "  It  is  not 
on  our  part,"  declared  George  Canning, 
British  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, "  essentially  a  negotiation  of  limits. 
It  is  a  demand  of  the  repeal  of  an  offen- 
sive and  unjustifiable  arrogation  of  ex- 
elusive  jurisdiction  over  an  ocean  of  un- 
measured extent."  With  a  view  to  facili- 
tate the  withdrawal  of  this  pretension, 
Great  Britain  proposed  a  settlement  of 
limits.*  The  actual  geographical  features 
of  the  territory  were  to  a  great  extent 
unknown.  Vancouver  had  navigated  and 
charted  the  coast,  but  the  interior  was  un- 
explored. Back  from  the  shore  high  moun- 
tains were  visible,  and,  after  the  manner 
of  the  early  geographers,  he  drew  artistic 
ranges  which  follow  the  windings  of  the 
coast,  making  a  continuous  barrier  be- 
tween the  coast  of  the  mainland  and  the 
interior  country.  It  is  well  known,  how- 
ever, to  the  negotiators  of  the  convention 
of  1825  that  the  mountain  ranges  might 
be  broken,  or  that,  instead  of  following 
closely  the  windings  of  the  coast,  they 
might  extend  far  inland.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  attending  to  geographical  details, 
they  adopted  general  rules,  which  should 
be  applied  whenever  the  line  came  to  be 
actually  marked. 

In  settling  the  limits  along  the  coast 
the  two  governments  were  largely  guided 
by  the  interests  and  the  representations 
of  certain  commercial  companies — on  the 
part  of  Russia,  the  Russian  -  American 
Company,  and,  on  the  part  of  Great  Brit- 

*  G.  Canning  to  Stratford  Canning,  Dec.  8, 
1824. 


85 


ALASKAN    BOUNDARY 


ain,  the  jSTorthwest  and  Hudson's  Bay 
companies — which  hunted  and  traded  with 
natives  for  furs.  The  fur  trade  was  then 
the  principal  object  of  value  in  the  esti- 
mation of  the  worth  of  the  regions  in 
question.  The  British  companies,  how- 
ever, had  no  establishment  on  the  coast 
now  under  consideration.  Their  opera- 
tions in  that  quarter  were  conducted  in 
the  interior,  and  their  furs  were  sent  to 
England  through  their  own  territories, 
and  not  across  the  coast  involved  in  the 
negotiation. 

The  first  definite  proposition  as  to  lim- 
its was  made  by  Great  Britain  to  Russia 
in  the  autumn  of  1823.  Sir  Charles  Bagot, 
then  British  ambassador  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, was  instructed  to  propose  a  line 
drawn  east  and  west  along  the  57th 
parallel  of  north  latitude.  He  went 
somewhat  further,  and  suggested  that 
Great  Britain  would  "  be  satisfied  to  take 
Cross  Sound,  lying  about  the  latitude  of  57° 
30',  as  the  boundary  between  the  two  pow- 
ers on  the  coast;  and  a  meridian  line 
drawn  from  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,  as 
it  is  laid  down  in  Arrowsmith's  last  map, 
..  .as  the  boundary  in  the  interior  of  the 
continent."  This  suggestion  was  not  ac- 
cepted, and  subsequently,  acting  under  in- 
structions, he  proposed  "  a  line  drawn 
through  Chatham  Straits  to  the  head  of 
Lynn  Canal,  thence  northwest  to  the  140th 
degree  of  longitude  west  of  Greenwich,  and 
thence  along  that  degree  of  longitude  to 
the  Polar  Sea." 

The  Russian  plenipotentiaries  rejected 
this  proposal  and  submitted  a  counter- 
project.  By  the  ukase  of  1799,  the  Rus- 
sian dominion  was  assumed  to  extend  to 
the  southward  as  far  as  the  55th  de- 
gree of  north  latitude.  The  Russian  plen- 
ipotentiaries therefore  offered  to  adhere  to 
this  limit,  with  a  deflection  at  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island 
so  as  to  avoid  a  division  of  territory,  and, 
for  the  rest,  proposed  that  the  line  should 
"  follow  Portland  Channel  up  to  the  moun- 
tains which  border  the  coast,"  thence  "  as- 
cend along  these  mountains,  parallel  to  the 
sinuosities  of  the  coast,  as  far  as  the  139th 
degree  of  longitude  (meridian  of  Lon- 
don)," and  then  pursue  that  meridian  in- 
definitely to  the  north. 

The  reasons  of  the  two  governments  for 
their   respective   proposals   were  fully   ex- 


plained by  them.  In  the  early  stages  of 
the  negotiation  the  Russian  plenipoten- 
tiaries intimated  that  they  would  require 
the  55th  degree  of  latitude  as  their 
southern  boundary.  In  his  instructions 
to  Sir  C.  Bagot,  of  Jan.  15,  1824,  Mr. 
George  Canning,  adverting  to  the  fact  that 
no  limit  was  suggested  by  the  Russian 
plenipotentiaries  to  the  eastern  extension 
of  the  parallel,  declared  that  it  was  es- 
sential to  guard  against  the  "  unfounded 
pretensions  "  of  Russia  in  that  direction, 
and  for  that  purpose,  whatever  the  degree 
of  latitude  assumed,  to  assign  a  definite 
meridian  of  longitude  as  a  limit.  The 
135th  meridian  northward  from  the  head 
of  "  Lynn's  Harbor  "  might  suffice.  As  to 
"  the  mainland  southward  of  that  point," 
it  would  be  expedient  to  assign  "  a  limit, 
say  of  50  or  100  miles  from  the 
coast,  beyond  which  the  Russian  posts 
should  not  be  extended  to  the  eastward. 
We  must  not,"  he  continued,  "  on  any  ac- 
count, admit  the  Russian  territory  to  ex- 
tend at  any  point  to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
By  such  an  admission  we  should  estab- 
lish a  direct  and  complete  interruption 
between  our  territory  to  the  southward 
of  that  point  and  that  of  which  we  are 
in  possession  to  the  eastward  of  long. 
135°  along  the  course  of  the  Mackenzie 
River." 

The  Russian  plenipotentiaries  explained 
their  object  with  equal  clearness.  In  a 
memorandum  accompanying  their  counter- 
proposal they  said :  "  The  principal  motive 
which  constrains  Russia  to  insist  upon 
sovereignty  over  the  above-indicated  strip 
of  territory  {lisiere)  upon  the  mainland 
{terre  ferme)  from  the  Portland  Channel 
to  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  60th 
degree  (latitude)  with  the  139th  degree 
of  longitude,  is  that,  deprived  of  this  terri- 
tory, the  Russian  -  American  Company 
would  have  no  means  of  sustaining  its  es- 
tablishments, which  would  then  be  with- 
out any  support  {point  d'appui) ,  and 
could  have  no  solidity."  If  Great  Britain 
would  accept  the  line  proposed  by  them, 
the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  declared 
that  their  government  would  grant  to 
British  subjects  "  the  free  navigation  of 
all  the  rivers  which  empty  into  the  ocean 
through  the  said  lisiere,"  and  open  the 
port  of  Novo  Archangelsk  to  their  trade 
and  vessels. 


86 


ALASKAN     BOUNDARY 


To  this  counter-proposal  Sir  C.  Bagot 
objected  that  it  "  would  deprive  his  Bri- 
tannic Majesty  of  sovereignty  over  all  the 
inlets  and  small  bays  lying  between  lat. 
56°  and  54°  45',  whereof  several  (as  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe)  communicated 
directly  with  the  establishments  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  are  conse- 
quently of  essential  importance  to  its  com- 
merce." He  offered,  however,  to  accept  a 
line  traced  from  the  west  towards  the  east 
"  along  the  middle  of  the  channel  which 
separates  Prince  of  Wales  and  Duke  of 
York  islands  from  all  the  islands  situated 
to  the  north  of  the  said  islands  until  it 
touches  the  mainland."  Subsequently  he 
modified  this  offer  by  proposing  that  the 
line  be  drawn  "  from  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  strait  called  '  Duke  of 
Clarence's  Sound,'  through  the  middle  of 
this  strait  to  the  middle  of  the  strait 
which  separates  Prince  of  Wales  and  Duke 
of  York  islands  "  from  the  islands  to  the 
north,  and- thence  eastwardly  to  the  main- 
land, thus  giving  Prince  of  Wales  Island 
to  Russia. 

These  proposals  the  Russian  plenipo- 
tentiaries declined.  They  declared  that 
"  the  possession  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island 
without  a  slice  (portion)  of  territory 
upon  the  coast  situated  in  front  of  that 
island  could  be  of  no  utility  whatever  to 
Russia,"  since  any  establishment  founded 
upon  it  would  then  "  find  itself,  as  it  were, 
flanked  by  the  English  establishments  on 
the  mainland  and  completely  at  the  mercy 
of  the  latter."  They  adhered  to  Portland 
Channel;  but,  as  to  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  lisiere,  they  oflfered  to  extend  it 
"  along  the  mountains  which  follow  the 
sinuosities  of  the  coast  as  far  as  Mount 
Elias,"  and  then  to  run  the  line  along 
the  140th  meridian  of  longitude  instead  of 
the  139th.  Said  Count  Nesselrode,  in  an 
instruction  to  Count  Lieven,  Russian  am- 
bassador at  London,  April  17,  1824: 

"  This  proposal  will  assure  to  us  merely 
a  narrow  strip  of  territory  (lisiere)  upon 
the  coast  itself,  and  will  leave  the  English 
establishments  all  needful  room  for  in- 
crease and  extension ....  We  limit  our  de- 
mands to  a  mere  strip  of  the  continent, 
and  .  .  .  we  guarantee  the  free  navigation 
of  the  rivers  and  announce  the  opening  of 
the  port  of  Novo  Archangelsk.  Russia 
cannot    stretch    her    concessions    farther. 


She  will  make  no  others ....  It  cannot  be 
reiterated  with  sufficient  positiveness  that, 
according  to  the  most  recent  charts,  Eng- 
land possesses  no  establishment  either  up 
to  the  latitude  of  Portland  Channel  or  on 
the  shore  of  the  ocean  itself;  and  Russia, 
when  she  insists  on  preserving  a  moderate 
expanse  of  the  mainland  {terre  ferme) 
only  insists  in  reality  upon  the  means  of 
utilizing — we  might  better  say  of  not  los- 
ing— the  surrounding  islands." 

The  British  cabinet,  with  the  concur- 
rence of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  de- 
cided to  accept  the  Russian  proposal,  with 
a  limitation  of  the  distance  from  the  coast 
at  which  the  line  along  the  mountains 
should  run,  and  the  selection  of  a  me- 
ridian of  longitude  north  of  Mount  St. 
Elias  farther  to  the  west  than  the  140th. 
In  this  way  Russia  would  secure  her  strip 
of  territory  on  the  mainland  and  Great 
Britain  prevent  the  intersection  of  her  in- 
terior possessions  and  communications. 
Great  Britain  accordingly  proposed  that 
the  line  should  ascend  northerly  along 
Portland  Channel  "  till  it  strikes  the  coast 
of  the  continent  lying  in  the  56th 
degree  of  north  latitude,"  and  that  it 
should  thence  be  carried  "  along  the  coast, 
in  a  direction  parallel  to  its  windings, 
and  at  or  within  the  seaward  base  of  the 
mountains  by  which  it  is  bounded,"  pro- 
vided that  it  should  not  extend  more  than 
a  certain  number  of  marine  leagues  in- 
land, whatever  the  distance  of  the  moun- 
tains might  be.  Experience  had  shown, 
said  the  British  government,  that  moun- 
tains which  were  assumed  as  lines  of 
boundary  were  sometimes  incorrectly  laid 
down,  and  that  it-  was  "  therefore  neces- 
sary that  some  other  security  should  be 
taken  that  the  line  of  demarcation  to  be 
drawn  parallel  with  the  coast,  as  far  as 
Mount  St.  Elias,  is  not  carried  too  far  in- 
land." It  might  be  limited  to  10  leagues 
or  less.* 

*  G.  Canning  to  Sir  C.  Bagot,  July  12, 
1824.  Were  there  room  for  doubt  as  to  what 
these  proposals  and  counter-proposals  meant, 
it  might  be  worth  while  specially  to  note  the 
phrase  "  seaward  base  of  the  mountains,"  as 
well  as  the  suggestion  made  by  the  British 
government  that  no  forts  should  be  estab- 
lished or  fortifications  erected  by  either 
party  "  on  the  summit  or  in  the  passes  of  the 
mountains  "  in  case  the  boundary  should  fol- 
low their  summit  and  not  their  seaward  base. 
(G.  Canning  to  Sir  C.  Bagot,  July  24,  1824.) 


87 


ALASKAN     BOUNDARY 


The  Russian  government,  in  response  to 
the  last  British  proposition,  proposed  that 
the  lisiere,  instead  of  being  bounded  by 
the  summit  of  the  mountains,  except 
where  it  exceeded  a  certain  distance  from 
the  coast,  should  "  not  be  wider  on  the 
continent  than  10  marine  leagues  from 
the  shore  of  the  sea."  In  other  words, 
Russia  wanted  either  the  crest  of  the 
mountains,  or  else  a  line  10  leagues  from 
the  coast,  as  the  boundary  all  the  way. 
Great  Britain  objected  to  this  as  a  with- 
drawal of  the  limits  of  the  lisiere  which 
the  Russians  were  themselves  the  first  to 
propose,  viz.,  "  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tains, which  run  parallel  to  the  coast,  and 
which  appear,  according  to  the  map,  to 
follow  all  its  sinuosities,  and  to  substi- 
tute generally  that  which  we  only  sug- 
gested as  a  connection  of  their  first  prop- 
osition."* Accordingly,  Mr.  Stratford 
Canning,  who  had  lately  been  appointed 
a  plenipotentiary  to  conclude  the  conven- 
tion, proposed  that  the  line  should  fol- 
low "  the  crest  of  the  mountains  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  coast,"  but  that, 
if  the  crest  should  be  found  anywhere  to 
be  more  than  10  leagues  fr.om  the  sea, 
the  boundary  should  there  be  "  a  line  par- 
allel to  the  sinuosities  of  the  coast,  so 
that  the  line  of  demarcation  shall  not  be 
any^vhere  more  than  10  leagues  from  the 
coast." 

This  proposal  was  accepted  as  a  compro- 
mise, and  the  treaty  was  drawn  tip  and 
signed  in  conformity  with  it.  Until  a  re- 
cent period  the  line,  as  it  was  then  under- 
stood by  both  governments,  remained  un- 
questioned. It  appeared  on  all  the  maps, 
including  those  published  in  England,  as 
the  United  States  now  maintains  it,  fol- 
lowing the  sinuosities  of  the  coast  and 
running  along  the  heads  of  the  inlets,  in- 
cluding the  Lynn  Canal,  and  giving  to 
Russia  an  unbroken  strip  of  the  mainland 
up  to  Mount  St.  Elias. 

But  more  significant,  perhaps,  than  any 
map,  is  the  fact  that  the  greater  portion 
of  the  strip  of  mainland  in  question  was 
for  many  years  after  1839  leased,  at  an 
annual  rental,  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany. The  lease  embraced  the  coast  (ex- 
clusive of  islands)    and  the  interior  coun- 

Both    these    phrases    obviously    referred    to 
monntains  on  the  mainland. 

*  G.  Canning  to  S.  Canning,  Dec.  8,  1824. 


try  belonging  to  Russia,  situated  between 
Cape  Spencer,  on  Cross  Sound,  and  lat. 
54°  40',  or  thereabout,  including  "  the 
whole  mainland  coast  and  interior  coun- 
try belonging  to  Russia,"  eastward  and 
southward  of  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
from  Cape  Spencer  to  Mount  Fairweather. 
By  an  agreement  between  the  Hudson 
Bay  and  Russian-American  companies, 
which  received  the  sanction  of  both  gov- 
ernments, this  strip  of  territory  was  ex- 
empted from  molestation  during  the  Cri- 
mean War.* 

As  to  the  southern  limit  of  the  strip  in 
question,  a  line  through  Portland  Channel, 
as  now  maintained  by  the  United  States, 
continued  to  be  the  uncontested  boundary 
till  about  1873,  Avhen  Canadian  writers  be- 
gan to  suggest  that  the  line  should  run 
through  Behm  Canal,  or  by  some  other 
way  than  Portland  Channel,  ( 1 )  because, 
while  the  line  is  required  by  the  treaty  to 
"  ascend  to  the  north  "  from  the  southern- 
most point  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  it 
must  first  run  to  the  east  in  order  to  enter 
Portland  Channel,  and  (2)  because  the 
head  of  Portland  Channel  does  not  reach 
the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude.  These 
suggestions,  besides  disregarding  the  his- 
torical and  geographical  evidence,  in- 
cluding that  of  the  British  Admiralty 
charts,  presuppose  a  minuteness  and  ac- 
curacy of  description  which  the  negotiators 
did  not  essay.  When  the  line,  commencing 
at  the  southernmost  point  of  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  was  required  to  "  ascend  to 
the  north "  till  it  should  strike  the 
5Gth  degree  on  the  continent,  the  general 
direction  and  objective  of  the  boundary 
obviously  was  intended  to  be  given.  This 
has  not  been  uncommon  in  descriptions  of 
boundary.  An  actual  due  north  line  from 
the  point  in  question  would  have  cut  the 
island.  Nor  is  the  argument  from  a  hiatus 
between  the  head  of  Portland  Channel  and 

*  Sir  George  Simpson,  Governor  of  Hud- 
son Bay  Territory  and  a  director  of  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  in  his  account  of  a  trip 
around  the  world  (Lea  &  Blanchard,  Phila- 
delphia, 1847,  Part  1,  p.  124),  referring  to 
the  lease,  said  :  "  Russia,  as  the  reader  is  of 
course  aware,  possesses  on  the  mainland  be- 
tween lat.  54°  40'  and  lat.  60°  only  a  strip, 
never  exceeding  30  miles  in  depth  :  and  this 
strip,  in  the  absence  of  such  an  arrangement 
as  has  just  been  mentioned  (the  aforesaid 
lease),  renders  the  interior  comparatively  use- 
less to  England." 


ALASKAN  BOUNDABY— ALBANY 


tlie  56th  degree  any  stronger.  The 
"  line,"  after  ascending  "  Portland  Chan- 
nel, as  far  as  the  point  of  the  continent 
where  it  strikes  the  56th  degree  of 
north  latitude,"  is  required  from  "  this 
last-mentioned  point "  to  follow  "  the 
summit  of  the  mountains."  If  this  were 
intended  as  a  complete  description,  cover- 
ing every  foot  or  mile  of  the  boundary, 
and  if  the  "  it "  of  the  treaty  were  intend- 
ed to  refer  to  the  channel  and  not  to  the 
line,  then  Portland  Channel  evidently  was 
supposed  to  have  performed  the  remark- 
able feat  of  climbing  to  the  summit  of  the 
mountains.  But,  obviously,  it  was  the 
■'■'  line  "  Avhich  was  to  "  strike  "  the  56th 
parallel  and  reach  the  summit  of  the 
mountains. 

The  drawing  of  the  line  through  Port- 
land Channel,  whose  outlet  into  the  sea 
appeared  on  the  map  in  the  same  latitude 
as  the  southernmost  point  of  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  was  part  of  the  plan  of  al- 
lowing to  Russia,  in  return  for  her  aban- 
donment of  abnormal  jurisdictional  claims 
and  her  concessions  in  respect  of  trade, 
a  strip  of  territory  on  the  mainland  as  a 
barrier  between  her  islands  and  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  in  the  interior.  We  have 
seen  how  the  representatives  of  Great 
Britain  successively  proposed  as  the 
southern  boundary  the  line  of  57°  30', 
tlien  a  line  through  "  Chatham  Straits 
to  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,"  then 
a  line  drawn  from  west  to  east  "  through 
the  middle  of  the  channel  which  sepa- 
rates the  islands  of  Prince  of  Wales 
and  Duke  of  York  from  all  the  isl- 
ands to  the  north  "  till  it  should  touch 
the  mainland,  and  then  a  line  drawn  north- 
ward through  Clarence  Strait  and  thence 
eastward  to  the  mainland  through  the 
strait  separating  Prince  of  Wales  and 
Duke  of  York  islands  from  the  islands  to 
the  north,  and  how  they  finally  accepted 
the  line  through  Portland  Channel,  on 
which  Russia,  for  the  purpose  of  preserv- 
ing for  her  islands  a  protective  barrier 
on  the  coast  of  the  mainland,  had  firmly 
and  finally  insisted. 

But,  while  we  have  shown  how  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  the  boundary  were  set- 
tled, it  yet  remains  to  adjust  the  line  and 
mark  it.  For  this  purpose  it  is  conceded 
that  something  more  than  the  general  de- 
scriptions of  the  treaty  is  requisite.    To 

89 


meet  this  defect,  various  plans  have  been 
suggested,  and  there  may  be  room  for  the 
adjustment  of  common  interests.  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  the  Klondike  region  has 
intensified  the  desire  of  Canada  for  an  out- 
let on  Lynn  Canal.  This  desire,  if  con- 
sidered upon  grounds  of  mutual  interest 
and  convenience,  rather  than  of  treaty 
right,  is  worthy  of  attention,  since  the 
coast  must  profit  by  the  development  of 
the  interior.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
a  lease  be  granted  of  a  narrow  strip  of 
land  in  that  quarter,  as  an  outlet  on  the 
sea.  The  same  object  might,  perhaps,  be 
attained  by  assimilating  one  or  more  of 
the  portages,  for  instance,  that  by  way  of 
the  Chilkoot  Pass,  the  principal  Klondike 
route,  to  a  stream  of  water  and  treating 
it  as  an  international  highway.  By  Arti- 
cle II.  of  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty, 
it  was  stipulated  that  "  all  the  water  com- 
munications and  all  the  usual  portages 
along  the  line  [of  boundary]  from  Lake 
Superior  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and 
also  Grand  Portage,  from  the  shore  of 
Lake  Superior  to  the  Pigeon  River,  as  now 
actually  used,  shall  be  free  and  open  to 
the  use  of  the  citizens  and  subjects  of  both 
countries."  But  whatever  plan  may  be 
adopted,  it  is  obvious  that,  if  the  end  can 
be  attained  without  the  sacrifice  of  clear 
national  rights,  the  boundary  should  not 
be  left  unsettled,  but  should,  in  the  interest 
of  trade  and  industry,  of  the  administra- 
tion of  justice,  and  of  international  amity, 
be  finally  adjusted  and  marked. 

Albans,  St.    See  St.  Albans;  Vermont. 

Albany,  city  and  capital  of  the 
State  of  New  York ;  the  oldest  existing 
to\vn  within  the  domain  of  the  original 
thirteen  States;  was  first  settled  by  Dutch 
traders  in  1614,  who  built  a  trading-house 
on  Castle  Island,  a  little  below  the  site  of 
Albany,  and  eight  years  afterwards  Fort 
Orange  was  built  on  that  site.  The  set- 
tlement was  called  Fort  Orange  at  first, 
then  Beverswyck;  and  after  the  Province 
of  New  Netherland  passed  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  English  it  was  called  Albany, 
the  second  title  of  Duke  James,  afterwards 
James  II.  of  England.  Albany  is  yet  full 
of  the  descendants  of  its  early  settlers,  and 
has  a  large  present  importance  by  reason 
of  its  trade  relations  with  the  Western 
and  Southern  States,  promoted  by  its  ex- 
ceptional shipping  facilities  by  river,  rail- 


ALBANY 


road,  and  canal.  In  1890  the  population 
was  94,923;  in  1900,  94,151. 

Albany  is  especially  noted  in  history  be- 
cause of  the  colonial  conventions  held 
there.  The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  their 
most  important  transactions: 

First  Colonial  Conventiori. — Thoroughly 
alarmed  by  the  opening  hostilities  of  the 
French  and  Indians  on  the  frontiers,  the 
colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  and 
Connecticut  sent  commissioners  to  Albany 
to  hold  a  conference  with  the  chiefs  of  the 
Five  Nations,  all  of  whom,  excepting  the 
Mohawks,  had  renewed  their  covenant  of 
friendship  with  the  English.  This  cove- 
nant was  renewed  June  27,  1689,  previous 
to  the  arrival  of  Count  Frontenac  in 
Canada.  The  commissioners  held  the  con- 
ference in  September  following.  They 
tried  to  persuade  the  Five  Nations  to  en- 
gage in  the  war  against  the  Eastern  Ind- 
ians. They  would  not  agree  to  do  so,  but 
ratified  the  existing  friendship  with  the 
English  colonies.  "  We  promise,"  they 
said,  "  to  preserve  the  chain  inviolably, 
and  wish  that  the  sun  may  always  shine 
in  peace  over  all  our  heads  that  are  com- 
prehended in  the  chain." 

Second  Colonial  Convention. — In  the 
summer  of  1748,  when  news  of  the  pre- 
liminary treaty  of  peace  reached  the  col- 
onies, a  convention  or  congress  of  colonial 
governors  was  called  at  Albany  for  a  two- 
fold purpose :  ( 1 )  to  secure  a  colonial 
revenue,  and  (2)  to  strengthen  the  bond 
of  friendship  between  the  Six  Nations  and 
their  neighbors  in  the  West,  and  the  Eng- 
lish. Only  Governors  Clinton  and  Shirley, 
two  able  commissioners  from  Massachu- 
setts, and  one  (William  Bull)  from  South 
Carolina,  were  present.  With  the  latter 
came  the  grand  sachem  and  some  chiefs 
of  the  Catawbas,  a  nation  which  had  long 
waged  war  with  the  Iroquois.  There  was 
an  immense  number  of  the  Six  Nations 
present.  The  royal  governors  failed  to 
gain  anything  for  themselves  in  the  way 
of  a.  revenue,  but  satisfactory  arrange- 
ments with  the  Indians,  including  the 
tribes  along  the  southern  borders  of  Lake 
Erie,  were  made.  At  that  conference  the 
commissioners  from  Massachusetts  (An- 
drew Oliver  and  Thomas  Hutchinson)  pre- 
sented a  memorial  for  adoption,  praying 
the  King  so  far  to  interpose  as  that,  while 
the  French  remained  in  Canada,  the  more 


southern  colonies,  which  were  not  immedi- 
ately exposed  to  hostilities,  might  be 
obliged  to  contribute  in  a  just  proportion 
towards  the  expense  of  protecting  the  in- 
land portions  of  New  York  and  New  Eng- 
land. Clinton  and  Shirley  signed  and  ap- 
proved of  the  memorial,  which  was  sent 
with  it  to  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Plan- 
tations. 

Third  Colonial  Convention. — The  kindly 
attitude  manifested  towards  tlje  French  by 
the  Six  Nations  excited  the  jealousy  and 
alarm  of  the  English,  especially  of  Govern- 
or Clinton,  of  New  York.  As  yet,  the 
Iroquois  had  never  recognized  the  claim 
of  the  English  to  dominion  over  their 
land,  and  they  were  free  to  act  as  they 
pleased.  Clinton  called  a  convention  of 
representatives  of  the  several  English- 
American  colonies  at  Albany,  and  invited 
the  Six  Nations  to  send  representatives  to 
meet  with  them.  Only  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  and  South  Carolina  chose  to 
incur  the  expense.  Delegates  from  these 
colonies  met  the  chiefs  of  the  Six  Nations 
(July  o,  1751)  and  made  a  treaty  of 
friendship.  The  "  King  "  of  the  Catawbas 
and  several  chiefs  accompanied  the  South 
Carolina  delegate  (William  Bull),  and  a 
peace  between  that  Southern  nation  and 
the  Iroquois  was  settled  at  the  same  time. 

Fourth  Colonial  Convention.  —  There 
were  indications  that  the  Six  Nations,  in- 
fluenced by  French  emissaries,  were  becom- 
ing alienated  from  the  English.  The 
colonists  were  uneasy,  and  the  British 
government,  acting  upon  the  advice  of  the 
royal  governors  in  America,  sent  a  circular 
letter  to  all  the  colonial  assemblies,  pro- 
posing the  holding  of  a  convention  at 
Albany,  to  be  composed  of  committees 
from  the  several  legislatures  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Six  Nations.  Seven  of 
the  assemblies  responded,  and  on  June  19, 
1754,  twenty-five  delegates  assembled  in 
the  old  City  Hall  at  Albany.  James  De 
Lancey,  acting  governor  of  New  York,  pre- 
sided, and  he  was  authorized  by  the  Vir- 
ginia legislature  to  represent  that  colony 
in  the  convention.  The  chiefs  of  the  Six 
Nations  were  there  in  great  numbers,  of 
whom  "  King  Hendrick,"  of  the  Mohawks, 
was  leader.  To  the  Indians  De  Lancey 
lirst  spoke,  and  Plendrick  responded  in 
words  of  bitter  reproof  of  the  English  for 
their  neglect  of  preparations  for  danger. 


90 


ALBANY— ALBEMARLE    SOUND 


"  Look  at  the  French,"  he  said ;  "  they  are 
men;  they  are  fortifying  everywhere;  but, 
we  are  ashamed  to  say  it,  you  are  like 
women,  bare  and  open,  without  any  forti- 
fications. It  is  but  one  step  from  Canada 
hither,  and  the  French  may  easily  come 
and  turn  you  out-of-doors."  But  the  busi- 
ness with  the  Six  Nations  was  closed 
amicably  and  satisfactorily  by  a  treaty  of 
friendship.  The  Massachusetts  delegation 
was  authorized  to  propose  a  measure  quite 
as  important  as  a  treaty  with  the  Indians. 
It  was  an  invitation  for  the  convention  to 
consider  the  question  whether  a  union 
of  the  colonies  for  mutual  defence  was  not 
desirable;  and  they  were  empowered  to 
agree  to  articles  of  union  or  confederation. 
The  proposition  was  favorably  received, 
and  a  committee,  composed  of  one  dele- 
gate from  each  colony,  was  appointed  to 
draw  up  a  plan.  The  fertile  brain  of  Dr. 
Benjamin  Franklin,  a  delegate  from  Penn- 
sylvania, had  conceived  a  plan  before  he 
went  to  the  convention.  It  was  reported 
by  the  committee  and  adopted  by  the  con- 
vention, the  Connecticut  delegates  alone 
dissenting.  It  proposed  a  grand  council 
of  forty-eight  members,  to  be  chosen  by 
the  several  assemblies,  the  representatives 
of  each  colony  to  be,  in  number,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  contribution  of  each  to  the 
general  treasury.  No  colony  was  to  have 
more  than  seven  or  less  than  two  members. 
This  congress  was  to  choose  its  own 
speaker  and  have  the  general  management 
of  all  civil  and  military  affairs,  and  to 
enact  general  laws  in  conformity  to  the 
British  Constitution.  It  proposed  to  have 
a  president-general,  appointed  and  paid  by 
the  crown,  who  should  have  a  negative  or 
veto  power  on  all  acts  of  the  congress,  and 
to  have,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  congress,  the  appointment  of  all  mili- 
tary officers,  and  the  entire  mahagement 
of  Indian  affairs;  the  civil  officers  to  be 
appointed  by  the  congress  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  president-general.  This  plan 
of  government  bore  a  strong  resemblance 
to  our  national  Constitution,  which  Frank- 
lin assisted  in  framing  more  than  thirty 
years  afterwards.  This  plan  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  Lords  of  Trade  and  Planta- 
tions. They  did  not  approve  of  it,  nor 
recommend  it  to  the  King  for  considera- 
tion. They  thought  there  was  too  much 
democracy  in  it.     The  assemblies  did  not 


favor  it,  because  they  thought  there  was 
too  much  prerogative  in  it.  So  it  was 
rejected. 

Albany  Plan  of  TJnion,  1754.  See 
Albany  {Fourth  Colonial  Convention) . 

Albany  Regiency,  a  name  popularly 
given  to  a  few  active  and  able  New  York 
men  of  the  Democratic  party,  between 
1820  and  1854,  who,  in  a  great  degree,  con- 
trolled the  action  of  their  party  in  the 
State  and  in  the  Union.  Among  the  lead- 
ing members  were  Martin  Van  Buren, 
William  L.  Marcy,  Silas  Wright,  Edwin 
Croswell,  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  Azariah  C. 
Flagg,  and  Dean  Richmond.   See  Hunkers. 

Albay,  the  name  of  a  province  in  the 
extreme  southeastern  part  of  the  island  of 
Luzon,  Philippines;  noted  as  being  the 
richest  hemp-growing  district  on  the  isl- 
and. In  January,  1900,  in  order  to  put  a 
stop  to  the  surreptitious  shipping  of  the 
products  of  the  hemp-growing  sections  of 
the  archipelago,  a  new  military  district 
was  created  by  the  United  States  authori- 
ties, comprising  both  this  province  and 
Catanduanes  Island,  situated  directly 
north  of  Logonoy  Bay.  Brig.-Gen.  William 
A.  Kobbe,  U.  S.  V.,  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  this  district  and  given  tentative 
authority  also  over  Samar  and  Leyte 
islands.  He  had  several  encounters  with 
the  Filipino  insurgents  before  he  secured 
control  of  his  new  district,  and  immedi- 
ately after  establishing  his  authority  he 
formally  occupied  and  opened  to  trade  the 
various  hemp  ports  under  his  jurisdiction, 
which  was  subsequently  extended  over  the 
entire  hemp-growing  district.  Albay  is 
also  the  principal  town  and  port  of  the 
province. 

Albemarle  Sound,  Battle  in.  In  the 
Civil  War,  the  Confederate  general  Hoke, 
after  capturing  Pljmiouth,  proceeded  to 
Newbern  and  demanded  its  surrender.  The 
commander  of  the  Albemarle,  a  powerful 
"  ram,"  started  out  on  Albemarle  Sound 
to  assist  Hoke,  when  his  vessel  encoun- 
tered (May  5,  1864)  the  Sassaeus,  Lieut.- 
Com.  F.  A.  Rose,  one  of  Capt.  Melancton 
Smith's  blockading  squadron  in  the 
sound.  The  Albemarle  was  heavily  arm- 
ed with  Brooks  and  Whitworth  guns. 
After  a  brief  cannonade  the  Sassaeus 
struck  the  monster  a  blow  which  pushed 
it  partly  under  water  and  nearly  sank  it. 
When  the  "  ram  "  recovered,  the  two  ves- 


91 


ALBEMARLE— ALCOTT 


sels  hurled   100-lb.   shot  at  each  other  at  ing   and   his   companions   leaped   into   the 

a  distance  of  a  few  paces.     Most  of  those  water,  but  only  one  besides  the  commander 

from   the   Sassacus   glanced   off   from   the  escaped    drowning    or    capture.     Gushing 

Albemarle  like  hail  from  granite.     Three  swam  ashore,  crept  into  a  swamp,  and  was 

of  the  shots  from  the  Sassacus  entered  a  found  and  eared  for  by  some  negroes.    The 

part  of  the  "ram"  with  destructive  effect,  torpedo  had  destroyed  the  Albemarle,  and 

and   at   the   same   moment  the   Albemarle  she  settled  down  in  the  mud  in  Plymouth 


sent  a  100-lb.  Brooks  bolt  through  one 
of  the  boilers  of  the  Sassacus,  killing  three 
men  and  wounding  six.  The  vessel  was 
filled  with  scalding  steam  and  was  un- 
manageable for  a  few  minutes.  When  the 
smoke  and  vapor  passed  away,  the  Albe- 
marie  was  seen  moving  towards  Plymouth, 
firing  as  she  fled.  The  Sassacus  slowly 
followed,  but  finally  desisted  for  want  of 
steam.     Hoke  fell  back  from  Newbern. 

Albemarle,  The,  a  powerful  Confed- 
erate iron-clad  vessel  that  patrolled  the 
waters  off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  dur- 


RAM    ALBEMARLE. 


ing  a  part  of  the  Civil  War.  Late  in  Oc- 
tober, 1864,  Lieut.  W.  B.  Cushing,  a  daring 
voung  officer   of  the  United   States  navy. 


Harbor.  Plymouth  was  recaptured  (Oct. 
81)  by  a  squadron  under  Commodore  Ma- 
comb, with  some  prisoners  and  valuable 
stores.     See   Cushing,   William   Barker. 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales. 
See  Edward  VII. 

Albion,  New.  The  name  given  by  Sir 
Francis  Drake  {q.  v.)  to  California 
{q.  i\)    when  he  took  possession  in  1577. 

Albright,  Jacob,  clergyman;  born  near 
Pottstown,  Pa.,  May  1,  1759.  In  youth 
he  was  a  tile-burner,  but  entered  the 
Methodist  ministry  in  1790.  He  made 
many  converts,  almost  exclusively  among 
the  Germans,  and  in  1800  a  separate 
Church  oi'ganization  was  formed  for  them, 
Albright  becoming  their  first  presiding 
elder.  He  Avas  appointed  bishop  in  1807. 
His  denomination  is  known  as  the  Evan- 
gelical Association  ( g.  v.) .  He  died  in 
1808. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson,  educator;  born 
in  Wolcott,  Conn.,  Nov.  29.  1799.  He 
became  a  successful  teacher  of  an  infant 
school  in  his  native  State.  Piemoving  to 
Boston,  he  soon  became  conspicuous  as  a 
teacher  of  the  very  young.  He  finally  set- 
tled in  Concord,  Mass.,  where  he  studied 
natural  theology  and  the  best  methods  for 


undertook  to  destroy  it.     It  was  lying  at  producing  reforms  in  diet,  education,  and 

Plymouth,    behind    a    barricade    of    logs  civil   and   social   institutions.      By  invita- 

30   feet   in  width.     With   a   small   steam-  tion,  he  went  to  England  in  1842,  to  teach 

launch  equipped  as  a  torpedo-boat,  Cush-  at    "Alcott   House,"    a   name   given   to   a 

ing  moved  in  towards  Plymouth  on  a  dark  school  at  Ham,  near  London.     Returning 

night    (Oct.  27),  with  a  crew  of  thirteen  to  America,  with  two  English  friends,  he 

officers  and  men,  part  of  whom  had  volun-  attempted    the    founding    of    a    new    com- 

teered   for   this   service.     The  launch   had  munity,  calling  the  farm  "  Fruit  Lands." 


a  cutter  in  tow.  They  were  within  20 
yards  of  the  "  ram  "  before  they  were  dis- 
covered, when  its  pickets  began  firing.  In 
the  face  of  a  severe  discharge  of  musketry, 
Cushing  pressed  to  the  attack.  He  drove 
his  launch  far  into  the  log  barricade,  low- 
ered his  torpedo  boom,  and  drove  it  direct- 
ly tmder  the  overhang  of  the  "  ram."  The 
mine  was  exploded,  and  at  the  same  mo- 
ment  one   of   the   guns   of   the   Albemarle 


It  was  a  failure,  and  in  1840  he  again 
went  to  Concord,  where  he  afterwards  re- 
sided, living  the  life  of  a  peripatetic  phi- 
losopher, conversing  in  cities  and  in  vil- 
lages, wherever  invited,  on  divinity,  hu- 
man nature,  ethics,  as  well  as  on  a  great 
variety  of  practical  questions.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  school  of  transcen- 
dental ists  in  New  England,  and  after  re- 
turning  to   Concord   became   dean   of   the 


hurled   a   heavy  bolt   that   went   crashing    famous  Concord  School  of  Philosophy.    He 
through  and  destroying  the  launch.    Cush-    died  March  4,  1888. 

92 


ALCOTT— ALDEN 


Alcott,   Louisa  May,   author;    born   in        Alden,  John,  a  " Pilgrim  Father ";  born 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Nov.  29,  1832;  daughter  in  England  in   1599;   was  employed  as  a 

of    Amos    Bronson    Alcott.     In    1862    she  cooper  in  Southampton,  and,  having  been 

volunteered   as   a   nurse,   and  for   months  engaged    to    repair    the    Mayflower   while 

labored  in  the  military  hospitals.     In  1868  awaiting  the  embarkation  of  the  Pilgrims, 

she  published  Little  Women,  which  almost  concluded   to   join   the    company.     It   has 

immediately  made  her  famous.     Her  other  been  stated  that  he  was  the  first  of  the 

works  are.  Flower  Fables,  or  Fairy  Tales;  Pilgrim  party  to  step  on  Plymouth  Rock, 

Hospital  Sketches;  An  Old-Fashioned  Girl;  but  other   authorities  give  this  honor  to 

a  series  called  Aunt  Jo's  Scrap  Bag,  con-  Mary  Chilton.     Alden  settled  in  Duxbury, 

taining  Sly  Boys,  Shaicl  Straps,  Cupid  and  and  in  1621  was  married  to  Priscilla  Mul- 

Choiv-Chow,  My  Girls,  Jimmy's  Cruise  in  lins.     For  more  than   fifty  years  he  was 

the     Pinafore,     and     An     Old-Fashioned  a  magistrate  in  the  colony,  and  outlived 

Thanksgiving ;  Work,  a  Story  of  Ewperi-  all  the  signers  of  the  Mayfloiver  compact. 

ence;  Eight  Cousins;  Rose  in  Bloom;  Sil-  He  died  in  Duxbury,  Sept.  12,  1687.     The 

ver  Pitchers;  Under  the  Lilacs;  Jack  and  circumstances    of    his    courtship    inspired 

Gill :  Moods;  Proverb  Stories;  Spinning-  Longfellow    to    write    The    Courtship    of 

Wheel  Stories;  Lulu's  Library,  etc.     She  Miles  Standish.     They  were  as  follows: 
died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  6,  1888.  The  dreadful  famine  and  fever  which  de- 

Alden,   Henry  Mills,  editor;   born   in  stroyed  one-half  of  the  Pilgrims  at  New 

Mount    Tabor,    Vt.,    Nov.    11,    1836;    was  Plymouth   during   the   winter   and   spring 

graduated   at   Williams   College    in    1857,  of  1621  made  a  victim  of  Rose  Standish, 

and  at  Andover  Theological   Seminary  in  wife  of  Capt.   Miles   Standish.     Her  hus- 

1860.     In   the   winter   of    1863-64   he   de-  band  was  then  thirty-seven  years  of  age. 

livered  before  the  Lowell  Institute  of  Bos-  Not  long  after  this  event  the  brave  little 

ton   a    series    of    twelve    lectures    on    The  captain    was    smitten    by    the    charms    of 

Structure  of  Paganism;   1863-69   he  was  Priscilla    Mullins,    daughter    of    William 

managing  editor  of  Earpei-'s  Weekly,  and  Mullins,  who  was  a  passenger  on  the  May- 

in  1869  became  editor  of  Harper's  Maga-  floiver.     Priscilla   had   then   just   bloomed 

zine.     He   is   the   author   of   The  Ancient  into  young  womanhood,  and  Standish  sent 

Lady    of    Sorrow,    a    poem;    God    in    His  young  John  Alden  to  ask  the  hand  of  the 

World;  A  Study  of  Death;  and   (with  A.  maiden     in     marriage.     The     ambassador 

H.  Guernsey)    of  Harper's  Pictorial  His-  went  to  her  father  and  discreetly  and  mod- 

tory  of  the  Great  Rebellion.  estly  performed  the  duties  of  his  mission. 

Alden,  James,  naval  officer;  born  in  The  father  readily  gave  his  consent,  and 
Portland,  Me.,  March  31,  1810;  became  a  added,  "But  Priscilla  must  be  consulted." 
midshipman  in  1828;  lieutenant  in  1841;  She  was  summoned  to  the  room,  where  sat 
commander  in  1855;  captain,  Jan.  2,  1863;  young,  graceful,  almost  courtly,  ruddy- 
commodore,  July  25,  1866;  and  rear-ad-  faced  John  Alden,  whom  she  knew  well, 
miral,  June  19,  1871.  He  was  a  partici-  The  ambassador  of  love  repeated  his  mes- 
pant  in  the  South  Sea  Exploring  Expedi-  sage,  and  when  Priscilla  asked,  "  Why 
tion  under  Lieutenant  Wilkes,  and  served  does  he  not  come  himself?"  and  was  an- 
under  Commodore  Conner  on  the  Gulf  swered,  "  He  is  too  busy,"  the  indignant 
coast  of  Mexico  during  the  war  with  that  maiden  declared  that  she  would  never 
country.  He  was  active  in  the  reinforce-  marry  a  man  who  was  "  too  busy "  to 
ment  of  Fort  Pickens;  in  the  expedition  court  her.  She  said  (in  the  words  of 
against  Galveston;  as  commander  of  the  Longfellow): 
Richmond  in  the  passage  of  Forts  Jackson 
and  St.  Philip;  in  the  capture  of  New  Or- 
leans; and  at  Vicksburg,  Port  Hudson, 
Mobile  Bay,  and  Fort  Fisher.  He  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation 
and  Detail  in  1869,  and,  after  his  promo- 
tion to  rear-admiral,  commander  of  the 
European  squadron.  He  died  in  San  Fran-  John  Alden  pressed  the  suit  of  Standish, 
Cisco,  Cal.,  Feb.  6,  1877.  when 

93 


Had    he    waited    awhile,    had   only    showed 

that   he   loved   me. 
Even   this  captain  of  yours — who  knows? 

— at  last  might  have  won  me. 
Old  and  rough  as  he  is  ;  but  now  it  never 

can   happen.'  " 


ALDRICH— ALEXANDER 


"Archly   the  maiden  smiled,   and,   with  eyes 
overrunning  with  laughter. 
Said,  in  a  tremulous  voice,  '  Why  don't  you 
speak  for  yourself,   John?'  " 

Young  Alden  blushed,  bowed,  and  retired, 
for  he  was  faithful  to  his  trust.  His 
visit  was  soon  repeated,  and  it  was  not 
long  before  the  nuptials  of  John  Alden  and 
Priscilla  Mullins  were  celebrated  by  the 
whole  community,  excepting  Captain  Stan- 
dish,  who  could  not  readily  forgive  the 
weakness  (for  he  knew  it  was  not  perfidy) 
of  his  young  friend  in  surrendering  at  the 
first  assault  from  the  eyes  and  lips  of  the 
maiden. 

Aldrich,  Charles,  historian;  born  in 
Ellington,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  2,  1828;  was  edu- 
cated at  Jamestown  Academy,  N.  Y.  On 
June  29,  1857,  he  established  The  Freed- 
man,  a  newspaper  in  Webster  City,  la. 
For  several  years  between  1860  and  1870 
he  was  chief  clerk  of  the  Iowa  House  of 
Eepresentatives,  and  in  1882  was  a  mem- 
ber of  that  body;  in  1875  served  with  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  and  in  1892  established 
the  Historical  Department  of  Iowa,  of 
which  he  afterwards  was  made  curator 
and  secretary. 

Aldrich,  Nelson^  Wilmabth,  states- 
man; born  in  Foster,  R.  I.,  Nov.  6,  1841; 
president  of  the  Providence  common  coun- 
cil, 1871-73;  member  of  the  Rhode  Isl- 
and House  of  Representatives,  1875-76, 
serving  the  latter  year  as  speaker ;  mem- 
ber of  Congress,  1878-82;  United  States 
Senator,  1881  to  the  present  time. 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  author  and 
editor;  born  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Nov. 
11,  1836;  entered  upon  mercantile  life  at 
an  early  age,  and  at  the  same  time  en- 
gaged in  writing  verses  for  the  New  York 
journals.  In  1856  he  joined  the  staflF  of 
the  Home  Journal.  He  edited  Every  Sat- 
urday from  its  foundation,  and  from  time 
to  time  contributed  largely  to  periodical 
publications.  From  1881  to  1890  he  was 
the  editor  of  the  Atlaniic  Monthly. 

Aleutian,  or  Aleutan,  Islands,  a 
group  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  stretch- 
ing in  a  row  from  the  peninsula  of  Alaska 
towards  the  shores  of  Kamchatka.  They 
belong  to  the  Territory  of  Alaska.  These 
islands  were  discovered  by  Bering  in  1728, 
and  are  about  150  in  number.  A  few  of 
them   are   inhabited,   chiefly   by   Eskimos. 


The  population  is  estimated  at  nearly 
6,000.  Russian  missionaries  have  con- 
verted them  to  Christianity,  and  they  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  various  fisheries. 
The  islands  are  volcanic  and  rocky,  and 
agriculture  is  unknown   there. 

Alexander,  an  American  Indian  king. 
Massasoit  (q.  V.)  died  in  1660.  Three  or 
four  years  before  his  death  he  took  his  two 
sons,  Wamsutta  and  Metacomet,  to  Plym- 
outh, Mass.,  and  asked  that  both  should 
receive  English  names.  The  oldest  was 
named  Alexander,  and  the  second  Philip. 
Alexander  succeeded  his  father  as  chief 
sachem  of  the  Wampanoags.  In  1661  he 
was  compelled  to  go  to  Plymouth  a  prison- 
er, on  suspicion  of  being  leagued  Avith  the 
Narragansets  in  hostile  designs  against  the 
English.  The  suspicion  was  not  sustained 
by  evidence.  On  his  way  to  Plymouth  the 
chief  was  taken  suddenly  ill,  and  in  a  few 
hours  died,  it  was  said  of  a  fever  brought 
on  by  rage  and  mortification.  His  young 
wife,  who  became  the  squaw  sachem  Wita- 
mo,  believed  he  had  been  poisoned  by  the 
English.  This  event  soured  the  minds  of 
Philip  and  his  followers  towai'ds  the  Eng- 
lish, and  Avas  one  of  the  indirect  causes 
which  led  to  King  Philip's  War.  See 
Philip. 

Alexander,  Archibald,  theologian ; 
born  in  Augusta  (now  Rockbridge) 
county,  Va.,  April  17,  1772;  was  of  Scotch 
descent,  and  became  teacher  in  a  Virginian 
family  at  the  age  of  seventeen  years.  In 
1791  he  entered  the  ministry  as  an  itiner- 
ant missionary  in  his  native  State.  In 
1789  he  became  president  of  Hampden-Sid- 
ney  College;  left  it  in  1801;  married  a 
daughter  of  Rev.  Mr.  Waddell,  the  cele- 
brated "  blind  preacher  "  in  Virginia,  and 
afterwards  (1807)  became  pastor  of  a 
Presbyterian  church  in  Philadelphia.  In 
1810  he  was  elected  president  of  Union 
College,  Georgia,  but  did  not  accept  it.  On 
the  establishment  of  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1811,  Dr.  Alex- 
ander was  chosen  its  first  professor,  which 
position  he  held  until  his  death,  Oct.  22, 
1851.  Among  his  numerous  writings  his 
Outlines  of  the  Evidences  of  Christianity, 
used  as  a  text-book  in  several  colleges,  is 
most  extensively  known.  It  has  passed 
through  many  editions  in  various  lan- 
guages. 

Alexander,    Barton    Stone,    military 


94 


ALEXANDER 


engineer;  born  in  Kentucky  in  1819;  was  the  part  which  he  took  in  that  famous 
graduated  at  the  Military  Academy  at  trial  he  was  arbitrarily  excluded  from 
West  Point  in  1842.  He  was  made  second  the  bar,  but  was  reinstated  in  1737.  He 
lieutenant  of  engineers  in  1843,  and  cap-  was  associated  with  Franklin  and  others 
tain  in  1856.  For  services  at  the  battle  in  founding  the  American  Philosophical 
of  Bull  Eun,  July,  1861,  he  was  brevetted  Society.  He  was  the  father  of  William 
major,  and  in  March,  1863,  was  commis-  Alexander,  known  as  Lord  Stirling,  a 
sioned  major  of  the  engineer  corps.  For  general  in  the  Continental  army.  He 
meritorious  services  during  the  Civil  War,  died  in  New  York  City,  April  2,  1756. 
he  was  brevetted  brigadier  -  general  in  Alexander,  William,  called  Lord  Stir- 
March,  1865.  Active  during  the  war,  he  ling,  military  officer;  born  in  New  York 
was  consulting  engineer  in  Sheridan's  City  in  1726;  was  a  son  of  Secretary 
army  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and  was  Alexander  of  New  Jersey.  His  mother 
at  the  Battle  of  Cedar  Creek,  Oct.  19,  was  the  widow  of  David  Provoost,  a 
1864.  After  the  war  he  spent  two  years  wealthy  merchant  of  the  city  of  New 
in  charge  of  the  construction  of  public  York.  Attached  to  the  commissariat  of 
works  in  Maine.  He  died  in  San  Fran-  the  army,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Gen- 
cisco,  Cal.,  Dec.  15,  1878. 

Alexander,  Edward  Porter,  engineer; 
born  in  Washington,  Ga.,  May  26,  1835; 
was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy,  and  commissioned  a  second 
lieutenant  in  the  United  States  Engineer 
Corps  in  1857;  resigned  and  entered  the 
Confederate  army  in  1861;  served  with 
the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  from  the 
beginning  to  the  close  of  the  war,  attain- 
ing the  rank  of  brigadier-general  and  chief 
of  ordnance.  In  1866-70  he  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  and  Engineering 
in  the  University  of  South  Carolina;  in 
1871-92  engaged  in  railroad  business;  and 
in  1892-94  was  a  member  of  the  Boards 

on    Navigation    of    the    Columbia    River,  eral  Shirley,  and  was  for  three  years  his 

Ore.,  and  on  the  ship-canal  between  Chesa-  aide-de-camp    and    private    secretary.     He 

peake  and  Delaware  bays.   Subsequently  he  went   to   England   and   Scotland   in   1755, 

was  engineer  -  arbitrator  of  the  boundary  and   before   his   return   he   prosecuted  his 

survey  between  Costa  Bica  and  Nicaragua,  claim  to  the  earldom  of  Stirling,  but  was 

Alexander,  James,  an  active  public  unsuccessful.  He  spent  much  of  his  fort- 
man  in  the  province  of  New  York,  to  une  in  the  matter.  It  was  generally 
which  he  emigrated  from  Scotland  in  believed  that  he  was  the  rightful  heir 
1715,  where  he  was  born  in  1690.  He  had  to  the  title  and  estates,  and  he  assumed 
fled  from  Scotland  because  of  his  peril  the  title  of  Lord  Stirling,  by  which  he 
there  as  an  adherent  of  the  "  Young  Pre-  was  ever  afterwards  known  in  America, 
tender."  He  was  accompanied  by  William  When  the  quarrel  with  Great  Britain  be- 
Smith,  afterwards  chief-justice  of  the  gan  in  the  colonies  Lord  Stirling  es- 
province  and  its  historian.  He  was  made  poused  the  cause  of  the  patriots.  In  1775 
surveyor-general  of  New  Jersey  and  New  he  was  appointed  a  colonel,  and  in  March, 
York,  was  secretary  of  the  latter  colony,  1776,  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-gen- 
and  attained  eminence  in  the  profession  eral  in  the  Continental  army.  When  Gen- 
of  the  law.  As  attorney-general  of  the  eral  Lee  went  South,  Lord  Stirling  was 
province  and  occupant  of  other  important  placed  in  command  of  the  troops  in  and 
positions,  he  became  distinguished.  He  around  the  city  of  New  York.  After  con- 
was  one  of  the  able  counsel  who  defended  spicuous  service  in  the  battle  of  Long  Isl- 
the  freedom  of  the  press  in  the  person  of  and  (Aug.  27,  1776)  he  was  made  a 
John  Peter  Zenger  in  1735.     Because  of  prisoner,  but  was  soon  exchanged;  and  in 

95 


LORD    STIRLING. 


ALEXANDER— ALEXANDER    VL 


1777  he  was  commissioned  by  Congress  a  -wick  and  Nova  Scotia,  excepting  a  part  of 

major-general.  Acadia   proper;    and   the   King   confirmed 

He    fought    with    Washington    on    the  it,    and    issued   a   patent    Sept.    10,    1621. 

Brandywine   on   Sept.    11,    1777,   and   was  The    territory    granted    was    called    Nova 

specially     distinguished     at     Germantown  Scotia — New   Scotland — and  it  was  given 

and  Monmouth,  commanding  the  left  wing  to  Sir  William  and  his  heirs  in  fee  with- 

of  the  American  army  in  the  last-named  out  conditions.  It  was  erected  into  a  royal 

engagement.       He   was    one   of    the    most  pialatinate,   the   proprietor   being   invested 

faithful   of   Washington's   soldiers   during  with   the   rights   and   powers   of   a   count- 

the   war.     William   Alexander    married   a  palatine.      It   was   designed   to   settle   the 

daughter  of  William  Livingston,  of  New  territory     with     Scotch     emigrants,     who 

Jersey,  and  had  been,  like  his  father,  sur-  should  form  a  barrier  against  French  en- 

veyor-general.     He  was   also  an  excellent  croachments.      A    colony   was   accordingly 

mathematician   and   astronomer.     He  was  planted,  and  Sir  William  held  possession 

one  of  the  founders  of  the  New  York  So-  ten  years  before  he  was  displaced  by  the 

ciety  Library,  and  also  of  King's  College  French. 

(now  Columbia  University).  Alexander  In  162.5  Charles  T.  (who  had  just  suc- 
Humphreys,  born  in  Birmingham,  Eng-  ceeded  his  deceased  father ) ,  in  order  to 
land,  in  1783,  claimed  the  earldom  of  Stir-  help  Sir  William  plant  a  successful  col- 
ling. In  1824  he  obtained  the  royal  ony  or  sell  the  domain  in  parcels,  created 
license  to  assume  the  name  of  Alexander,  the  order  of  "  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia," 
because  he  had  a  maternal  grandfather  the  title  to  be  conferred  upon  purchasers 
of  that  name,  and  his  deceased  mother  of  large  tracts  of  land  there.  He  also 
was  a  great-great-granddaughter  of  John  gave  the  proprietor  the  privilege  of  coin- 
Alexander,  fourth  son  of  William  Alex-  ing  base  copper  money.  In  1626  Sir  Will- 
ander,  the  last  earl  of  Stirling,  and  all  in-  iam  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  for 
termediate  heirs  had  become  extinct.  For  Scotland,  Keeper  of  the  Signet  in  1627, 
a  short  time  he  exercised  the  privileges  Commissioner  of  the  Exchequer  in  1628, 
of  an  earl,  and  he  even  claimed  vast  pos-  also  Lord  of  Canada.  In  1630  he  was 
sessions  in  Nova  Scotia;  but  after  a  legal  created  Viscount  Stirling,  and  in  1633 
investigation  he  was  stripped  of  his  titles  Earl  of  Stirling  and  Viscount  of  Canada, 
and  pretensions,  and  in  1839  he  sank  into  In  1628  the  Council  for  New  England  gave 
oblivion.  Many  of  the  original  surveys  in  him  a  grant  of  territory,  which  included 
New  Jersey  made  by  William  Alexander  a  part  of  Long  Island,  opposite  Connecti- 
and  his  father  are  now  in  the  possession  cut;  but  he  was  not  able  to  manage  his 
of  the  New  Jersey  Historical  Society,  and  colonization  schenres  in  Nova  Scotia,  and 
are  frequently  consulted  by  lawyers  to  he  sold  his  domain  to  the  French.  He 
quiet  titles  to  real  estate.  William  Alex-  died  in  London,  Sept.  12,  1640.  Lord  Stir- 
ander  died  in  Albany,  N.Y.,  Jan.  15,  1783.  ling's    title    expired    with    the    fifth    earl 

Alexander,  Sir  Wiixiam,  patentee  of  (1739),  but  other  claimants  appeared 
Nova  Scotia,  and  a  poet  and  court  favor-  afterwards.  See  Acadia. 
ite,  to  whom  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  were  Alexander  VI.,  Pope.  Rodrigo  Len- 
rauch  attached.  He  was  born  at  Menstrie,  zuolo,  a  native  of  Valencia,  Spain,  was 
Scotland,  in  1580.  He  became  the  author  elected  Pope,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
of  verses  when  he  was  fourteen  years  old,  Alexander  VI.  He  was  born  in  1431; 
and  was  cherished  by  Scotchmen  as  a  made  Pope  Aug.  11,  1492;  and  died  Aug. 
descendant  of  the  Macdonalds.  His  Au-  8.  1503.  His  mother  was  a  Borgia,  and 
rora  contained  more  than  one  hundred  Csesar  and  Lucretia  Borgia  were  two  of 
sonnets,  songs,  and  elegies  which  dis-  his  five  illegitimate  children  by  his  mis- 
played  the  effects  of  ill  -  requited  love,  tress,  Rosa  Vanozza.  His  death,  some  his- 
When  the  Council  for  New  England  per-  torians  say,  was  caused  by  his  accident- 
ccived  the  intention  of  the  French  beyond  ally  taking  a  poisoned  draught  intended 
the  St.  Croix  to  push  their  settlements  for  a  large  party  of  cardinals  whom  he 
westward,  they  granted  to  Sir  William  had  invited  to  a  banquet, 
(who  had  been  knighted  in  1614)  all  of  On  the  return  of  Columbus  from  his 
tlie  territory  now  known  as  New  Bruns-  first  voyage  of  discovery,  the  Portuguese, 

96 


ALEXANDRIA 


who  had  pi'eviously  explored  the  Azores 
and  other  Atlantic  islands,  instantly 
claimed  a  title  to  the  newly  discovered 
lands,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Spaniards. 
Simultaneous  with  the  order  given  to 
Columbus  at  Barcelona  to  return  to  His- 
paniola,  an  ambassador  was  sent  to  Rome 
to  obtain  the  Pope's  sanction  of  their 
claims  to  the  regions  discovered,  and  to 
make  a  conquest  of  the  West  Indies.  Alex- 
ander assented  without  much  hesitation 
to  the  proposal,  and,  on  May  3,  1493,  he 
issued  a  bull,  in  which  he  directed 
that  a  line  supposed  to  be  drawn  from 
pole  to  pole,  at  a  distance  of  100 
leagues  westward  of  the  Azores,  should 
serve  as  a  boundary.  All  the  coun- 
tries to  the  east  of  this  imaginary  line, 
not  in  possession  of  a  Christian  prince, 
he  gave  to  the  Portuguese,  and  all  west- 
ward of  it  to  the  Spaniards.  On  account 
of  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  Pope's  par- 
tition, the  line  was  fixed  270  leagues 
farther  west.  Other  nations  of  Europe 
subsequently  paid  no  attention  to  it, 
but  sent  colonies  to  the  Western  Con- 
tinent without  the  leave  of  the  sover- 
eigns of  Spain  or  the  Pope.  A  little 
more  than  a  century  afterwards  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  insisted  that  occupancy 
confers  a  good  title,  by  the  law  of  na- 
tions and  nature.  This  remains  a  law  of 
nations.      Portugal    soon    disregarded    the 


institutions,  and  has  important  manu- 
facturing industries.  In  1890  the  popula- 
tion was  14,339;   in  1900,  14,528. 

In  August,  1814,  while  the  British  were 
making  their  way  across  Maryland  tow- 
ards Washington,  a  portion  of  the  British 
fleet,  consisting  of  two  frigates  of  thirty- 
six  guns  and  thirty-eight  guns,  two  rock- 
et-ships of  eighteen  guns,  two  bomb-ves- 
sels of  eight  guns,  and  one  schooner  of 
two  guns,  sailed  up  the  Potomac  under  the 
charge  of  Commodore  Gordon,  of  the  Sea 
Horse,  and  easily  passed  the  guns  of  Fort 
Washington,  the  defences  of  which  the 
government  had  neglected.  The  British 
squadron  appeared  before  the  fort  (Aug. 
27),  when  the  commander  blew  up  the 
magazine  and  fled.  The  squadron  passed 
and  anchored  in  front  of  Alexandria, 
prepared  to  lay  the  city  in  ashes  with 
bombs  and  rockets  if  demands  w^ere  not 
complied  with.  There  was  no  effective 
force  at  Alexandria  to  oppose  the  in- 
vaders, for  the  able-bodied  men  and  heavy 
guns  had  been  called  to  the  defence  of 
Washington.  They  were  powerless,  and 
were  compelled  to  submit.  The  invader 
contented  himself  with  burning  one 
vessel  and  loading  several  others  with 
plunder,  for  he  became  in  too  great  a 
huriy  to  depart  to  wait  for  the  hidden 
merchandise  and  the  raising  of  the  scut- 
tled  vessels.      The   squadron   sailed   down 


FORT   WASHIXGTOX. 


Pope's  donation  to  Spain,  and  sent  an  ex- 
pedition to  North  America  in  1500. 

Alexandria,  city,  port  of  entry;  on 
the  Potomac  River,  here  a  mile  wide  and 
providing  an  excellent  harbor,  and  6  miles 
below  Washington,  D.  C.  The  city  con- 
tains a  number  of  high-grade  educational 


97 


the  Potomac,  annoved  all  the  way  by  bat- 
teries and  the  militia  on  the  shore,  the 
former  quickly  constructed  and  armed 
with  heavy  guns  from  vessels  sent  by  Com- 
modore Rogers  from  Baltimore,  and  also 
others  sent  down  from  Washington.  The 
British  squadron,  having  an  aggregate  of 


ALEXANDRIA^    LA.— ALGER 


173  guns,  passed  out  safely  into  Chesa- 
peake Bay  on  Sept.  5. 

In  the  Civil  War  the  city  was  occupied 
by  National  troops  on  May  25,  1861,  and 
the  same  day  Col.  Ephraim  Elmer  Ells- 
worth (q.  v.),  commanding  the  11th  New 
York  Volunteers  (Fire  Zouaves),  was 
killed  as  he  was  descending  from  the  roof 
of  the  Marshall  House,  where  he  had 
hauled  down  a  Confederate  flag,  by  James 
T.  Jackson,  the  keeper  of  the  hotel. 

Alexandria,     La.        See     Red     Rivee 

EXPEDITIOA\ 

Alexandria  Conference.  George  Mason 
and  Alexander  Henderson,  of  Virginia, 
and  Daniel  Jenifer,  Thomas  Stone,  and 
Samuel  Chase,  of  Maryland,  were  com- 
missioned in  1785  to  treat  concerning  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  waters  between  the  two 
States.  Their  report  led  to  the  Annap- 
olis Convention  of  1786   {q.  v.). 

Alexandria  Government.  See  Vir- 
ginia, 1867. 

Alfonso  XIIL,  King  of  Spain;  born  in 
Madrid,  May  17,  1886,  after  his  father's 
death ;  son  of  the  late  King  Alfonso  XII. 
and  Maria  Christina,  daughter  of  the  late 
Carl  Ferdinand,  Archduke  of  Austria.  His 
mother  became  Queen  Regent  during  his 
minority,  and  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Spanish  fleet  in  Manila  Bay  she  made 
strenuous  though  unavailing  efforts  to  in- 
duce both  the  Pope  and  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe  to  intervene  in  the 
hope  of  speedily  closing  the  war  between 
the  United  States  and  Spain. 

Alger,  Cyrus,  inventor;  born  in  West 
Bridgewater,  Mass.,  Nov.  11,  1781;  became 
an  iron-founder  early  in  life.  In  1809 
he  founded  in  Boston  the  works  which 
since  1817  have  been  known  as  the  South 
Boston  Iron  Company.  During  the  War 
of  1812  he  supplied  the  government  with 
a  large  number  of  cannon-balls.  He  de- 
vised many  improvements  in  the  construc- 
tion of  time-fuses  for  bomb-shells  and 
grenades.  In  1811  he  invented  a  method 
of  making  cast-iron  chilled  rolls,  and  in 
1822  designed  the  cylinder  stove.  The 
first  perfect  bronze  cannon,  the  first  gun 
ever  rifled  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
largest  gun  of  cast-iron,  the  "  Columbiad  " 
mortar,  that  had  been  cast  in  the  country, 
were  turned  out  at  his  foundry  under  his 
personal  supervision.  He  died  in  Boston, 
Feb.  4,  1856. 


Alger,  Horatio,  author;  born  in  Re- 
vere, Mass.,  Jan.  13,  1834;  graduated  .at 
Harvard  in  1852.  After  spending  several 
years  in  teaching  and  journalism  he  was 
ordained  as  a  Unitarian  minister  in  1864. 
He  removed  to  New  York  City  in  1866. 
He  published  Bertha's  Christmas  Vision; 
Nothing  to  Do,  a  poem;  Frank's  Cam- 
paign, or,  What  a  Boy  Can  Do;  Helen 
Ford,  a  novel;  a  volume  of  poems;  Ragged 
Dick;  Luck  and  Pluck;  Tattered  Tom; 
Frank  and  Fearless;  His  Young  Bank 
Messenger,  etc.  He  died  in  Natick,  Mass., 
July,  18,  1899. 

Alger,  Russell  Alexander,  Secretary 
of  War;  born  in  Lafayette,  O.,  Feb.  27, 
1836;  worked  on  a  farm  for  years  earning 


RUSSELL    A.   ALGER. 

money  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  edu- 
cation. He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1859,  but  was  forced  by  ill  health  to  give 
up  practice.  When  the  Civil  War  broke 
out  he  entered  the  Union  army  as  a  cap- 
tain, and  rose  to  brevet  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  After  the  war  he  entered 
the  lumber  business,  in  which  he  acquired 
a  large  fortune.  He  was  governor  of  Michi- 
gan in  1885-87;  was  a  candidate  for  the 
Republican  Presidential  nomination  in 
1888 ;  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand 
Army  of  the  Republic  in  1889-90;  and 
became  Secretary  of  War  under  President 
]\TcKinley  in  1897.  During  almost  all  of 
the  American-Spanish  War  in  1898  he  was 
subjected  to  much  public  censure  on  ac- 
count of  alleged  shortcomings  in  the  vari- 


98 


ALGER— ALGIERS 


ous  bureaus  of  the  War  Department.  He 
resigned  his  office  in  1899,  and  wrote  a 
history  of  the  war  with  Spain. 

Alger,  William  Rounseville,  clergy- 
man and  author;  born  in  Freetown,  Mass., 
Dec.  30,  1822;  graduated  at  Harvard 
Theological  School  in  1847 ;  held  charges 
in  Boston,  New  York,  Denver,  Chicago, 
and  Portland,  Me.,  subsequently  making 
his  home  in  Boston.  His  publications  in- 
clude: Symholic  History  of  the  Cross; 
History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life; 
The  Genius  of  Solitude;  The  Friendships 
of  Women;  Poetry  of  the  Orient;  Life  of 
Edwin  Forrest;  Sounds  of  Consolation  in 
Human  Life,  etc. 

Algiers,  one  of  the  former  Barbary 
States  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
stretching  west  from  Egypt  to  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean;  bombarded  and  captured  by 
the  French  in  1830,  and  held  under  French 
military  control  till  1871,  when  a  French 
civil  administration  was  established.  All 
of  Algeria  is  now  considered  a  part  of 
France  rather  than  a  colony.  The  city  of 
Algiers,  under  French  domination,  is  the 
capital  of  the  department  and  colony,  is 
well  equipped  with  educational  institu- 
tions, and  has  become  as  orderly  as  any 
place  in  France.  The  population  in  1891 
was  82,585. 

The  Barbary  States  derived  their  name 
from  the  Berbers,  the  ancient  inhabitants. 
From  their  ports,  especially  from  Algiers, 
went  out  piratical  vessels  to  depredate 
upon  the  commerce  of  other  peoples.  So 
early  as  1785  two  American  vessels  had 
been  captured  by  these  corsairs,  and  their 
crews  (twenty-one  persons)  had  been  held 
in  slavery  for  ransom.  The  Dey,  or  ruler, 
of  Algiers  demanded  $60,000  for  their  re- 
demption. As  this  sum  would  be  a  prec- 
edent, other  means  were  sought  to  obtain 
the  release  of  the  captives.  In  a  message, 
in  1790,  President  Washington  called  the 
attention  of  Congress  to  the  matter,  but 
the  United  States  were  without  a  navy 
to  protect  their  commerce.  For  what  pro- 
tection American  vessels  enjoyed  they  were 
indebted  to  Portugal,  then  at  war  with  Al- 
giers. In  1793  the  British  government 
made  a  secret  arrangement  with  that  of 
Portugal,  whereby  peace  with  Algiers  was 
obtained.  In  that  arrangement  it  was 
stipulated  that  for  the  space  of  a  year 
Portugal  should  not  afford  protection  to 


the  vessels  of  any  nation  against  Algerine 
corsairs.  This  was  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
juring France.  The  pirates  were  imme- 
diately let  loose  upon  commerce.  David 
Humphreys,  who  had  been  sent  to  Algiers 
by  the  government  of  the  United  States 
to  make  arrangements  for  the  release  of 
American  commerce  from  danger,  was  in- 
sulted by  the  Dey.  Humphreys  wrote, 
'■  If  we  mean  to  have  commerce,  we  must 
have  a  navy."  Meanwhile  the  United 
States  were  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to 
the  Dey  to  keep  his  corsairs  from  Ameri- 
can commerce. 

From  1785  until  the  autumn  of  1793, 
when  W^ashington  called  the  attention  of 
Congress  to  the  necessity  of  a  navy,  the 
Algerine  pirates  had  captured  fifteen 
American  vessels  and  made  180  officers 
and  seamen  slaves  of  the  most  revolting 
kind.  To  redeem  the  survivors  of  these 
captives,  and  others  taken  more  recently, 
the  United  States  government  paid  about 
$1,000,000  in  ransom  -  money.  In  the 
autumn  of  1795  the  government  was  com- 
pelled to  agree,  by  treaty,  to  pay  to 
the  Dey  of  Algiers  an  annual  tribute  for 
the  relief  of  captured  seamen,  according 
to  long  usage  among  European  nations. 
It  was  humiliating,  but  nothing  better 
could  then  be  done,  and  humanity  demand- 
ed it.  In  1812  the  Dey,  offended  because 
he  had  not  received  from  the  American 
government  the  annual  tribute  in  precise- 
ly such  articles  as  he  wanted,  dismissed 
the  American  consul,  declared  war,  and 
his  corsairs  captured  American  vessels  and 
reduced  the  crews  to  slavery.  The  Amer- 
ican consul — Mr.  Lear — was  compelled  to 
pay  the  Dey  $27,000  for  the  security  of 
himself  and  family  and  a  few  other  Amer- 
icans there  from  horrid  slavery.  Deter- 
mined to  pay  tribute  no  longer  to  the  in- 
solent semi-barbarian,  the  American  gov- 
ernment accepted  the  Dey's  challenge  for 
war,  and  in  May,  1815,  sent  Commodore 
Decatur  to  the  Mediterranean  with  a 
squadron  to  humble  the  Dey.  Decatur 
found  the  Algerine  pirate-fleet  cruising  for 
American  vessels.  He  played  havoc  with 
the  corsairs,  entered  the  Bay  of  Algiers 
(June  28),  demanded  the  instant  sur- 
render of  all  American  prisoners,  full  in- 
demnification for  all  property  destroyed, 
and  absolute  relinquishment  of  all  claims 
to  tribute  from  the  United  States  there- 


99 


ALGONQUIAN    INDIANS 


after.     The    terrified    Dey    complied    with  Miami  or  Maumee,  on  Lake  Erie,  and  the 

the  demand.     See  Decatuk,  Stephen.  watershed  between  the  Wabash  and  Kas- 

Algonquian,  or  Algonkian,  Indians,  kia  rivers.  The  English  and  the  Five  Na- 
the  most  powerful  of  the  eight  distinct  Ind-  tions  called  them  the  Twightwees.  The 
ian  nations  found  in  North  America  by  the  Eickapoos  were  on  the  Wisconsin  River 
Europeans  in  the  seventeenth  century.  It  when  discovered  by  the  French.  The  Illi- 
was  composed  of  several  tribes,  the  most  nois  formed  a  numerous  tribe,  12,000 
important  of  which  were  the  Ottawas,  strong,  when  discovered  by  the  French. 
Chippewas,  Sacs  and  Foxes,  Menomonees,  They  were  seated  on  the  Illinois  River, 
Miamis,  Pottawattomies,  Kickapoos,  Illi-  and  composed  a  confederation  of  five 
nois,  Shawnees,  Powhatans,  Corees,  Nan-  families — namely,  Kaskaskias,  Cahokias, 
ticokes,  Lenni-Lenapes  or  Delawares,  Mo-  Tamaronas,  Michigamies,  and  Peorias.  The 
hegans,  the  New  England  Indians,  the  Shaicnees  occupied  a  vast  region  west  of 
Abenakes,  and  Micmacs.  There  were  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  their  great 
smaller  independent  tribes,  the  principal  council-house  was  in  the  basin  of  the  Cum- 
of  which  were  the  Susquehannas  in  Penn-  berland  River.  The  Powhatans  consti- 
sylvania;  the  Mannahoacs  in  the  hill-  tuted  a  confederacy  of  more  than  twen- 
country  between  the  York  and  Potomac  ty  tribes,  including  the  Accohannocks  and 
rivers ;  and  the  Monacans,  on  the  head-  Accomacs,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Chesa- 
waters  of  the  James  River,  Virginia.  All  peake  Bay.  The  confederacy  occupied  the 
of  these  tribes  were  divided  into  cantons  region  in  Virginia  consisting  of  the  navi- 
or  clans,  sometimes  so  small  as  to  afford  gable  portion  of  the  James  and  York 
a  war-party  of  only  forty  men.  The  do-  rivers,  with  their  tributaries.  The  Corees 
main  of  the  Algonkians  covered  a  vast  re-  were  south  of  the  Powhatans,  on  the  At- 
gion,  bounded  on  the  north  and  northeast  lantic  coast,  in  northern  North  Carolina, 
by  the  Eskimos;  on  the  northwest  by  the  The  Cheraws  and  other  small  tribes  occu- 
Knistenaux  and  Athabascas;  on  the  west  pied  the  land  of  the  once  powerful  Hat- 
by  the  Dakotas ;  on  the  south  by  the  teras  family,  below  the  Corees.  The  Nan- 
Catawbas,  Cherokees,  Mobilians,  and  Nat-  ticokes  were  upon  the  peninsula  between 
ehez;  and  on  the  east  by  Nova  Scotia,  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays.  The 
West  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Blackfeet  and  Lenni-Lenapes,  or  Delawares,  comprised 
Cheyennes  are  regarded  as  a  family  of  the  powerful  families — namely,  the  Minsis  and 
Algonkians.  Tl\e  original  land  of  the  Delawares  proper.  The  former  occupied 
Ottawas  was  on  the  west  side  of  Lake  the  northern  part  of  New  Jersey  and  a 
Huron ;  but  they  were  seated  upon  the  portion  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  latter 
OttaAva  River,  in  Canada,  when  the  French  inhabited  lower  New  Jersey,  the  banks 
discovered  them,  and  claimed  sovereignty  of  the  Delaware  River  below  Trenton,  and 
over  that  region.  The  Chippeioas  and  the  whole  valley  of  the  Schuj'lkill.  The 
Pottaivattomies  were  closely  allied  by  Ian-  Mohegans  were  a  distinct  tribe  on  the  east 
guage  and  friendship.  The  former  were  side  of  the  Hudson  River,  and  under  that 
on  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Superior ;  name  were  included  several  independent 
the  latter  occupied  the  islands  and  main-  families  on  Long  Island  and  the  country 
land  on  the  western  shores  of  Green  Bay  between  the  Lenni-Lenapes  and  the  New 
when  first  discovered  by  the  French.  In  England  Indians.  The  Wew  England  Ind- 
1701  they  seated  themselves  on  the  south-  ians  inhabited  the  country  from  the  Con- 
ern  shores  of  Lake  Michigan.  necticut  River   eastward   to   the   Saco,   in 

The  Sacs  and  Foxes  are  really  one  tribe.  Maine.        The    principal    tribes    were    "'he 

They  were  found  by  the  French,  in  1680,  Narragansets  on  Rhode  Island;  the  Poka- 

at  the  southern  extremity  of  Green  Bay.  nokets   and   Wampanoags   on   the   eastern 

The  Menomonees  are  among  the  few  Ind-  shore  of  Narraganset  Bay  and  in  a  portion 

ian  tribes  who  occupy  the  same  domain  as  of    Massachusetts;    the   Massachusetts    in 

when  they  were  discovered  by  Europeans  the    vicinity    of    Boston    and    the    shores 

in  1699.     That  domain  is  upon  the  shores  southward;    and    the    Pawtuckets    in    the 

of  Green  Bay,  and  there  the  tribe  remains,  northeastern   part   of   Massachusetts,   em- 

The    Miamis    and    Piankeshaics    inhabited  bracing    the    Pennacooks    of    New    Hamp- 

that   portion   of    Ohio   lying   between    the  shire.     The  Abenakes    (g.  v.)    were  east- 

100 


ALIEN    AND    SEDITION    LAWS— ALIQUIPPA 


ward  of  the  Saco.  Their  chief  tribes  were 
the  Penobscots,  Norridgewocks,  Androscog- 
gins,  and  Passamaquoddies.  For  further 
details  of  the  principal  tribes,  see  their 
respective  titles. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  Up  to  1798 
the  greater  part  of  the  emigrants  to  the 
United  States  since  the  adoption  of  the 
national  Constitution  had  been  either 
Frenchmen,  driven  into  exile  by  political 
troubles  at  home,  or  Englishmen,  Scotch- 
men, and  Irishmen,  who  had  espoused 
ultra-republican  principles,  and  who,  fly- 
ing from  the  severe  measures  of  repres- 
sion adopted  against  them  at  home, 
brought  to  America  a  fierce  hatred  of  the 
government  of  Great  Britain,  and  warm 
admiration  of  republican  France.  Among 
these  were  some  men  of  pure  lives  and 
noble  aims,  but  many  were  desperate  po- 
litical intriguers,  ready  to  engage  in  any 
scheme  of  mischief.  It  was  estimated 
that  at  the  beginning  of  1798  there  were 
30,000  Frenchmen  in  the  United  States 
organized  in  clubs,  and  at  least  fifty  thou- 
sand who  had  been  subjects  of  Great 
Britain.  These  were  regarded  as  danger- 
ous to  the  commonwealth,  and  in  1798, 
when  war  with  France  seemed  inevitable. 
Congress  passed  acts  for  the  security  of 
the  government  against  internal  foes.  By 
an  act  (June  18,  1798),  the  naturaliza- 
tion laws  were  made  more  stringent,  and 
alien  enemies  could  not  become  citizens  at 
all.  By  a  second  act  (June  25),  which 
was  limited  to  two  years,  the  President 
was  authorized  to  order  out  of  the  country 
all  aliens  whom  he  might  judge  to  be  dan- 
gerous to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the 
United  States.  By  a  third  act  (July  6), 
in  case  of  war  declared  against  the  United 
States,  or  an  actual  invasion,  all  resident 
aliens,  natives  or  citizens  of  the  hostile 
nation,  might,  upon  proclamation  of  the 
President,  issued  according  to  his  discre- 
tion, be  apprehended  and  secured  or  re- 
moved. These  were  known  as  Alien  Laws. 
The  President  never  had  occasion  to  put 
them  in  force,  but  several  prominent 
Frenchmen,  who  felt  that  the  laws  were 
aimed  at  them,  speedily  left  the  United 
States.  Among  these  was  M.  Volney,  who, 
in  the  preface  of  his  work,  A  Vieiv  of  the 
Soil  and  Climate  of  the  United  States, 
complained  bitterly  of  "  the  public  and 
violent  attacks  made  upon  his  character, 


with  the  connivance  or  instigation  of  a 
certain  eminent  personage,"  meaning  Pres- 
ident Adams. 

On  July  14,  1798,  an  act  was  passed  for 
the  punishment  of  sedition.  It  made  it  a 
high  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  a  fine 
not  to  exceed  $5,000,  imprisonment  from 
six  months  to  five  years,  and  binding  to 
good  behavior  at  the  discretion  of  the 
court,  for  any  person  unlawfully  to  com- 
bine in  opposing  measures  of  the  govern- 
ment properly  directed  by  authority,  or 
attempting  to  prevent  government  officers 
executing  their  trusts,  or  inciting  to  riot 
and  insurrection.  It  also  provided  for  the 
fining  and  imprisoning  of  any  person 
guilty  of  printing  or  publishing  "  any 
false,  scandalous,  and  malicious  writings 
against  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  or  either  House  of  Congress,  or  the 
President,  with  intent  to  defame  them,  or 
to  bring  them  into  contempt  or  disre- 
pute." This  was  called  the  Sedition  Law. 
These  laws  were  assailed  with  great  vigor 
by  the  Opposition,  and  were  deplored  by 
some  of  the  best  friends  of  the  adminis- 
tration. Hamilton  deprecated  them.  He 
wrote  a  hurried  note  of  warning  against 
the  Sedition  Act  (June  29,  1798)  to  Wol- 
cott,  while  the  bill  was  pending,  saying: 
"  Let  us  not  establish  a  tyranny.  Energy 
is  a  very  different  thing  from  violence. 
If  we  take  no  false  step,  we  shall  be  es- 
sentially united;  but  if  we  push  things 
to  the  extreme,  we  shall  then  give  to  par- 
ties body  and  solidity."  Nothing  contrib- 
uted more  to  the  Federalist  defeat  two 
years  later  than  these  extreme  measures. 
See  Kentucky;  Naturalization. 

Aliens.     See  Naturalization. 

Aliquippa,  an  Indian  queen  who  dwelt 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Monongahela  and 
Youghiogheny  rivers  at  the  time  of 
Washington's  expedition  to  Fort  Le  Boeuf 
(1753).  She  had  complained  of  his  neg- 
lect in  not  calling  on  her  on  his  outward 
journey,  so  he  visited  her  in  returning. 
With  an  apology,  he  gave  the  queen  a 
coat  and  a  bottle  of  rum.  "  The  latter," 
Washington  wrote,  "  was  thought  the 
much  better  present  of  the  two,"  and  har- 
mony of  feeling  was  soon  restored.  Ali- 
quippa was  a  woman  of  great  muscular  and 
mental  strength,  and  had  performed  such 
brave  deeds  that  she  was  held  in  reverence 
by  the  Indians  of  western  Pennsylvania. 


101 


ALISON— ALLATOONA    PASS 


Alison,  Francis,  patriot  and  educator; 
born  in  Donegal  county,  Ireland,  in  1705; 
came  to  America  in  1735;  and  in  1752  he 
took  charge  of  an  academy  in  Philadelphia. 
From  1755  until  his  death  he  was  Vice- 
provost  and  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy 
of  the  College  of  Pennsylvania.  His  chief 
claim  to  honor  among  men  is  that  he  was 
the  tutor  of  a  large  number  of  Americans 
who  were  conspicuous  actors  in  the  events 
of  the  Revolution  that  accomplished  the  in- 
dependence of  the  United  States  of  America. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Nov.  28,  1779. 

Allatoona  Pass,  a  locality  in  Bartow 
county,  Ga.,  about  40  miles  northwest 
of  Atlanta,  having  large  historical  in- 
tej'est  because  of  the  important  military 
operations  in  1864.  The  Confederates,  re- 
treating from  Resaca,  took  a  position  at 
Allatoona  Pass.  Sherman,  after  resting 
his  army,  proceeded  to  flank  them  out  of 
their  new  position.  J.  C.  Davis's  division 
of  Thomas's  army  had  moved  down  the 
Oostenaula  to  Rome,  where  he  destroyed 
important  mills  and  foundries,  and  capt- 
ured nearly  a  dozen  guns.  He  left  a 
garrison  there.  Meanwhile  Sherman  had 
destroyed  the  Georgia  State  Arsenal  near 


he  made  a  bold  push,  by  Sherman's  or- 
der, to  secure  possession  of  a  point  near 
New  Hope  Church,  where  roads  from  Ack- 
v/orth.  Marietta,  and  Dallas  met.  A 
stormy  night  ensued,  and  Hooker  could 
not  drive  the  Confederates  from  their 
position.  On  the  following  morning  Sher- 
man found  the  Confederates  strongly  in- 
trenched, with  lines  extending  from  Dallas 
to  Marietta.  The  approach  to  their  in- 
trenchments  must  be  made  over  rough, 
wooded,  and  broken  ground. 

For  several  days,  constantly  skirmish- 
ing, Sherman  tried  to  break  through  their 
lines  to  the  railway  east  of  the  Allatoona 
Pass.  McPherson's  troops  moved  to  Dal- 
las, and  Thomas's  deployed  against  New 
Hope  Church,  in  the  vicinity  of  which 
there  were  many  severe  encounters,  while 
Schofield  was  directed  to  turn  and  strike 
Johnston's  right.  On  INIay  28  the  Con- 
federates struck  McPherson  a  severe  blow 
at  Dallas;  but  the  assailants  were  re- 
pulsed with  heavy  loss.  At  the  same 
time,  Howard,  nearer  the  centre,  was  re- 
pulsed. Sherman,  by  skilful  movements, 
compelled  Johnston  to  evacuate  his  strong 
position  at  Allatoona  Pass  (June  1,  1864). 


ALLATOONA   PASS. 


Adairsville.  The  Nationals  proceeded  to 
gather  in  force  at  and  near  Dallas.  John- 
ston was  on  the  alert,  and  tried  to  prevent 
this  formidable  flank  movement.  Hook- 
er's corps  met  Confederate  cavalry  near 
Pumpkinvine  Creek,  whom  he  pushed 
across  that  stream  and  saved  a  bridge  they 
had  fired.  Following  them  eastward  2 
miles,  he  (Hooker)  found  the  Confeder- 
ates in  strong  force  and  in  battle  order. 
A   sharp   conflict   ensued,   and   at   4   p.m. 


The  National  cavalry,  under  Garrard  and 
Stoneman,  were  pushed  on  to  occupy  it, 
and  there  Sherman,  planting  a  garrison, 
made  a  secondary  base  of  supplies  for  his 
army.  Johnston  made  a  stand  at  the 
Kenesaw  Mountains,  near  Marietta;  but 
Sherman,  who  had  been  reinforced  by  two 
divisions  under  Gen.  Frank  P.  Blair  (June 
8),  very  soon  caused  him  to  abandon  that 
position,  cross  the  Chattahoochee  River, 
and  finally  to  rest  at  Atlanta. 


102 


ALLATOONA    PASS— ALLEN 


After  the  evacuation  of  Atlanta  (Sept. 
^,  1864),  Sherman  and  Hood  reorganized 
their  armies  in  preparation  for  a  vigorous 
fall  campaign.  Satisfied  that  Hood  in- 
tended to  assume  the  offensive  and  prob- 
ably attempt  the  seizure  of  Tennessee, 
Sherman  sent  Thomas,  his  second  in  com- 
mand, to  Nashville,  to  organize  the  new 
troops  expected  to  gather  there,  and  to 
make  arrangements  to  meet  such  an 
emergency.  Thomas  arrived  there  Oct.  3. 
Meanwhile  the  Confederates  had  crossed 
the  Chattahoochee,  and  by  a  rapid  move- 
ment had  struck  the  railway  at  Big 
Shanty,  north  of  Marietta,  and  destroyed 
it  for  several  miles.  A  division  of  in- 
fantry pushed  northward  and  appeared 
before  Allatoona,  where  Colonel  Tourtel- 
lotte  was  guarding  1,000,000  National  ra- 
tions with  only  three  thin  regiments. 
Sherman  made  efforts  at  once  for  the  de- 
fence of  these  and  his  communications. 
Leaving  Slocum  to  hold  Atlanta  and  the 
railway  bridge  across  the  Chattahoochee, 
he  started  on  a  swift  pursuit  of  Hood 
with  five  army  corps  and  two  divisions  of 
cavalry.  He  established  a  signal  station 
on  the  summit  of  Great  Kenesaw  Moun- 
tain, and  telegraphed  to  General  Corse,  at 
Eome,  to  hasten  to  the  assistance  of 
Tourtellotte.  Corse  instantly  obeyed ;  and 
when  the  Confederates  appeared  before 
Allatoona,  at  dawn  ( Oct.  5 ) ,  he  was  there 
with  reinforcements,  and  in  command.  The 
Confederates  were  vastly  superior  in  num- 
bers, and  invested  the  place.  After  can- 
nonading the  fort  two  hours,  their  leader 
(General  French)  demanded  its  surrender. 
Then  he  assailed  it  furiously,  but  his 
columns  were  continually  driven  back. 
The  conflict  raged  with  great  fierceness; 
and  Sherman,  from  the  top  of  Kenesaw, 
heard  the  roar  of  cannon  and  saw  the 
smoke  of  battle,  though  18  miles  dis- 
tant. He  had  pushed  forward  a  corps 
(23d)  to  menace  the  Confederate  Tear, 
and  by  signal  -  flags  on  Kenesaw  he  said 
to  General  Corse  at  Allatoona,  "  Hold 
the  fort,  for  I  am  coming."  And  when 
Sherman  was  assured  that  Corse  was 
there,  he  said,  "  He  will  hold  out ;  I  know 
the  man."  And  so  he  did.  He  repulsed 
the  Confederates  several  times;  and  when 
they  heard  of  the  approach  of  the  23d 
Corps,  they  hastily  withdrew,  leaving 
behind    them    230    dead    and    400    prison- 


ers, with  about  800  small-arms.  The 
Nationals  lost  707  men.  The  famous 
signal  of  General  Sherman  was  subse- 
quently made  the  title  of  one  of  Ira  D. 
Sankey's  most  thrilling  hymns,  which  has 
been  sung  the  world  over. 

Allegiance,  Oath  of.     See  Oaths. 

Allen,  Charles  Herbert,  adminis- 
trator; born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  April  15, 
1848;  was  graduated  at  Amherst  College 
in  1869;  and  became  a  lumber  merchant 
at  Lowell.  He  served  in  both  Houses  of 
the  Massachusetts  legislature;  was  a  Re- 
publican member  of  Congress  in  1885-89; 
defeated  as  Republican  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts  in  1891 ;  became 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  May, 
1898,  and  in  April,  1900,  was  appointed 
the  first  American  governor  of  Porto 
Rico. 

Allen,  Ethan,  military  officer;  born  in 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  Jan.  10,  1737.  In  1762 
he  was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the  iron- 
works at  Salisbury,  Conn.  In  1766  he 
went  to  the  then  almost  unsettled  domain 
between  the  Green  Mountains  and  Lake 
Champlain,  where  he  was  a  bold  leader  of 
the  settlers  on  the  New  Hampshire  grants 
in  their  controversy  with  the  authorities 
of  New  York.  (See  New  Hampshire.) 
During  this  period  several  pamphlets  were 
written  by  Allen,  in  his  peculiar  style, 
which  forcibly  illustrated  the  injustice  of 
the  action  of  the  New  York  authorities. 
The  latter  declared  Allen  an  outlaw,  and 
offered  a  reward  of  £150  for  his  arrest. 
He  defied  his  enemies,  and  persisted  in 
his  course.  Early  in  May,  1775,  he  led  a 
few  men  and  took  the  fortress  of  Ticon- 
deroga.  His  followers  were  called  "  Green 
Mountain  Boys."  His  success  as  a  par- 
tisan caused  him  to  be  sent  twice  into 
Canada,  during  the  latter  half  of  1775, 
to  win  the  people  over  to  the  republican 
cause.  In  the  last  of  these  expeditions  he 
attempted  to  capture  Montreal. 

With  less  than  100  recruits,  mostly 
Canadians,  Colonel  Allen  crossed  the  St. 
Lawrence,  Sept.  25,  1775.  This  was  done 
at  the  suggestion  of  Col.  John  Brown, 
who  was  also  recruiting  in  the  vicinity, 
and  who  agreed  to  cross  the  river  at  the 
same  time  a  little  above  the  city,  the  at- 
tack to  be  made  simultaneously  by  both 
parties.  For  causes  never  satisfactorily 
explained,  Brown  did  not  cross,  and  dis- 


103 


ALLEN 


aster  ensued.  Gen.  llobert  Prescott  was 
in  command  in  the  city.  He  sallied  out 
with  a  considerable  force  of  regulars, 
Canadians  and  Indians,  and  after  a  short 
skiiniish  made  Allen  and  his  followers 
prisoners.       When   Prescott   learned   that 


she  sailed  from  Quebec  the  humane  cap- 
tain struck  off  his  irons.  He  was  con- 
lined  seven  weeks  in  Pendennis  Castle  in 
England,  when  he  was  sent  to  Halifax, 
and  thence  to  New  York,  where  he  was 
exchanged  in  the  spring  of  1778,  and  re- 
turned home,  where  he  was  received  with 
joy  and  honors.  He  was  invested  with 
the  chief  command  of  the  State  militia. 
Congress  immediately  gave  him  the  com- 
mission of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Con- 
tinental army.  When,  in  the  course  of 
the  war,  Vermont  assumed  and  main- 
tained an  independent  position,  a  fruitless 
attempt  was  made  by  Beverly  Robinson  to 
bribe  Allen  to  lend  his  support  to  a  union 
of  that  province  with  Canada.  He  was 
supposed  to  be  disaffected  towards  the  re- 
volted colonies,  and  he  fostered  that  im- 
pression in  order  to  secure  the  neutrality 
of  the  British  towards  his  mountain  State 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  As  a  member 
of  the  legislature  of  Vermont,  and  as  a 
delegate  in  Congress,  he  secured  the  great 
object  of  his  efforts — namely,  the  ultimate 
recognition  of  Vermont  as  an  independent 
State.  He  removed  to  Burlington  before 
the  close  of  the  war,  and  died  there  Feb. 
13,  1789.  In  1894  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment established  a  new  military  post 
5  miles  from  Burlington  and  named  it 
after  him.     See  Ethan  Allen,  Fort. 

Allen,  Ethan,  lawyer;  born  in  Mon- 
mouth county,  N.  J.,  May  12,  1832;  was 
graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1860. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he 
raised  a  brigade  of  troops,  but  did  not 
enter  the  service.  In  1861-69  he  was 
deputy  United  States  attorney  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York;  in  1870- 
90  practised  law  in  New  York  City;  and 
in  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1872  was 
chairman  of  the  National  Liberal  Repub- 
lican Committee.  Subsequently  he  was 
president  of  the  Cuban  League  of  the 
United  States.  He  is  the  author  of 
Washington,  or  the  Revolution,  a  history 
of  the  American  Revolution  in  dramatic 
Allen  was  the  man  who  captured  Ticon-    form. 

deroga,  he  treated  him  very  harshly.  He  Allen,  Henry  Watkins,  military  offi- 
was  bound  hand  and  foot  with  irons,  and  cer ;  born  in  Prince  Edward  county,  Va., 
these  shackles  were  fastened  to  a  bar  of  April  29,  1820;  became  a  lawyer  in  Mis- 
iron  8  feet  in  length.  In  this  plight  sissippi ;  and  in  1842  raised  a  company  to 
he  was  thrust  into  the  hold  of  a  vessel  to  fight  in  Texas.  He  settled  at  West  Baton 
be  sent  to  England,  and  in  that  condi-  Rouge,  La.,  in  18-50;  served  in  the  State 
tion   he   was   kept   five  weeks;    but   when    legislature;    was    in    the    Law    School    at 

104 


ALLEN 


Cambridge  in  1854;  and  visited  Europe 
in  1859.  He  took  an  active  part  with  the 
Confederates  in  the  Civil  War,  and  was  at 
one  time  military  governor  at  Jackson, 
Jtliss.  In  the  battle  of  Shiloh  and  at 
Baton  Rouge  he  was  wounded.  He  was 
commissioned  a  brigadier-general  in  18G4, 
but  was  almost  immediately  elected  gov- 
ernor of  Louisiana,  the  duties  of  which 
he  performed  with  great  ability  and  wis- 
dom. At  the  close  of  the  war  he  made  his 
residence  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  where  he 
established  the  Mexican  Times,  which  he 
edited  until  his  death,  April  22,   1866. 

Allen,  Ira,  military  officer;  a  younger 
brother  of  Ethan ;  born  in  Cornwall, 
Conn.,  April  21,  1751.  He  was  an  active 
patriot,  and  took  a  distinguished  part  in 
public  affairs  in  Vermont,  his  adopted 
State,  where  he  served  in  the  legislature, 
and  was  secretary  of  state,  surveyor-gen- 
eral, and  a  member  of  the  council.  He 
was  a  military  leader  in  the  war  for  inde- 
pendence, and  was  one  of  the  commission- 
ers sent  to  Congress  to  oppose  the  claims 
of  neighboring  provinces  to  jurisdiction 
in  Vermont.  He  .effected  an  armistice 
with  the  British  in  Canada  in  1781,  and 
by  so  doing  brought  about  a  settlement 
of  the  controversy  with  New  York.  As 
senior  major-general  of  the  State  militia 
in  1795,  he  went  to  Europe  to  purchase 
arms  for  his  commonwealth,  and  on  his 
way  homeward  with  muskets  and  cannon 
he  was  captured,  taken  to  England,  and 
charged  with  being  an  emissary  of  the 
French,  and  intending  to  supply  the  Irish 
malcontents  with  arms.  After  long  liti- 
gation the  matter  was  settled  in  Allen's 
favor.  He  wrote  a  National  and  Political 
History  of  Vermont,  published  in  London 
in  1798,  and  died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  7, 
1814. 

Allen,,  James  Lane,  author ;  born  in 
Kentucky  in  1849;  was  graduated  at 
Transylvania  University;  taught  in  the 
Kentucky  University,  and  later  became 
Professor  of  Latin  and  Higher  English  in 
Bethany  College,  West  Virginia.  Since 
1886  he  has  been  engaged  in  authorship. 
His  publications  include  Flute  and  Vio- 
lin: The  Blue  Grass  Region,  and  Other 
Sketches  of  Kentucky;  John  Gray,  a 
novel;  The  Kentucky  Cardinal;  After- 
math; A  Summer  in  Arcady;  The  Choir 
Itivisible,  etc. 


Allen,  Joel  Asaph,  zoologist;  born  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  July  19,  1838;  studied 
zoology  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School. 
In  1865-71  he  was  a  member  of  scientific 
expeditions  to  Brazil,  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  Florida;  in  1870-85  was  as- 
sistant in  ornithology  at  the  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology  in  Cambridge.  He 
was  president  of  the  American  Ornitholo- 
gists' Union  in  1883-90,  and  since  1885 
has  been  curator  of  the  department  of 
vertebrate  zoology  in  the  American  Muse- 
um of  Natural  History  in  New  York. 
Professor  Allen  edited  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Nuttall  Ornithological  Club,  and  was  au- 
thor of  Ponographs  of  North  American 
Rodents  (with  Elliott  Coues)  ;  History 
of   Noj-th   American   Pinnipeds,   etc. 

Allen,  Robert,  military  officer ;  born  in 
Ohio,  about  1815;  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1836,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  the  war  with  Mexico.  He  was  a  very 
useful  officer  in  the  Civil  War,  and  at- 
tained the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and 
brevet  major  -  general  of  volunteers.  He 
was  stationed  at  St.  Louis,  where  his  ser- 
vices were  of  great  value  during  the  war. 
At  its  close  he  was  made  assistant  quar- 
termaster-general (1866),  and  afterwards 
chief-quartermaster  of  the  division  of  the 
Pacific.  He  died  in  Switzerland,  Aug.  6, 
1886. 

Allen,  William,  jurist;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia about  1710;  married  a  daughter 
of  Andrew  Hamilton,  a  distinguished  law- 
yer of  Pennsylvania,  whom  he  succeeded 
as  recorder  of  Philadelphia  in  1741.  He 
assisted  Benjamin  West,  the  painter,  in 
his  early  struggles,  and  co-operated  with 
Benjamin  Franklin  in  establishing  the 
College  of  Pennsylvania.  Judge  Allen  was 
chief- justice  of  that  State  from  1750  to 
1774.  A  strong  loyalist,  he  withdrew  to 
England  in  1774.  In  London  he  published 
a  pamphlet  entitled  The  American  Crisis, 
containing  a  plan  for  restoring  American 
dependence  upon  Great  Britain.  He  died 
in  England  in  September,  1780. 

Allen,  William,  educator  and  author; 
born  in  Pittsville,  Mass.,  Jan.  2,  1784; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1802. 
After  entering  the  ministry  and  preaching 
for  some  time  in  western  New  York,  he 
was  elected  a  regent  and  assistant  libra- 
rian of  Harvard  College.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  Dartmouth  College  in  1817-20,  and 


105 


ALLEN— ALLIBONE 


of  Bowdoin  College  in  1820-39.  He  was 
the  author  of  Junius  Unmasked ;  a  supple- 
ment to  Webster's  Dictionary ;  Psalms  and 
Hymns ;  Memoirs  of  Dr.  Eleazer  Wheelock 
and  of  Dr.  John  Codmand;  A  Discourse  at 
the  Close  of  the  Second  Century  of  the 
Settlement  at  Northampton,  Mass.;  Wun- 
nissoo,  or  the  Vale  of  Housatonnuck,  a 
poem;  Christian  Sonnets;  Poems  of  Naza- 
reth and  the  Cross ;  Sacred  Songs;  and  nu- 
merous pamphlets,  and  contributed  bi- 
ographical articles  to  Sprague's  Annals 
of  the  American  Pulpit.  He  also  prepared 
the  first  edition  of  the  American  Biograph- 
ical and  Historical  Dictionary.  He  died 
in  Northampton,  Mass.,  July  16,  1868. 

Allen,  William  Henry,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct.  21,  1784; 
entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in 
April,  1800,  and  sailed  in  the  frigate 
George  Washington  to  Algiers.     He  after- 


WILLIAM    HENRY    ALLKN. 


wards  went  to  the  Mediterranean  in  the 
Philadelphia,  under  Barron;  then  in  the 
John  Adams,  under  Rodgers;  and  in  1804 
as  sailing-master  to  the  Congress.  He  was 
in  the  frigate  Constitution  in  1805 ;  and 
in  1807  he  was  third  lieutenant  of  the 
Chesapeake  when  she  was  attacked  by  the  He  died  in  New  Haven  in  1659 
Leopard.      It   was   Lieutenant   Allen   who        Alliance,      Farmers'.      See 

Alliance. 


made  first  lieutenant  of  the  frigate  United 
States,  under  Decatur.  He  behaved  brave- 
ly in  the  conflict  with  the  Macedonian; 
and  after  her  capture  took  her  safely 
into  New  York  Harbor,  Jan.  1,  1813.  In 
July,  1813,  he  was  promoted  to  master- 
commandant  while  he  was  on  his  voyage 
in  the  brig  Argus,  that  took  W.  H.  Craw- 
ford, American  minister,  to  France.  That 
voyage  ended  in  a  remarkable  and  suc- 
cessful cruise  among  the  British  shipping 
in  British  waters.  After  capturing  and 
destroying  more  than  twenty  British  mer- 
chantmen, his  own  vessel  was  captured , 
and  he  was  mortally  wounded  by  a  round 
shot  (Aug.  14),  and  died  the  next  day  at 
Plymouth,  England,  whither  he  was  con- 
veyed as  a  prisoner. 

Allen,  William  Vincent,  politician; 
born  in  Midway,  0.,  Jan.  28,  1847;  was 
educated  in  the  common  schools  and  Up- 
per Iowa  University;  served  as  a  private 
soldier  in  the  Union  army  during  the 
Civil  War.  In  1869  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  In  1891  he  Avas  elected  judge  of 
the  Ninth  Judicial  District  Court  of  Ne- 
braska, and  in  1892,  United  States  Sena- 
tor from  Nebraska,  as  a  Populist.  In  the 
special  session  of  Congress  in  1893  he  held 
the  floor  with  a  speech  for  fifteen  consecu- 
tive hours,  and  in  1896  was  chairman  of 
the  Populist  National  Convention.  See 
People's  Party;  Populists. 

Allerton,  Isaac,  a  Pilgrim  Father; 
born  in  England  about  1583;  was  the  fifth 
man  who  appended  his  name  to  the  con- 
stitution of  government  signed  in  the 
cabin  of  the  Mayfloioer.  He  survived  the 
terrors  of  the  first  winter  at  Plymouth, 
and  afterwards  became  the  active  agent 
of  the  settlers  in  negotiating  the  purchase 
of  the  domain  from  the  Indians  for  the 
London  merchants  who  furnished  money 
for  the  enterprise.  He  was  a  successful 
trader,  and  became  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  commerce  of  New  England.  He 
finally  made  New  Amsterdam  (now  New 
York)  his  chief  place  of  residence,  and 
traded  principally  in  tobacco.  He  was 
chosen  one  of  the  Council  of  Eight  Men. 


drew  up  the  memorial  of  the  officers  of 
the  Chesapeake  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  urging  the  arrest  and  trial  of  Bar- 
ron for  neglect  of  duty.     In  1809  he  was 


Allibone,  Samuel  Austin, 
pher;  born  in  Philadelphia, 
1816.     He  was   the  author   of 


Farmers' 

bibliogra- 
April  17, 
A   Critical 


106 


ALLISON— ALMAGRO 


Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and 
British  and  American  Authors,  Living 
and  Deceased,  from  the  Earliest  Ac- 
counts to  the  Latter  Half  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century.  This  work  is  in  3 
volumes  loj^al  octavo,  and  exhibits  evi- 
dence of  great  care,  industry,  good  judg- 
ment, most  extensive  research,  and  im- 
mense labor  in  its  preparation.  Dr.  Alli- 
bone  spent  many  years  in  gathering  and 
arranging  his  materials.  The  volumes 
were  published  in  1850,  1870,  and  1871. 
The  work  contains  notices  of  47,000  au- 
thors, with  forty  classified  indexes  of  sub- 
jects. Dr.  Allibone  contributed  articles 
to  the  North  American  Review,  the 
Evangelical  Revieio,  and  other  periodicals, 
and  was  the  author  of  some  religious  con- 
troversial essays.  He  also  privately  print- 
ed and  circulated  a  number  of  tracts. 
He  was  librarian  of  the  Tjcnox  Library  in 
New  York  City  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
Sept.  2,  1889. 

Allison,  William  Boyd,  statesman; 
born  in  Perry,  0.,  March  2,  1829;  was  edu- 
cated at  Alleghany  and  Western  Reserve 
Colleges ;  admitted  to  the  bar  and  prac- 
tised in  Ohio  until  1857,  when  he  removed 
to  Dubuque,  la.  In  1860  he  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Chicago  Convention.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  was  active  in  raising 
troops  for  the  Union  army.  In  1862  he 
was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Republican, 
and  was  re-elected  three  times.  In  1873 
he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate, and  has  since  held  the  seat  by  re- 
elections.  He  has  been  a  conspicuous  can- 
didate for  the  Republican  Presidential 
nomination  several  times,  and  his  name  is 
associated  with  that  of  the  late  Richard 
P.  Bland  (q.  v.)  in  the  history  of  the 
Silver  Act  of  1877-78.  See  Bland  Silver 
Bill. 

Allouez,  Claude  Jean,  one  of  the  earli- 
est French  missionaries  and  explorers  of 
the  country  near  the  Great  Lakes ;  born 
in  1620.  After  laboring  among  the  Ind- 
ians on  the  St.  Lawrence  several  years, 
he  penetrated  the  Western  wilds  and  es- 
tablished a  mission  on  the  western  shores 
of  Lake  Michigan,  where  he  heard  much 
about  the  Mississippi  River,  and  made 
notes  of  what  he  learned  concerning  it. 
Ho  explored  Green  Bay,  and  founded  a 
mission  among  the  Foxes,  Miamis,  and 
other  tribes   there.     A  mission  begun  by 


Marquette  at  Kaskaskia,  111.,  Allouez 
sought  to  make  his  permanent  field  of  la- 
bor; but  when  La  Salle,  the  bitter  oppo- 
nent of  the  Jesuits,  approached  in  1679,  he 
retired.  Returning  to  the  Miamis  on  the 
St.  Joseph's  River,  he  labored  for  a  while, 
and  died,  Aug.  27,  1689.  The  contribu- 
tions of  Father  Allouez  to  the  Jesuit  Re- 
lations are  most  valuable  records  of  the 
ideas  and  manners  of  the  Indians. 

Allston,  Washington,  a  distinguished 
painter;  born  in  Waccamaw,  S.  C,  Nov.  5, 
1779;   was  graduated  at  Harvard  College 


WASHINGTON    ALLSTO.V, 


in  1800;  went  to  Europe  the  next  year  to 
study  art,  and  remained  eight  years  abroad. 
His  numerous  works  of  art  exhibit  great 
power  in  delineating  the  pictures  of  a 
fertile  imagination.  His  skill  as  a  color- 
ist  earned  him  the  title  of  "  The  Ameri- 
can Titian."  He  died  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
July  9,  1843. 

Almagro,  Diego  de,  a  Spanish  con- 
queror of  Peru,  and  principal  associate  of 
Pizarro;  born  about  1464.  Almagro,  Pi- 
zarro,  and  a  priest  named  Luque  under- 
took the  conquest  of  Peru,  and  eflfected  it, 
with  a  small  force,  in  1533.  Almagro  was 
appointed  governor  of  what  is  now  Chile 
in  1534,  extending  his  conquests  into  that 
region  in  1535.  He  and  Pizarro  became 
bitter  enemies.  He  conquered  Cuzco,  the 
ancient    capital    of    Peru.     In    a    decisive 


107 


ALMANACS— AMBASSADOR 


battle  near  that  place,  in  1538,  Almagro 
was  defeated,  made  prisoner,  and  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Pizarro,  in  July,  1538. 
Almagro  was  profligate,  perfidious,  and 
cruel.  His  barbarous  treatment  of  the 
inca  Atahualpa  covered  his  name  and 
fame  with  infamy.  The  inca's  son  rallied 
men,  who  assassinated  Pizarro,  July  26, 
1541,  and  these  were  excuted  by  order  of 
the  Viceroy  of  Peru  in  1542. 

Almanacs,  American.  No  copy  is 
known  to  exist  of  the  almanac  of  1639, 
ihe  first  published  in  America,  calculated 
for  New  England  by  William  Pierce, 
mariner:  another,  the  Boston  Almanac, 
by  John  Foster,  1676.  William  Bradford 
at  PJiiladelphia  published  an  almanac  of 
tAventy  pages,  1685,  commonly  received  as 
the  first  almanac  published  in  the  colo- 
nies ;  a  copy  from  the  Brinl'ey  library  sold 
in  New  York,  March,  1882,  for  $555. 

Alsop,  EicHARD,  a  witty  poet  and  essay- 
ist; born  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  Jan.  23, 
1761.  He  is  best  known  in  literature  as 
the  principal  author  of  a  series  of  bur- 
lesque pieces,  begun  in  1791  and  ended  in 
1805,  entitled,  in  collective  form,  The  Echo. 
They  were  thus  published  in  1807.  Dwight, 
Hopkins,  and  Trumbull  were  associated 
with  Alsop  in  the  production  of  The  Echo, 
Avhich,  from  a  work  provocative  of  mirth, 
became  a  bitter  political  satirist  of  the 
Democratic  party.  He  wrote  a  Monody 
on  the  Death  of  Washinaton,  in  heroic 
verse,  which  was  published  in  1800.  Al- 
sop ranked  among  the  "  Hartford  Wits  " 
at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
died  in  Flatbush,  L.  I.,  Aug.  20,  1815. 

Alta  California,  the  name  formerly  ap- 
plied to  Upper,  or  New,  California,  now 
a  State  in  the  American  Union,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  Lower,  or  Old,  Califor- 
nia, now  a  territory  of  Mexico.  The  name 
California  was  first  applied  solely  to  what 
is  now  known  as  Lower  California. 

Altgeld,  John  Peter,  lawyer;  born  in 
Germany,  Dec.  30,  1847;  was  brought 
to  the  United  States  in  infancy  by  his 
parents,  who  settled  near  Mansfield,  0. ; 
received  a  public  school  education ;  en- 
tered the  Union  army  in  1863,  and  served 
till  the  close  of  the  war.  In  1869  he  was 
admitted  to  the  Missouri  bar;  in  1874 
was  elected  State  attorney  of  Andrew 
county.  Mo. ;  in  the  following  year  removed 
to  Chicago;   in  1886-91  was  judge  of  the 


superior  court  of  that  city;  and  in  1893- 
07  was  governor  of  Illinois.  His  action 
in  pardoning  (June  27,  1893)  Fielden, 
Schwab,  and  Neebe,  who  had  been  im- 
prisoned for  complicity  in  the  Haymarket 
atrocity  by  alleged  anarchists,  excited 
strong  and  general  criticism  (see  Anar- 
chists ;  Socialism).  His  publications 
include  Our  Penal  Machinery  and  its  Vic- 
tims; Live  Questions ;  Oratory,  etc.  He 
died  in  Joliet,  111.,  March  12,  1902. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de,  a  Spanish  conquer- 
or in  America;  born  in  Badajos,  Spain, 
about  1485.  Sailing  from  Spain  to  Cuba, 
in  1518,  he  accompanied  Grijalva  on  his 
exploring  expedition  along  the  Gulf  coasts. 
Alvarado  made  explorations  and  discov- 
eries on  the  coast  of  California,  and  was 
killed  in  a  skirmish  with  the  natives  in 
New  Galicia,  June  4,   1541. 

Alvey,  Richard  Henry,  jurist;  born  in 
St.  Mary's  county,  Md.,  in  March, 
1826;  was  educated  in  St.  Mary's 
College;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1849. 
He  was  elected  a  Pierce  Presidential 
elector  in  1852,  and  a  member  of  the 
Michigan  State  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion in  1867.  He  served  as  chief  judge 
of  the  Fourth  Judicial  Circuit,  and  as 
a  justice  of  the  Michigan  Court  of  Ap- 
pieals  in  1867-83.  and  as  chief-justice  of 
that  court  in  1883-93.  On  Jan.  1,  1896, 
President  Cleveland  appointed  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Venezuelan  Boundary  Com- 
mission (q.  v.). 

Ambassador,  the  title  of  the  highest 
diplomatic  officer.  In  the  days  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  establishment  of  the 
American  Republic  the  officers  who  were 
sent  to  Europe  on  diplomatic  missions 
were  officially  termed  commissioners.  On 
June  1,  1785,  when  Marquis  Carmarthen 
introduced  John  Adams  to  the  King  of 
Great  Britain,  he  designated  the  Ameri- 
can representative  as  "  Ambassador  Ex- 
traordinary from  the  LTnited  States  of 
America  to  the  Court  of  London."  When 
the  American  diplomatic  service  was  per- 
manently organized,  the  title  of  the  high- 
est representative  was  made  "  Envoy  Ex- 
traordinary and  Minister  Plenipotenti- 
ary," subordinate  representatives  being 
given  the  title  of  "  Ministers  "  or  "  Minis- 
ters Resident."  In  1893  Congress  passed 
an  act  providing  that  whenever  a  foreign 
government  elevated  its  representative  at 


108 


AMBRISTER— AMENDMENTS    OF    THE    CONSTITUTION" 


PHILADELPHIA   FIREMEX'S   AMBULANCE. 


Washington  to  the  rank  of  an  ambassador,  Amelia  Island,  an  island  at  the  mouth 
the  United  States  government  would  raise  of  the  St.  Mary  River,  near  the  boundary 
its  representative  to  that  foreign  govern-  betv^'een  Georgia  and  Florida.  In  the  sum- 
ment  to  the  same  rank.  Under  this  law  nier  of  1817  Gregor  McGregor,  styling 
the  American  representatives  to  France,  himself  "  Brigadier-general  of  the  armies 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  Mexico,  and  Russia  of  New  Granada  and  Venezuela,  and  gen- 
have  been  raised  to  the  higher  rank,  and  eral-in-chief  employed  to  liberate  the  prov- 
are  known  officially  as  Ambassadors  Ex-  inces  of  both  the  Floridas,"  commissioned 
traordinary  and  Plenipotentiary.  Ambas-  by  the  supreme  councils  of  Mexico  and 
sadors,  in  addition  to  the  usual  privileges  South  America,  took  possession  of  this 
accorded  representatives  of  foreign  govern-  island.  His  followers  were  a  band  of  ad- 
ments,  have  the  special  one  of  personal  venturers  which  he  had  collected  in 
audience  with  the  head  of  the  State  to  Charleston  and  Savannah;  and  when  he 
which  they  are  accredited.  took  possession  he  proclaimed  a  blockade 

Ambrister.     See  Arbuthnot.  of  St.  Augustine.     In  the  hands  of  these 

Ambulance  Service.  The  benevolent  desperadoes  the  island  was  soon  converted 
work  of  the  Volunteer  Refreshment  Sa-  into  a  resort  of  buccaneering  privateers 
loons  of  Philadelphia  during  1861-65  was    under   the   Spanish-American   flag,   and   a 

depot  for  smuggling  slaves  into  the  United 
States.  Another  similar  establishment  had 
been  set  up  on  Galveston  Island,  off  the 
coast  of  Texas,  under  a  leader  named 
Aury.  This  establishment  was  more  im- 
portant than  that  on  Amelia  Island,  as 
well  on  account  of  numbers  as  for  the 
greater  facilities  afforded  for  smuggling. 
It  was  a  second  Barataria,  and  to  it  some 
of  the  old  privateers  and  smugglers  of 
Lafitte's  band  of  Baratarians  resorted, 
supplemented  by  a  good  work  carried  on  Under  a  secret  act,  passed  in  1811,  and 
wholly  by  the  firemen  of  that  city.  When  first  made  public  in  1817,  the  President 
sick  and  wounded  soldiers  began  to  be  took  the  responsibility  of  suppressing 
brought  to  the  hospitals  in  Philadel-  both  these  establishments.  Aury  had 
phia,  the  medical  department  found  it  joined  McGregor  with  the  Galveston  des- 
difficult  to  procure  pro^jer  vehicles  to  con-  peradoes,  and  their  force  was  formida- 
vey  them  from  the  wharves  to  their  des-  ble.  The  President  sent  Captain  Henly, 
tination.  The  distress  caused  by  delays  in  the  ship  John  Adams,  with  smaller 
and  inconvenient  conveyances  the  sympa-  vessels,  and  a  battalion  of  Charleston 
thetic  firemen  attempted  to  alleviate.  An  artillery  under  Major  Bankhead,  to 
arrangement  was  made  for  the  chief  of  take  possession  of  Amelia  Island, 
the  department  to  announce  the  arrival  McGregor  was  then  at  sea,  leaving 
of  a  transport  by  a  given  signal,  when  the  Aury  in  command  of  the  island.  He  was 
firemen  would  hasten  to  the  landing-place  summoned  to  evacuate  it;  and  on  Dec. 
with  spring-wagons.  Finally,  the  "  North-  23  the  naval  and  military  commanders, 
ern  Liberties  Engine  Company  "  had  a  fine  with  their  forces,  entered  the  place  and 
ambulance  constructed.  More  than  thirty  took  quiet  possession.  Aury  left  it  in 
other  engine  and  hose  companies  followed  February,  and  so  both  nests  of  pirates 
their  example,  and  the  suffering  soldiers  and  smugglers  were  broken  up.  At 
were  conveyed  from  ship  to  hospital  with  the  same  time  there  was  much  sympa- 
the  greatest  tenderness.  These  ambu-  thy  felt  in  the  United  States  for  the 
lances  cost  in  the  aggregate  over  $30,000,  revolted  Spanish  -  American  colonies,  and, 
all  of  which  was  contributed  by  the  fire-  in  spite  of  the  neutrality  laws,  a  num- 
nien.  The  number  of  disabled  soldiers  ber  of  cruisers  were  fitted  out  in  American 
who  were  conveyed  on  these  ambulances  ports  under  their  flags, 
during  the  war  was  estimated  at  more  Amendments  of  the  Constitution.  See 
than  120,000.  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

109 


AMEBICA,  DISCOVEBEBS  OF 


America,  Discoverers  of.  About  the 
year  860  Noddodr,  an  illustrious  sea- 
rover,  driven  by  a  storm,  discovered  Ice- 
land, and  named  it  Snowland.  Not  many 
years  afterwards  Earl  Ingolf,  of  Norway, 
sought  Iceland  as  a  refuge  from  tyranny, 
and  planted  a  colony  there.  Greenland 
Avas  discovered  by  accident.  One  of  the 
early  settlers  in  Iceland  was  driven  west- 
ward on  the  sea  by  a  storm,  and  discovered 
Greenland.  To  that  retreat  Eric  the  Red 
was  compelled  to  fly  from  Iceland,  and, 
finding  it  more  fertile  than  the  latter, 
named  it  Greenland,  made  it  his  place  of 
abode,  and  attracted  other  Northmen 
thither.  Among  Eric's  followers  was  a 
Norwegian,  whose  son  Bjarni,  or  Biarne, 
a  promising  young  man,  trading  between 
Norway  and  Iceland,  and  finding  his  fa- 
ther gone  t with  Eric,  proposed  to  his  crew 
to  go  to  his  parent  in  Greenland.  They 
were  driven  westward,  and,  it  is  believed, 
they  saw  the  American  continent  in  the 
year  986.  The  sons  of  Eric  heard  the 
stories  of  Bjarni,  and  one  of  them,  Lief, 
sailed  in  search  of  the  newly  discovered 
land,  and  found  it.     See  United  States. 

While  there  continues  to  be  much  doubt 
concerning  the  authenticity  of  claims  put 
forth  in  behalf  of  extremely  early  dis- 
coverers, there  are  unquestioned  histori- 
cal records  of  America  for  the  space  of 
over  500  years.  It  was  undoubtedly  dis- 
covered by  Northern  navigators  early 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  the  colony 
of  the  son  of  a  Welsh  prince,  Madoc 
(q.  v.),  probably  landed  on  the  North 
American  continent  about  the  year  1170. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Northmen 
saw  more  than  the  coasts  of  Labrador  and 
New  England — possibly  Newfoundland; 
and  the  landing-place  of  Madoc  is  wholly 
conjectural.  On  Oct.  11,  1492,  Christo- 
pher Columbus  discovered  one  of  the  Ba- 
hama Islands,  east  of  Florida,  but  not  the 
continent.  In  the  summer  of  1498  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  (commissioned  by  King  Henry 
VII.  of  England),  who  sailed  from  Bristol 
in  May  with  two  caravels,  discovered  the 
North  American  continent  at  Labrador. 
He  was  seeking  a  northwest  passage  to 
"  Cathay,"  and,  being  barred  from  the 
Polar  Sea  by  pack-ice,  sailed  southward, 
discovered  Labrador,  and  possibly  went 
along  the  coast  as  f.ar  as  the  Carolinas. 
He  discovered  and  named  Newfoundland, 


and  found  the  treasures  of  codfishes  in 
the  waters  near  it.  On  Aug.  1  the  same 
svunmer  Columbus  discovered  the  con- 
tinent of  South  America,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  River. 

Americus  Vespucius,  a  Florentine,  and 
an  agent  of  the  de'  Medici  family  of  Flor- 
ence, was  in  Spain  when  the  great  discov- 
ery of  Columbus  was  made.  In  May,  1499, 
Vespucius  sailed  from  Spain  with  Alonzo 
de  Ojeda  as  an  adventurer  and  self-consti- 
tuted geographer  for  the  new-found  world. 
They  followed  the  southern  track  of  Co- 
lumbus in  his  third  voyage,  and  olT  the 
coast  of  Surinam,  South  America,  they 
saw  the  mountains  of  the  continent.  That 
v/as  a  year  after  Columbus  first  saw  the 
continent  of  America.  On  his  return,  in 
1500,  Vespucius  gave  an  account  of  the 
voyage  in  a  letter  to  Lorenzo  de'  Medici 
(for  text  of  letter,  see  Americus  Vespu- 
cius). He  made  other  voyages,  and  in  a 
letter  to  Rene,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  written 
in  1504,  he  gave  an  account  of  his  four 
voyages,  in  which  he  erroneously  dated  the 
time  of  his  departure  on  his  first  voyage 
May  29,  1497,  or  a  year  or  more  before 
Columbus  and  Cabot  severally  discovered 
the  conliinent  of  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica. In  1505  a  narrative  of  his  voyages 
to  America  was  published  at  Strasburg, 
entitled  Americus  Vesputius  de  Orbe  Ant- 
arctico  per  Regum  Portugalliae  Pridem 
Juventa.  From  that  publication,  bearing 
the  untrue  date  of  his  first  voyage,  Vespu- 
cius acquired  the  reputation  of  being  the 
first  discoverer  of  America.  Alluding  to 
that  false  date  and  the  statements  under 
it,  the  learned  and  conscientious  Charle- 
voix wrote  that  "  Ojeda,  when  judicially 
interrogated,  gave  the  lie  direct  to  the 
statement."  And  Herrera,  an  early  Span- 
ish historian,  accuses  Vespucius  of  pur- 
posely falsifying  the  date  of  two  of  his 
voyages,  and  of  confounding  one  with  the 
other,  "  in  order  that  he  might  arrogate 
to  himself  the  glory  of  having  discovered 
the  continent."  Finally,  when  Columbus 
was  dead,  and  no  voice  of  accusation  or 
denial  could  escape  his  lips,  the  narra- 
tives of  Vespucius  were  published  at  St. 
Diey,  in  Lorraine,  then,  as  now,  a  German 
frontier  province.  At  that  time  Vespucius 
was  in  correspondence  with  a  learned  Ger- 
man school-master  named  Waldseemfiller 
(W^ood-lake-miller),     who    was    a    corre- 


110 


AMEBICA,    DISCOVEREBS    OF 


spondent  of  the  Academy  of  Cosmography 
at  Strasburg,  founded  by  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine.  Waldseemiiller  suggested  to  the 
members  of  that  institution,  under  whose 
auspices  the  narrative  of  Vespucius  had 
been  published,  the  name  of  "  America " 
for  the  Western  Continent,  in  compliment 
to  the  reputed  discoverer.  This  proposi- 
tion was  published,  with  approval,  in  a 
work  entitled  Cosmographice  Rudimenta, 
in  1507.  It  is  believed  that  this  action 
was  taken  at  the  request  or  suggestion 
of  Vespucius;  at  any  rate,  he  is  respon- 
sible for  the  fraud,  for  it  was  published 
seven  years  before  the  death  of  the  Flor- 
entine, and  he  never  repudiated  it.  "  Con- 
sidering the  intimacy  of  the  two  parties," 
says  the  learned  Viscount  Santerem, 
" there  is  no  doubt  that  the  geographer 
was  guided  by  the  navigator  in  what  he 
did."  The  name  of  America  was  given  in 
honor  of  Americus  Vespucius,  for  whom 
a  fraudulent  claim  to  be  the  first  dis- 
coverer of  the  Western  Hemisphere  was 
made,  and  it  was  done  at  the  suggestion 
of  a  German  school-master.  Both  Colum- 
bus and  Cabot  were  deprived  of  the  right- 
ful honor.    See  America,  Discovery  of. 

In  1499,  Vincent  Yaiiez  Pinzon  sailed 
from  Palos  with  his  brother  and  four 
caravels,  and,  reaching  the  coast  of  South 
America,  discovered  the  great  river 
Amazon  in  the  spring  of  1500.  Before 
Pinzon's  return,  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral, 
sent  by  Emanuel,  King  of  Portugal,  while 
on  an  exploring  expedition  discovered  Bra- 
zil, and  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name 
of  the  crown  of  Portugal.  It  was  within 
the  territory  donated  by  the  Pope  to  the 
Spanish  monarchs.  (See  Alexander  VI.) 
A  friendly  arrangement  was  made,  and 
it  was  ultimately  agreed  that  the  King  of 
Portugal  should  hold  all  the  country  he 
had  discovered  from  the  river  Amazon  to 
the  river  Platte.  On  the  announcement  of 
the  discoveries  of  Cabot  in  the  Northwest, 
King  Emanuel  of  Portugal  sent  Gaspard 
Cortereal,  a  skilful  navigator,  with  two 
caravels  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  towards 
the  same  region.  He  saw  Labrador,  and 
possibly  Newfoundland,  and  went  up  the 
coast  almost  to  Hudson  Bay;  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  he  discovered  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence.  In  1504  Columbus,  in  a 
fourth  voyage  to  America,  sailed  with  four 
caravels   through  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,   in 

1 


search  of  a  passage  to  India,  and  discov- 
ered Central  America.  In  1506  John 
Denys,  of  Honfleur,  explored  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence.  Two  years  later  Thomas 
Aubert,  a  pilot  of  Dieppe,  visited,  it  is 
believed,  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  and 
gave  it  its  name.  He  carried  some  of  the 
natives  with  him  to  France.  In  1518  the 
Baron  de  Leri,  preparatory  to  the  settle- 
ment of  a  colony  on  Sable  Island,  left 
some  cattle  there,  whose  progeny,  four- 
score years  afterwards,  gave  food  to  un-  • 
fortunate  persons  left  on  the  island  by  the 
Marquis  de  la  Roche.  Six  years  later, 
Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  an  old  Spanish  noble- 
man, sailed  from  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West 
Indies,  of  which  he  was  governor,  in  search 
of  an  island  containing  a  fabled  fountain 
of  youth.  He  did  not  find  the  spring,  but 
discovered  a  beautiful  land  covered  with 
exquisite  flowers,  and  named  it  Florida. 
In  1520  Lticas  Vasquez  de  Allyon,  a 
wealthy  Spaniard,  who  owned  mines  in 
Santo  Domingo,  voyaged  northwesterly 
from  that  island,  and  discovered  the  coast 
of  South  Carolina.  Meanwhile  the  Span- 
iards had  been  pushing  discoveries  west- 
ward from  Hispaniola,  or  Santo  Domingo. 
Ojeda  also  discovered  Central  America. 
In  1513  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  discovered 
the  Pacific  Ocean  from  a  mountain  sum- 
mit on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Francisco 
Fernandez  de  Cordova  discovered  Mexico 
in  1517.  Pamphila  de  Narvaez  and  Fer- 
dinand de  Soto  traversed  the  country  bor- 
dering on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  former 
in  1528,  and  the  latter  in  1539-41.  In  the 
latter  year  De  Soto  discovered  and  crossed 
the  Mississippi,  and  penetrated  the  coun- 
try beyond.  This  was  the  last  attempt  of 
the  Spaniards  to  make  discoveries  in 
North  x^merica  before  the  English  ap- 
peared upon  the  same  field.  , 

It  is  claimed  for  Giovanni  da  Ver- 
razano,  a  Florentine  navigator,  that  he 
sailed  from  France  with  four  ships,  in 
1524,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  and  that 
lie  traversed  the  shores  of  America  from 
Florida  to  Nova  Scotia.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  entered  Delaware  Bay  and  the  har- 
bors of  New  York,  Newport,  and  Boston, 
and  named  the  country  he  had  discovered 
New  France.  Jacques  Cartier  discovered 
the  gulf  and  river  St.  Lawrence  in  1534, 
and,  revisiting  them  the  next  year,  gave 
them  that  name,  because  the  day  when  he 
11 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OF 

entered  their  waters  was  dedicated  to  St.  and  explored  by  French  traders  and  Jesuit 
Lawrence.  In  1576  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  missionaries  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
went  to  Greenland  and  Labrador,  and  So  early  as  1G40  the  former  penetrated  the 
coasting  northward  discovered  the  bay  that  western  wilds  from  Quebec.  Father  Al- 
bears  his  name.  Huguenot  adventurers  louez  set  up  a  cross  and  the  arms  of 
from  South  Carolina,  floating  on  the  France  westward  of  the  lakes  in  1665. 
ocean  helplessly,  were  picked  up,  taken  to  Father  Marquette,  another  Jesuit  mis- 
England,  and  by  the  stories  which  they  sionary,  pushed  farther  in  1673,  and  dis- 
told  of  the  beautiful  land  they  had  left,  covered  the  upper  waters  of  the  Missis- 
caused  Queen  Elizabeth  to  encourage  voy-  sippi.  Father  Hennepin,  who  accom- 
ages  of  discovery  in  that  direction.  Sir  panied  La  Salle,  explored  the  Mississippi 
Walter  Raleigh,  favored  by  the  Queen,  sent  in  a  canoe  from  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois 
two  ships,  commanded  by  Philip  Amidas  River,  northward,  in  1680,  and  discovered 
and  Arthur  Barlow,  to  the  middle  regions  and  named  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  A 
of  the  North  American  coast.  They  dis-  little  later  Robert  Cavelier  de  la  Salle, 
covered  Roanoke  Island  and  the  main  an  enterprising  young  trader,  penetrated 
near,  and  in  honor  of  the  unmarried  Queen  to  the  Mississippi,  and  afterwards  visited 
the  whole  country  was  named  Virginia,  the  coast  of  Texas  from  the  sea  and  plant- 
In  1602  Bartholomew  Gosnold,  sailing  ed  the  germ  of  a  colony  in  Louisiana.  See 
from  England  directly  across  the  Atlantic,  Americus  Vespucius;  Cabeza  de  Vaca; 
discovered  the  continent  on  May  14,  near  Cabot,  Sebastian;  Colonies;  Columbus, 
Nahant,  Mass.,  and  sailing  southward  also  Christopher;  Verrazano,  Giovanni  da; 
discovered  a  long,  sandy  point,  which  he  Hui  Shen;  Vasquez  de  Allyon. 
named  Cape  Cod,  because  of  the  great  America,  Disco\tery  of.  Ferdinand 
number  of  that  fish  found  there.  He  also  Columbus  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  the 
discovered  Nantucket,  Martha's  Vineyard,  great  admiral  by  Doua  Beatrix  Hen- 
and  the  Elizabeth  Islands.  In  1604  Mar-  riques;  was  born  in  Cordova  Aug.  15, 
tin  Pring  discovered  the  coast  of  Maine.  1488;  became  a  page  to  Queen  Isabella 
Again  the  French  had  turned  their  at-  in  1498;  accompanied  his  father  on  the 
tention  to  North  America.  M.  de  Chastes,  fourth  voyage,  in  1502-4;  passed  the  lat- 
governor  of  Dieppe,  having  received  a  ter  part  of  his  life  principally  in  literary 
charter  from  the  King  of  France  to  form  pursuits  and  in  accumulating  a  large  li- 
a  settlement  in  New  France,  he  employed  brary;  and  died  in  Seville  July  12,  1539. 
Samuel  Champlain,  an  eminent  navigator.  Among  his  writings  was  a  biography  of 
to  explore  that  region.  He  sailed  from  his  father,  which  was  published  in  Italian, 
Honfleur  in  March,  1603,  went  up  the  St.  in  Venice,  in  1571.  The  original  of  this 
Lawrence  in  May  to  Quebec,  and,  return-  work,  in  Spanish,  together  with  that  of 
ing  to  France,  found  De  Chastes  dead,  and  his  history  of  the  Indies,  is  lost,  although 
the  concession  granted  to  him  trans-  a  considerable  portion  of  his  collection  of 
ferred  by  the  King  to  Pierre  du  Gast,  volumes  in  print  and  manuscript  is  still 
Sieur  de  Monts,  a  wealthy  Huguenot,  who  preserved  in  the  Seville  Cathedral.  Be- 
accompanied  Champlain  on  another  voy-  cause  of  the  loss  of  the  original  manu- 
age  to  the  St.  Lawrence  the  next  year,  script  of  the  biography,  its  authenticity 
In  1608  he  went  up  the  St.  Lawrence  has  been  called  into  question,  and  has 
again;  and  the  following  summer,  while  formed  the  basis  for  quite  a  spirited  con- 
engaged  in  war  with  some  Hurons  and  troversy  by  historians,  with  the  result  that 
Algonquins  against  the  Iroquois,  he  dis-  the  general  belief  in  the  genuineness  of 
covered  the  lake  that  bears  his  name  in  the  biography  has  not  been  seriously 
northern  New  York.  At  the  same  time,  shaken.  If  it  did  not  settle  the  doubt, 
Henry  Hudson,  a  navigator  in  the  employ  the  controversy  had  the  effect  of  call- 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  en-  ing  a  larger  degree  of  attention  to  the 
tered  the  harbor  of  New  York  (Septem-  biography  than  it  would  have  had  other- 
ber,    1609)    and   ascended   the   river   that    wise. 

bears  his  name  as  far  as  Albany.  The  In  this  biography  Ferdinand  gave  a  nar- 
region  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  upper  rative  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  his 
valley  of  the  Mississippi  were  discovered    father,  which  is  herewith  reproduced: 

112 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OF 


All  the  conditions  which  the  admiral 
demanded  being  conceded  by  their  Catholic 
majesties,  he  set  out  from  Granada  on  the 
21st  May  1492,  for  Palos,  where  he  was 
to  fit  out  the  ships  for  his  intended  ex- 
pedition. That  town  was  bound  to  serve 
the  crown  for  three  months  with  two  cara- 
vels, which  were  ordered  to  be  given  to 
Columbus;  and  he  fitted  out  these  and  a 
third  vessel  with  all  care  and  diligence. 
The  ship  in  which  he  personally  embarked 
was  called  the  St.  Mary;  the  second  vessel 
named  the  Pinta,  was  commanded  by 
Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon ;  and  the  third 
named  the  Nina,  which  had  square  sails, 
was  under  the  command  of  Vincent  Yanez 
Pinzon,  the  brother  of  Alonzo,  both  of 
whom  were  inhabitants  of  Palos.  Being 
furnished  with  all  necessaries,  and  having 
90  men  to  navigate  the  three  vessels,  Co- 
lumbus set  sail  from  Palos  on  the  3d  of 
August  1492,  shaping  his  course  directly 
for  the  Canaries. 

During  this  voyage,  and  indeed  in  all 
the  four  voyages  which  he  made  from 
Spain  to  the  West  Indies,  the  admiral 
was  very  careful  to  keep  an  exact  journal 
of  every  occurrence  which  took  place;  al- 
ways specifying  what  winds  blew,  how  far 
he  sailed  with  each  particular  wind,  what 
currents  were  found,  and  every  thing  that 
was  seen  by  the  way,  whether  birds,  fishes, 
or  any  other  thing.  Although  to  note  all 
these  particulars  with  a  minute  relation  of 
every  thing  that  happened,  shewing  what 
impressions  and  effects  answered  to  the 
course  and  aspect  of  the  stars,  and  the 
differences  between  the  seas  which  he  sail- 
ed and  those  of  our  countries,  might  all 
be  useful;  yet  as  I  conceive  that  the  rela- 
tion of  these  particulars  might  now  be 
tiresome  to  the  reader,  I  shall  only  give 
an  account  of  what  appears  to  me  neces- 
sary and  convenient  to  be  known. 

On  Saturday  the  4th  of  August,  the 
next  day  after  sailing  from  Palos,  the 
rudder  of  the  Pinta  broke  loose.  The 
admiral  strongly  suspected  that  this  was 
occasioned  by  the  contrivance  of  the 
master  on  purpose  to  avoid  proceeding  on 
the  voyage,  which  he  had  endeavoured  to 
do  before  they  left  Spain,  and  he  therefore 
ranged  up  along  side  of  the  disabled  ves- 
sel to  give  every  assistance  in  his  power, 
but  the  wind  blew  so  hard  that  he  was 
unable  to  afford  any  aid.  Pinzon,  how- 
I.— H  1 


ever,  being  an  experienced  seaman,  soon 
made  a  temporary  repair  by  means  of 
ropes,  and  they  proceeded  on  their  voyage. 
But  on  the  following  Tuesday,  the  weather 
becoming  rough  and  boisterous,  the  fast- 
enings gave  way,  and  the  squadron  was 
obliged  to  lay  to  for  some  time  to  renew 
the  repairs.  From  this  misfortune  of 
twice  breaking  the  rudder,  a  superstitious 
person  might  have  foreboded  the  future 
disobedience  of  Pinzon  to  the  admiral;  as 
through  his  malice  the  Pinta  twice  sep- 
arated from  the  squadron,  as  shall  be 
afterwards  related.  Having  applied  the 
best  remedy  they  could  to  the  disabled 
state  of  the  rudder,  the  squadron  contin- 
ued its  voyage,  and  came  in  sight  of  the 
Canaries  at  day-break  of  Thursday  the  9th 
of  August;  but  owing  to  contrary  winds, 
they  were  unable  to  come  to  anchor  at 
Gran  Canaria  until  the  12th.  The  ad- 
miral left  Pinzon  at  Gran  Canaria  to  en- 
deavour to  procure  another  vessel  instead 
of  that  which  was  disabled,  and  went  him- 
self with  the  Nina  on  the  same  errand  to 
Gomera. 

The  admiral  arrived  at  Gomera  on 
Sunday  the  12th  of  August,  and  sent  a 
boat  on  shore  to  inquire  if  any  vessel 
could  be  procured  there  for  his  purpose. 
The  boat  returned  next  morning,  and 
brought  intelligence  that  no  vessel  was 
then  at  that  island,  but  that  Dona  Beatrix 
de  Bobadilla,  the  propriatrix  of  the  island, 
was  then  at  Gran  Canaria  in  a  hired  ves- 
sel of  40  tons  belonging  to  one  Gradeuna 
of  Seville,  which  would  probably  suit  his 
purpose  and  might  perhaps  be  got.  He 
therefore  determined  to  await  the  arrival 
of  that  vessel  at  Gomera,  believing  that 
Pinzon  might  have  secured  a  vessel  for 
himself  at  Gran  Canaria,  if  he  had  not 
been  able  to  repair  his  own.  After  wait- 
ing two  days,  he  dispatched  one  of  his  peo- 
ple in  a  bark  which  was  bound  from  Go- 
mera to  Gran  Canaria,  to  acquaint  Pinzon 
where  he  lay,  and  to  assist  him  in  repair- 
ing and  fixing  the  rudder.  Having  wait- 
ed a  considerable  time  for  an  answer  to  his 
letter,  he  sailed  with  the  two  vessels  from 
Gomera  on  the  23d  of  August  for  Gran 
Canaria,  and  fell  in  with  the  bark  on  the 
following  day,  which  had  been  detained 
all  that  time  on  its  voyage  by  contrary 
winds.  He  now  took  his  man  from  the 
bark,  and  sailing  in  the  night  past  the  isl- 
13 


AMEHICA,    DISCOVERY    OF 


and  of  Teneriffe,  the  people  were  much  as- 
tonished at  observing  flames  bursting  out 
of  the  lofty  mountain  called  El  Pico,  or  the 
Peak  of  Teneriff"e.  On  this  occasion  the 
admiral  was  at  great  pains  to  explain  the 
nature  of  this  phenomenon  to  the  people, 
by  instancing  the  example  of  Etna  and 
several  other  known  volcanoes. 

Passing  by  Teneriffe,  they  arrived  at 
Gran  Canaria  on  Saturday  the  25th  Au- 
gust; and  found  that  Pinzon  had  only  got 
in  there  the  day  before.  From  him  the 
admiral  was  informed  that  Dona  Beatrix 
had  sailed  for  Gomera  on  the  20th  with 
the  vessel  which  he  was  so  anxious  to  ob- 
tain. His  officers  were  much  troubled  at 
the  disappointment;  but  he,  who  always 
endeavoured  to  make  the  best  of  every  oc- 
currence, observed  to  them  that  since  it 
had  not  pleased  God  that  they  should  get 
this  vessel  it  was  perhaps  better  for  them; 
as  they  might  have  encountered  much  op- 
position in  pressing  it  into  the  service,  and 
might  have  lost  a  great  deal  of  time  in 
shipping  and  unshipping  the  goods. 
Wherefore,  lest  he  might  again  miss  it 
if  he  returned  to  Gomera,  he  resolved  to 
make  a  new  rudder  for  the  Pinta  at  Gran 
Canaria,  and  ordered  the  square  sails  of 
the  Nina  to  be  changed  to  round  ones, 
like  those  of  the  other  two  vessels,  that 
she  might  be  able  to  accompany  them  with 
less  danger  and  agitation. 

The  vessels  being  all  refitted,  the  ad- 
miral weighed  anchor  from  Gran  Canaria 
on  Saturday  the  first  of  September,  and 
arrived  next  day  at  Gomera,  where  four 
days  were  employed  in  completing  their 
stores  of  provisions  and  of  wood  and  wa- 
ter. On  the  morning  of  Thursday  the 
sixth  of  September,  1492,  the  admiral  took 
his  departure  from  Gomera,  and  com- 
menced his  great  undertaking  by  standing 
directly  westwards,  but  made  very  slow 
progress  at  first  on  account  of  calms.  On 
Sunday  the  ninth  of  September,  about 
day-break,  they  were  nine  leagues  west 
of  the  island  of  Ferro.  Now  losing  sight 
of  land  and  stretching  out  into  utterly 
unknown  seas,  many  of  the  people  express- 
ed their  anxiety  and  fear  that  it  might 
be  long  before  they  should  see  land  again ; 
but  the  admiral  used  every  endeavour  to 
comfort  them  with  the  assurance  of  soon 
finding  the  land  he  was  in  search  of,  and 
raised  their  hopes  of  acquiring  wealth  and 

1 


honour  by  the  discovery.  To  lessen  the 
fear  which  they  entertained  of  the  length 
of  way  they  had  to  sail,  he  gave  out  that 
they  had  only  proceeded  fifteen  leagues 
that  day,  when  the  actual  distance  sailed 
was  eighteen;  and  to  induce  the  people 
to  believe  that  they  were  not  so  far  from 
Spain  as  they  really  were,  he  resolved  to 
keep  considerably  short  in  his  reckoning 
during  the  whole  voyage,  though  he  care- 
fully recorded  the  true  reckoning  every 
day  in  private. 

On  VVednesday  the  twelfth  September, 
having  got  to  about  150  leagues  west  of 
Ferro,  they  discovered  a  large  trunk  of  a 
tree,  sufficient  to  have  been  the  mast  of  a 
vessel  of  120  tons,  and  which  seemed  to 
have  been  a  long  time  in  the  water.  At 
this  distance  from  Ferro,  and  for  some- 
what farther  on,  the  current  was  found 
to  set  strongly  to  the  north-east.  Next 
day,  when  they  had  run  fifty  leagues 
farther  westwards,  the  needle  was  observed 
to  vary  half  a  point  to  the  eastward  of 
north,  and  next  morning  the  variation 
was  a  whole  point  east.  This  variation  of 
the  compass  had  never  been  before  ob- 
served, and  therefore  the  admiral  was 
much  surprised  at  the  phenomenon,  and 
concluded  that  the  needle  did  not  actually 
point  towards  the  polar  star,  but  to  some 
other  fixed  point.  Three  days  afterwards, 
when  almost  100  leagues  farther  west,  he 
was  still  more  astonished  at  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  variation;  for  having  ob- 
served the  needle  to  vary  a  whole  point 
to  the  eastwards  at  night,  it  pointed  di- 
rectly northwards  in  the  morning.  On  the 
night  of  Saturday  the  fifteenth  of  Sep- 
tember, being  then  almost  300  leagues  west 
of  Ferro,  they  saw  a  prodigious  flash  of 
light,  or  fire  ball,  drop  from  the  sky  into 
the  sea,  at  four  or  five  leagues  distance 
from  the  ships  towards  the  south-west. 
The  weather  was  then  quite  fair  and  se- 
rene like  April,  the  sea  perfectly  calm, 
the  wind  favourable  from  the  north-east, 
and  the  current  setting  to  the  north-east. 
The  people  in  the  Nina  told  the  ad- 
miral that  they  had  seen  the  day  before  a 
heron,  and  another  bird  which  they  called 
Raho-de-junco.  These  were  the  first  birds 
which  had  been  seen  during  the  voyage, 
and  were  considered  as  indications  of  ap- 
proaching land.  But  they  were  more 
agreeably  surprised  next  day,  Sunday  six- 
14 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OE 


teenth  September,  by  seeing  great  abun- 
dance of  yellowish  green  sea  weeds,  which 
appeared  as  if  newly  washed  away  from 
some  rock  or  island.  Next  day  the  sea 
weed  was  seen  in  much  greater  quantity, 
and  a  small  live  lobster  was  observed 
among  the  weeds:  from  this  circumstance 
many  affirmed  that  they  were  certainly 
near  the  land.  The  sea  water  was  after- 
wards noticed  to  be  only  half  so  salt  as 
before;  and  great  numbers  of  tunny  fish 
were  seen  swimming  about,  some  of  which 
came  so  near  the  vessel,  that  one  was  kill- 
ed by  a  bearded  iron.  Being  now  360 
leagues  west  from  Ferro,  another  of  the 
birds  called  rabo-de-junco  was  seen.  On 
Tuesday  the  eighteenth  September,  Mar- 
tin Alonzo  Pinzon,  who  had  gone  a-head 
of  the  admiral  in  the  Pinta,  which  was 
an  excellent  sailer,  lay  to  for  the  admiral 
to  come  up,  and  told  him  that  he  had 
seen  a  great  number  of  birds  fly  away 
westwards,  for  which  reason  he  was  in 
great  hopes  to  see  land  that  night;  Pin- 
zon even  thought  that  he  saw  land  that 
night  about  fifteen  leagues  distant  to  the 
northwards,  which  appeared  very  black 
and  covered  with  clouds.  All  the  people 
would  have  persuaded  the  admiral  to  try 
for  land  in  that  direction;  but,  being 
certainly  assured  that  it  was  not  land,  and 
having  not  yet  reached  the  distance  at 
which  he  expected  to  find  the  land,  he 
would  not  consent  to  lose  time  in  alter- 
ing his  course  in  that  direction.  But 
as  the  wind  now  freshened,  he  gave  or- 
ders to  take  in  the  top-sails  at  night, 
having  now  sailed  eleven  days  before 
the  wind  due  westwards  with  all  their 
sails  up. 

All  the  people  in  the  squadron  being 
utterly  unacquainted  with  the  seas  they 
now  traversed,  fearful  of  their  danger  at 
such  unusual  distance  from  any  relief, 
and  seeing  nothing  around  but  sky  and 
water,  began  to  mutter  among  themselves, 
and  anxiously  observed  every  appearance. 
On  the  nineteenth  September,  a  kind  of 
sea-gull  called  Alcatraz  flew  over  the  ad- 
miral's ship,  and  several  others  were  seen 
in  the  afternoon  of  that  day,  and  as  the 
admiral  conceived  that  these  birds  would 
not  fly  far  from  land,  he  entertained  hopes 
of  soon  seeing  what  he  was  in  quest  of. 
He  therefore  ordered  a  line  of  200  fathoms 
to  be  tried,  but  without  finding  any  bot- 

11 


tom.  The  current  was  now  found  to  set 
to  the  south-west. 

On  Thursday  the  twentieth  of  Septem- 
ber, two  alcatrazes  came  near  the  ship 
about  two  hours  before  noon,  and  soon 
afterwards  a  third.  On  this  day  likewise 
they  took  a  bird  resembling  a  heron,  of  a 
black  colour  with  a  white  tuft  on  its  head, 
and  having  webbed  feet  like  a  duck. 
Abundance  of  weeds  were  seen  floating  in 
the  sea,  and  one  small  fish  was  taken. 
About  evening  three  land  birds  settled  on 
the  rigging  of  the  ship  and  began  to 
sing.  These  flew  away  at  day-break, 
which  was  considered  a  strong  indication 
of  approaching  the  land,  as  these  little 
birds  could  not  have  come  from  any  far 
distant  country;  whereas  the  other  large 
fowls,  being  used  to  water,  might  much 
better  go  far  from  land.  The  same  day  an 
alcatraz  was  seen. 

Friday  the  twenty-first  another  alca- 
traz and  a  rabo-de-junco  were  seen,  and 
vast  quantities  of  weeds  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  carry  towards  the  north.  These  ap- 
pearances were  sometimes  a  comfort  to 
the  people,  giving  them  hopes  of  nearing 
the  wished-for  land ;  while  at  other  times 
the  weeds  were  so  thick  as  in  some  meas- 
ure to  impede  the  progress  of  the  vessels, 
and  to  occasion  terror  lest  what  is  fabu- 
lously reported  of  St.  Amaro  in  the  frozen 
sea,  might  happen  to  them,  that  they 
might  be  so  enveloped  in  the  weeds  as 
to  be  unable  to  move  backwards  or  for- 
wards; wherefore  they  steered  away  from 
those  shoals  of  weeds  as  much  as  they 
could. 

Next  day,  being  Saturday  the  twenty- 
second  September,  they  saw  a  whale  and 
several  small  birds.  The  wind  now  veered 
to  the  south-west,  sometimes  more  and 
sometimes  less  to  the  westwards;  and 
though  this  was  adverse  to  the  direction 
of  their  proposed  voyage,  the  admiral  to 
comfort  the  people  alleged  that  this  was 
a  favourable  circumstance;  because  among 
other  causes  of  fear,  they  had  formerly 
said  they  should  never  have  a  wind  to 
carry  them  back  to  Spain,  as  it  had  always 
blown  from  the  east  ever  since  they  left 
Ferro.  They  still  continued,  however,  to 
murmur,  alleging  that  this  southwest 
wind  was  by  no  means  a  settled  one,  and 
as  it  never  blew  strong  enough  to  swell 
the  sea,  it  would  not  serve  to  carry  them 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OE 


back  again  through  so  great  an  extent  of 
sea  as  they  had  now  passed  over.  In  spite 
of  every  argument  used  by  the  admiral, 
assuring  them  that  the  alterations  in  the 
wind  were  occasioned  by  the  vicinity  of 
the  land,  by  which  likewise  the  waves  were 
prevented  from  rising  to  any  height,  they 
were  still  dissatisfied  and  terrified. 

On  Sunday  the  twenty-third  of  Septem- 
ber, a  brisk  gale  sprung  up  W.  N.  W.  with 
a  rolling  sea,  such  as  the  people  had 
wished  for.  Three  hours  before  noon  a 
turtle-dove  was  observed  to  fly  over  the 
ship;  towards  evening  an  alcatraz,  a  river 
fowl,  and  several  white  birds  were  seen 
Hying  about,  and  some  crabs  were  ob- 
served among  the  weeds.  Next  day  an- 
other alcatraz  was  seen  and  several  small 
birds  which  came  from  the  west.  Num- 
bers of  small  fishes  were  seen  swimming 
about,  some  of  which  were  struck  with 
harpoons,  as  they  would  not  bite  at  the 
hook. 

The  more  that  the  tokens  mentioned 
above  were  observed,  and  foimd  not  to  be 
followed  by  the  so  anxiously  looked-for 
land,  the  more  the  people  became  fearful 
of  the  event,  and  entered  into  cabals 
a,gainst  the  admiral,  who  they  said  was 
desirous  to  make  himself  a  great  lord  at 
the  expense  of  their  danger.  They  repre- 
sented that  they  had  already  sufficiently 
performed  their  duty  in  adventuring  far- 
ther from  land  and  all  possibility  of  suc- 
cour than  had  ever  been  done  before,  and 
that  they  ought  not  to  proceed  on  the 
voyage  to  their  manifest  destruction.  If 
they  did  they  would  soon  have  reason  to 
repent  their  temerity,  as  provisions  would 
soon  fall  short,  the  ships  were  already 
faulty  and  would  soon  fail,  and  it  would 
be  extremely  difficult  to  get  back  so  far 
as  they  had  already  gone.  None  could 
condemn  them  in  their  own  opinion  for 
now  turning  back,  but  all  must  consider 
them  as  brave  men  for  having  gone  upon 
such  an  enterprize  and  venturing  so  far. 
That  the  admiral  was  a  foreigner  who  had 
no  favour  at  court;  and  as  so  many  wise 
and  learned  men  had  already  condemned 
his  opinions  and  enterprize  as  visionary 
and  impossible,  there  would  be  none  to 
favour  or  defend  him,  and  they  were  sure 
to  find  more  credit  if  they  accused  him  of 
ignorance  and  mismanagement  than  he 
would  do,  whatsoever  he  might  now  say 


Jfor  himself  against  them.  Some  even  pro- 
ceeded so  far  as  to  propose,  in  case  the 
affmiral  should  refuse  to  acquiesce  in  their 
proposals,  that  they  might  make  a  short 
end  of  all  disputes  by  throwing  him  over- 
board; after ;  which  they  could  give  out 
that  he  had  fallen  over  while  making  his 
observations,  and  no  one  would  ever  think 
of  inquiring  into  the  truth.  They  thus 
went  on  day  after  day,  muttering,  com- 
plaining, and  consulting  together;  and 
though  the  admiral  was  not  fully  aware 
of  the  extent  of  their  cabals,  he  was  not 
entirely  without  apprehensions  of  their  in- 
constancy in  the  present  trying  situa- 
tion, and  of  their  evil  intentions  towards 
him.  He  therefore  exerted  himself  to  the 
utmost  to  quiet  their  apprehensions  and 
to  suppress  their  evil  design,  sometimes 
using  fair  words,  and  at  other  times  fully 
resolved  to  expose  his  life  rather  than 
abandon  the  enterprize;  he  put  them  in 
mind  of  the  due  pimishment  they  would 
subject  themselves  to  if  they  obstriicted 
the  voyage.  To  confirm  their  hopes,  he  re- 
capitulated all  the  favourable  signs  and 
indications  which  had  been  lately  ob- 
served, assuring  them  that  they  might 
soon  expect  to  see  the  land.  But  they, 
who  were  ever  attentive  to  these  tokens, 
thought  every  hour  a  year  in  their  anxiety 
to  see  the  wished-for  land. 

On  Tuesday  the  twenty-fifth  of  Septem- 
ber near  sun-set,  as  the  admiral  was  dis- 
coursing with  Pinzon,  whose  ship  was  then 
very  near,  Pinzon  suddenly  called  out, 
"  Land !  land,  Sir !  let  not  my  good  news 
miscarry;"  and  pointed  out  a  large  mass 
in  the  S.  W.  about  twenty-five  leagues  dis- 
tant, which  seemed  very  like  an  island. 
This  was  so  pleasing  to  the  people,  that 
they  returned  thanks  to  God  for  the  pleas- 
ing discovery;  and,  although  the  admiral 
was  by  no  means  satisfied  of  the  truth 
of  Pinzon's  observation,  yet  to  please  the 
men,  and  that  they  might  not  obstruct  the 
voyage,  he  altered  his  course  and  stood  in 
that  direction  a  great  part  of  the  night. 
Next  morning,  the  twenty-sixth,  they  had 
the  mortification  to  find  the  supposed  land 
was  only  composed  of  clovids,  which  often 
put  on  the  appearance  of  distant  land; 
and,  to  their  great  dissatisfaction,  the 
stems  of  the  ships  were  again  turned  di- 
rectly westwards,  as  they  always  were  un- 
less  when    hindered    by   the   wind.      Con- 

16 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OF 


tinuing  their  course,  and  still  attentively 
watching  for  signs  of  land,  they  saw  this 
day  an  alcatraz,  a  rabo-de-junco,  and  other 
birds  as  formerly  mentioned. 

On  Thursday  the  twenty-seventh  of  Sep- 
tember, they  saw  another  alcatraz  coming 
from  the  westwards  and  flying  towards  the 
east,  and  great  numbers  of  fish  were  seen 
with  gilt  backs,  one  of  which  they  struck 
with  a  harpoon.  A  rabo-de-junco  likewise 
fiew  past;  the  currents  for  some  of  the 
last  days  were  not  so  regular  as  before, 
but  changed  with  the  tide,  and  the  weeds 
were  not  nearly  so  abundant. 

On  Friday  the  twenty-eighth  all  the 
vessels  took  some  of  the  fishes  with  gilt 
backs;  and  on  Saturday  the  twenty-ninth 
they  saw  a  rabo-de-junco,  which,  although 
a  sea-fowl,  never  rests  on  the  waves,  but 
always  flies  in  the  air,  pursuing  the  alca- 
trazes.  Many  of  these  birds  are  said  to 
frequent  the  Cape  de  Verd  islands.  They 
soon  afterwards  saw  two  other  alcatrazes, 
and  great  numbers  of  flying-fishes.  These 
last  are  about  a  span  long,  and  have  two 
little  membranous  wings  like  those  of  a 
bat,  by  means  of  which  they  fly  about  a 
pike-length  high  from  the  water  and  a 
musket-shot  in  length,  and  sometimes 
drop  upon  the  ships.  In  the  afternoon  of 
this  day  they  saw  abundance  of  weeds 
lying  in  length  north  and  south,  and  three 
alcatrazes  pursued  by  a  rabo-de-junco. 

On  the  morning  of  Sunday  the  thirtieth 
of  September  four  rabo-de-juncos  came  to 
the  ship;  and  from  so  many  of  them  com- 
ing together  it  was  thought  the  land  could 
not  be  far  distant,  especially  as  four 
alcatrazes  followed  soon  afterwards.  Great 
quantities  of  weeds  Avere  seen  in  a  line 
stretching  from  W.  N.  W.  to  E.  N.  E.  and 
a  great  number  of  the  fishes  which  are 
called  Emperadores,  which  have  a  very 
hard  skin  and  are  not  fit  to  eat.  Though 
the  admiral  paid  every  attention  to  these 
indications,  he  never  neglected  those  in 
the  heavens,  and  carefully  observed  the 
course  of  the  stars.  He  was  now  greatly 
surprised  to  notice  at  this  time  that  the 
Charles  ivain  or  Ursa  Major  constellation 
appeared  at  night  in  the  west,  and  was 
N.  E.  in  the  morning:  He  thence  conclud- 
ed that  their  whole  night's  course  was  only 
nine  hours,  or  so  many  parts  in  twenty- 
four  of  a  great  circle;  and  this  he  ob- 
served   to    be    the    case    regularly    every 

1 


night.  It  was  likewise  noticed  that  the 
compass  varied  a  whole  point  to  the  N.  W. 
at  nightfall,  and  came  due  north  every 
morning  at  day-break.  As  this  unheard-of 
circumstance  confounded  and  perplexed 
the  pilots,  who  apprehended  danger  in 
these  strange  regions  and  at  such  an  un- 
usual distance  from  home,  the  admiral  en- 
deavoured to  calm  their  fears  by  assign- 
ing a  cause  for  this  wonderful  phenome- 
non :  He  alleged  that  it  was  occasioned 
by  the  polar  star  making  a  circuit  round 
the  pole,  by  which  they  were  not  a  little 
satisfied. 

Soon  after  sunrise  on  Monday  the  first 
of  October,  an  alcatraz  came  to  the  ship, 
and  two  more  about  ten  in  the  morning, 
and  long  streams  of  weeds  floated  from 
east  to  west.  That  morning  the  pilot  of 
the  admiral's  ship  said  that  they  were  now 
578  leagues  west  from  the  island  of  Ferro. 
In  his  public  account  the  admiral  said 
they  were  584  leagues  to  the  west;  but  in 
his  private  journal  he  made  the  real  dis- 
tance 707  leagues,  or  129  more  than  was 
reckoned  by  the  pilot.  The  other  two  ships 
differed  much  in  their  computation  from 
each  other  and  from  the  admiral's  pilot. 
I'he  pilot  of  Nina  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
Wednesday  following  said  they  had  only 
sailed  540  leagues,  and  the  pilot  of  the 
Pinta  reckoned  634.  Thus  they  were  all 
much  short  of  the  truth ;  but  the  admiral 
winked  at  the  gross  mistake,  that  the  men, 
not  thinking  themselves  so  far  from  home, 
might  be  the  less  dejected. 

The  next  day,  being  Tuesday  the  second 
of  October,  they  saw  abundance  of  fish, 
caught  one  small  tunny,  and  saw  a  white 
bird  with  many  other  small  birds,  and  the 
weeds  appeared  much  withered  and  almost 
fallen  to  powder.  Next  day,  seeing  no 
birds,  they  suspected  that  they  had  passed 
between  some  islands  on  both  hands,  and 
had  slipped  through  without  seeing  them, 
as  they  guessed  that  the  many  birds  which 
they  had  seen  might  have  been  passing 
from  one  island  to  another.  On  this  ac- 
count they  were  very  earnest  to  have  the 
course  altered  one  way  or  the  other,  in 
quest  of  these  imaginary  lands.  But  the 
admiral,  unwilling  to  lose  the  advantage 
of  the  fair  wind  which  carried  him  due 
west,  which  he  accounted  his  surest  course, 
and  afraid  to  lessen  his  reputation  by 
deviating  from  course  to  course  in  search 
17 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OF 


of  land,  which  he  always  affirmed  that  he 
well  knew  where  to  find,  refused  his  con- 
sent to  any  change.  On  this  the  people 
were  again  ready  to  mutiny,  and  resumed 
tlieir  murmurs  and  cabals  against  him. 
But  it  pleased  God  to  aid  his  authority  by 
fresh  indications  of  land. 

On  Thursday  tlie  fourth  of  October,  in 
the  afternoon,  above  forty  sparrows  to- 
gether and  two  alcatrazes  flew  so  near  the 
ship  that  a  seaman  killed  one  of  them 
with  a  stone.  Several  other  birds  were 
seen  at  this  time,  and  many  llying-fish 
fell  into  the  ships.  Next  day  there  came 
a  rabo-de-junco  and  an  alcatraz  from  the 
westwards,  and  many  sparrows  were  seen. 
About  sunrise  on  Sunday  the  seventh  of 
October,  some  signs  of  land  appeared  to 
the  westwards,  but  being  imperfect  no 
person  would  mention  the  circumstance. 
This  was  owing  to  fear  of  losing  the  re- 
ward of  thirty  crowns  yearly  for  life 
which  had  been  promised  by  their  Catho- 
lic majesties  to  whoever  should  first  dis- 
cover land ;  and  to  prevent  them  from 
calling  out  land,  land,  at  every  turn  with- 
out just  cause,  it  was  made  a  condition 
that  whoever  said  he  saw  land  should 
lose  the  reward  if  it  were  not  made  out 
in  three  days,  even  if  he  should  afterwards 
actually  prove  the  first  discoverer.  All  on 
board  the  admiral's  ship  being  thvis  fore- 
warned, were  exceedingly  careful  not  to 
cry  out  land  \ipon  uncertain  tokens ;  but 
those  in  the  Nina,  which  sailed  better  and 
always  kept  ahead,  believing  that  they 
certainly  saw  land,  fired  a  gun  and  hung 
out  their  colours  in  token  of  the  discov- 
ery; but  the  farther  they  sailed  the  more 
the  joyful  appearance  lessened,  till  at  last 
it  vanished  away.  But  they  soon  after- 
wards derived  much  comfort  by  observing 
great  fiights  of  large  fowl  and  others  of 
small  birds  going  from  the  west  towards 
the  south-west. 

Being  now  at  a  vast  distance  from 
Spain,  and  well  assured  that  such  small 
birds  would  not  go  far  from  land,  the 
admiral  now  altered  his  course  from  due 
west  which  had  been  hitherto,  and  steered 
to  the  south-west.  He  assigned  as  a  rea- 
son for  now  changing  his  course,  although 
deviating  little  from  his  original  design, 
that  he  followed  the  example  of  the  Portu- 
guese, who  had  discovered  most  of  their 
islands  by  attending  to  the  flight  of  birds, 

1 


and  because  these  they  now  saw  flew  al- 
most uniformly  in  one  direction.  He  said 
likewise  that  he  had  always  expected  to 
discover  land  about  the  situation  in  which 
they  now  were,  having  often  told  them 
that  he  must  not  look  to  find  land  until 
they  should  get  750  leagues  to  the  west- 
wards of  the  Canaries;  about  which  dis- 
tance he  expected  to  fall  in  with  Hispani- 
ola  which  he  then  called  Cipango;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  he  would  have 
found  this  island  by  his  direct  course,  if 
it  had  not  been  that  it  was  reported  to 
extend  from  north  to  south.  Owing  there- 
fore to  his  not  having  inclined  more  to  the 
south  he  had  missed  that  and  others  of 
the  Caribbee  islands  whither  those  birds 
were  now  bending  their  flight,  and  which 
had  been  for  some  time  upon  his  larboard 
hand.  It  was  from  being  so  near  the  land 
that  they  continually  saw  such  great  num- 
bers of  birds;  and  on  Monday  the  eighth 
of  October  twelve  singing  birds  of  various 
colours  came  to  the  ship,  and  after  flying 
round  it  for  a  short  time  held  on  their 
way.  Many  other  birds  were  seen  from 
the  ship  flying  towards  the  south-west, 
and  that  same  night  great  numbers  ,of 
large  fowl  were  seen,  and  flocks  of  small 
birds  proceeding  from  the  northwards,  and 
all  going  to  the  south-west.  In  the  morn- 
ing a  jay  was  seen,  with  an  alcatraz,  sev- 
eral ducks,  and  many  small  birds,  all  fly- 
ing the  same  way  with  the  others,  and  the 
air  was  perceived  to  be  fresh  and  odor- 
iferous as  it  is  at  Seville  in  the  month  of 
April.  But  the  people  were  now  so  eager 
to  see  land  and  had  been  so  often  dis- 
appointed, that  they  ceased  to  give  faith 
to  these  continual  indications;  insomuch 
that  on  Wednesday  the  tenth,  although 
abundance  of  birds  were  continually  pass- 
ing both  by  day  and  night,  they  never 
ceased  to  complain.  The  admiral  upraided 
their  want  of  resolution,  and  declared  that 
they  must  perish  in  their  endeavours  to 
discover  the  Indies,  for  which  he  and  they 
had  been  sent  out  by  their  Catholic  maj- 
esties. 

It  would  have  been  impossible  for  the 
admiral  to  have  much  longer  withstood  the 
numbers  which  now  opposed  him;  but  it 
pleased  God  that,  in  the  afternoon  of 
Thursday  the  eleventh  of  October,  such 
manifest  tokens  of  being  near  the  land 
appeared,  that  the  men  took  courage  and 
18 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OF 


rejoiced  at  their  good  fortune  as  much  as 
they  had  been  before  distressed.  From  the 
admiral's  ships  a  green  rush  was  seen  to 
float  past,  and  one  of  those  green  fish 
which  never  go  far  from  the  rocks.  The 
people  in  the  Pinta  saw  a  cane  and  a  staff 
in  the  water,  and  took  up  another  staff 
very  curiously  carved,  and  a  small  board, 
and  great  plenty  of  weeds  were  seen  which 
seemed  to  have  been  recently  torn  from 
the  rocks.  Those  of  the  Nina,  besides 
similar  signs  of  land,  saw  a  branch  of  a 
thorn  full  of  red  berries,  which  seemed 
to  have  been  newly  torn  from  the  tree. 
From  all  these  indications  the  admiral 
was  convinced  that  he  now  drew  near  to 
the  land,  and  after  the  evening  prayers 
he  made  a  speech  to  the  men,  in  which  he 
reminded  them  of  the  mercy  of  God  in  hav- 
ing brought  them  so  long  a  voyage  with 
such  favourable  weather,  and  in  comfort- 
ing them  with  so  many  tokens  of  a  suc- 
cessful issue  to  their  enterprize,  which 
were  now  every  day  becoming  plainer  and 
less  equivocal.  He  besought  them  to  be 
exceedingly  watchful  during  the  night,  as 
they  well  knew  that  in  the  first  article 
of  the  instructions  which  he  had  given 
to  all  the  three  ships  before  leaving  the 
Canaries,  they  were  enjoined,  when  they 
should  have  sailed  700  leagues  west  with- 
out discovering  land,  to  lay  to  every  night, 
from  midnight  till  daybreak.  And,  as  he 
had  very  confident  hopes  of  discovering 
land  that  night,  he  required  every  one  to 
keep  watch  at  their  quarters;  and,  be- 
sides the  gratuity  of  thirty  crowns  a-year 
for  life,  which  had  been  graciously  prom- 
ised by  their  sovereigns  to  him  that  first 
saw  the  land,  he  engaged  to  give  the  fort- 
unate discoverer  a  velvet  doublet  from 
himself. 

After  this,  as  the  admiral  was  in  the 
cabin  about  ten  o'clock  at  night,  he  saw 
a  light  on  the  shore;  but  it  was  so  un- 
steady that  he  could  not  certainly  affirm 
that  it  came  from  land.  He  called  to  one 
Peter  Gutierres  and  desired  him  to  try  if 
he  could  perceive  the  same  light,  who  said 
he  did;  but  one  Roderick  Sanchez  of 
Segovia,  on  being  desired  to  look  the  same 
way  could  not  see  it,  because  he  was  not 
up  time  enough,  as  neither  the  admiral 
nor  Gutierres  could  see  it  again  above  once 
or  twice  for  a  short  space,  which  made 
them  judge  it  to  proceed  from  a  candle  or 

1 


torch  belonging  to  some  fisherman  or 
traveller,  who  lifted  it  up  occasionally 
and  lowered  it  again,  or  perhaps  from 
people  going  from  one  house  to  another, 
because  it  appeared  and  vanished  again  so 
suddenly.  Being  now  very  much  on  their 
guard,  they  still  held  on  their  course  until 
about  two  in  the  morning  of  Friday  the 
twelfth  of  October,  when  the  Pinta  which 
was  always  far  a-head,  owing  to  her  su- 
perior sailing,  made  the  signal  of  seeing 
land,  which  was  first  discovered  by  Rod- 
erick de  Triana  at  about  two  leagues  from 
the  ship.  But  the  thirty  crowns  a-year 
were  afterwards  granted  to  the  admiral, 
who  had  seen  the  light  in  the  midst  of 
darkness,  a  type  of  the  spiritual  light 
which  he  was  the  happy  means  of  spread- 
ing in  these  dark  regions  of  error.  Being 
now  so  near  land,  all  the  ships  lay  to; 
every  one  thinking  it  long  till  daylight, 
that  they  might  enjoy  the  sight  they  had 
so  long  and  anxiously  desired. 

When  daylight  appeared,  the  newly  dis- 
covered land  was  perceived  to  consist  of  a 
flat  island  fifteen  leagues  in  length,  with- 
out any  hills,  all  covered  with  trees,  and 
having  a  great  lake  in  the  middle.  The 
island  was  inhabited  by  great  abundance 
of  people,  who  ran  down  to  the  shore 
filled  with  wonder  and  admiration  at  the 
sight  of  the  ships,  which  they  conceived 
to  be  some  unknown  animals.  The  Chris- 
tians were  not  less  curious  to  know  what 
kind  of  people  they  had  fallen  in  with,  and 
the  curiosity  on  both  sides  was  soon  satis- 
fied, as  the  ships  soon  came  to  anchor.  The 
admiral  went  on  shore  with  his  boat  well 
armed,  and  having  the  royal  standard  of 
Castile  and  Leon  displayed,  accompanied 
by  the  commanders  of  the  other  two  ves- 
sels, each  in  his  own  boat,  carrying  the 
particular  colours  which  had  been  allotted 
for  the  enterprize,  which  were  white  with 
a  green  cross  and  the  letter  F.  on  one 
side  and  on  the  other  the  names  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  crowned. 

The  whole  company  kneeled  on  the  shore 
and  kissed  the  ground  for  joy,  returning 
God  thanks  for  the  great  mercy  they  had 
experienced  during  their  long  voyage 
through  seas  hitherto  unpassed,  and  their 
now  happy  discovery  of  an  unknown  land. 
The  admiral  then  stood  up,  and  took 
formal  possession  in  the  usual  words  for 
their  Catholic  majesties  of  this  island,  to 
19 


AMERICA,    DISCOVERY    OF 

which  he  gave  the  name  of  St.   Salvador,  edge.     Neither    had    they    any    knowledge 

All   the   Christians   present   admitted   Co-  of    iron;    as    their    javelins    were    merely 

lumbus   to   the   authority   and   dignity  of  constructed  of  wood,   having  their  points 

admiral  and  viceroy,  pursuant  to  the  com-  hardened   in   the   fire,   and   armed  with   a 

mission    which    he    had    received    to    that  piece   of    fish-bone.        Some   of   them   had 

effect,  and  all  made  oath  to  obey  him  as  scars   of   wounds   on   different   parts,   and 

the     legitimate     representative     of     their  being  asked  by  signs  how  these  had  been 

Catholic  majesties,  with  such  expressions  got,   they  answered  by  signs   that   people 

of    joy    and    acknowledgement    as    became  from    other    islands    came    to    take    them 

their   mighty    success;    and   they   all    im-  away,   and   that   they   had   been   wounded 

plored    his    forgiveness    of    the    many    af-  in  their  own  defence.     They  seemed  inge- 

fronts  he  had  received  from  them  through  nious   and   of   a   voluble   tongue;    as   they 

their  fears  and  want  of  confidence.     Num-  readily  repeated  such  words  as  they  once 

bers  of  the  Indians  or  natives  of  the  isl-  heard.      There   were   no   kind   of    animals 

and  were  present  at  these  ceremonies;  and  among  them  excepting  parrots,  which  they 

perceiving  them  to  be  peaceable,  quiet,  and  carried    to    barter    with    the    Christians 

simple    people,    the    admiral    distributed  among  the  articles  already  mentioned,  and 

several   presents   among   them.      To    some  in  this  trade  they  continued  on  board  the 

he  gave  red  caps,  and  to  others  strings  of  ships  till  night,  when  they  all  returned  to 

glass  beads,  Avhich  they  hung  about  their  the  shore. 

necks,  and  various  other  things  of  small  In  the  morning  of  the  next  day,  being 

value,  which   they  valued  as  if  they  had  the  13th  of  October,  many  of  the  natives 

been  jewels  of  high  price.  returned  on  board  the  ships  in  their  boats 

After  the  ceremonies,  the  admiral  went  or  canoes,  which  were  all  of  one  piece  hol- 

off  in  his  boat,  and  the  Indians  followed  lowed  like  a  tray  from  the  trunk  of  a  tree ; 

him    even    to    the    ships,    some   by    swim-  some  of  these  were  so  large  as  to  contain 

ming    and    others    in    their    canoes,    car-  forty  or  forty-five  men,  while  others  were 

rying  parrots,  clews  of  spun  cotton  yarn,  so  small  as  only  to  hold  one  person,  with 

javelins,   and  other   such   trifling  articles,  many    intermediate    sizes    between    these 

to  barter  for  glass  beads,  bells,  and  other  extremes.     These  they  worked  along  with 

things  of  small  value.     Like  people  in  the  paddles  formed  like  a  baker's  peel  or  the 

original  simplicity  of  nature,  they  were  all  implement  Avhich  is  used  in  dressing  hemp, 

naked,  and  even  a  woman  who  was  among  These  oars  or  paddles  were  not  fixed  by 

them   was   entirely   destitute   of   clothing,  pins  to  the  sides  of  the  canoes  like  ours; 

Most  of  them  were  young,  seemingly  not  but  were  dipped  into  the  water  and  pulled 

above    thirty    years    of    age ;    of    a    good  backwards  as  if  digging.     Their  canoes  are 

stature,  with  very  thick  black  lank  hair,  so  light  and  artfully  constructed,  that  if 

mostly  cut  short  above  their  ears,  though  overset  they  soon  turn  them  right  again 

some  had  it  down  to  their  shoulders,  tied  by   swimming;    and   they   empty   out   the 

up   with   a   string   about   their   head   like  water  by  throwing  them  from  side  to  side 

women's  tresses.     Their  countenances  were  like    a    weaver's    shuttle,    and   when   half 

mild    and    agreeable    and    their    features  emptied  they  lade  out  the  rest  with  dried 

good;   but  their  foreheads  were  too  high,  calabashes   cut  in  two,  which  they  carry 

which   gave   them   rather   a   wild   appear-  for  that  purpose. 

ance.  They  were  of  a  middle  stature.  This  second  day  the  natives,  as  said 
plump,  and  well  shaped,  but  of  an  olive  before,  brought  various  articles  to  barter 
complexion,  like  the  inhabitants  of  the  for  such  small  things  as  they  could  pro- 
Canaries,  or  sunburnt  peasants.  Some  cure  in  exchange.  Jewels  or  metals  of  any 
were  painted  with  black,  others  "with  kind  were  not  seen  among  them,  except 
white,  and  others  again  with  red;  in  some  some  small  plates  of  gold  which  hung 
the  whole  body  was  painted,  in  others  only  from  their  nostrils:  and  on  being  ques- 
the  face,  and  some  only  the  nose  and  eyes,  tioned  from  whence  they  procured  the  gold. 
They  had  no  weapons  like  those  of  Europe,  they  answered  by  signs  that  they  had  it 
neither  had  they  any  knowledge  of  such;  from  the  south,  where  there  was  a  king 
for  when  our  people  shewed  them  a  naked  who  possessed  abundance  of  pieces  and 
sword,  they  ignorantly  grasped  it  by  the  vessels  of  gold;  and  they  made  our  people 

120 


AMERICAN    ARCHIVES— AMERICAN    LEARNED    SOCIETIES 


to  understand  that  there  were  many  other 
islands  and  large  countries  to  the  south 
and  south-west.  They  were  very  covetous  to 
get  possession  of  any  thing  which  belonged 
to  the  Christians,  and  being  themselves 
very  poor,  with  nothing  of  value  to  give 
in  exchange,  as  soon  as  they  got  on  board, 
if  they  could  lay  hold  of  any  thing  which 
struck  their  fancy,  though  it  were  only  a 
piece  of  a  broken  glazed  earthen  dish  or 
porringer,  they  leaped  with  it  into  the  sea 
and  swam  on  shore  with  their  prize.  If 
they  brought  any  thing  on  board  they 
would  barter  it  for  any  thing  whatever 
belonging  to  our  people,  even  for  a  piece 
of  broken  glass;  insomuch  that  some  gave 
sixteen  large  clews  of  well  spun  cotton 
yarn,  weighing  twenty  -  five  pounds,  for 
three  small  pieces  of  Portuguese  brass 
coin  not  worth  a  farthing.  Their  liber- 
ality in  dealing  did  not  proceed  from  their 
putting  any  great  value  on  the  things 
themselves  which  they  received  from  our 
people  in  return,  but  because  they  valued 
them  as  belonging  to  the  Christians,  whom 
they  believed  certainly  to  have  come  down 
from  Heaven,  and  they  therefore  earnestly 
desired  to  have  something  from  them  as  a 
memorial.  In  this  manner  all  this  day 
was  spent,  and  the  islanders  as  before 
went  all  on  shore  at  night. 

American  Archives.  See  Fokce, 
Petek. 

American  Association,  The.  On  Oct. 
20,  1774,  the  first  Continental  Congress 
adopted  a  "  non-importation,  non-consump- 
tion, and  non-exportation  agreement,"  ap- 
plied to  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  the  West 
Indies,  and  Madeira,  by  which  the  inhabi- 
tants of  all  the  colonies  were  bound  to 
act  in  good  faith  as  those  of  certain  cities 
and  towns  had  already  done,  under  the 
penalty  of  the  displeasure  of  faithful  ones. 
The  agreement  was  embodied  in  fourteen 
articles,  and  was  to  go  into  effect  on  the 
1st  of  December  next  ensuing.  In  the  sec- 
ond article,  the  Congress  struck  a  blow  at 
slavery,  in  the  name  of  their  constitu- 
ents, declaring  that,  after  the  1st  day  of 
December  next  ensuing,  they  would  neither 
import  nor  purchase  any  slave  imported 
after  that  date,  and  they  would  in  no 
way  be  concerned  in  or  abet  the  slave- 
trade.  Committees  were  to  be  appointed 
in  every  county,  city,  and  town  to  enforce 
compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  associa- 


121 


tion.  They  also  resolved  that  they  would 
hold  no  commercial  intercourse  with  any 
colony  in  North  America  that  did  not 
accede  to  these  terms,  or  that  should 
thereafter  violate  them,  but  hold  such 
recusants  as  enemies  to  their  common 
country.  The  several  articles  of  the  asso- 
ciation were  adopted  unanimously,  except 
the  one  concerning  exportations.  The 
South  Carolinians  objected  to  it,  because 
it  would  operate  unequally,  and  insisted 
upon  rice  being  exempted  from  the  re- 
quirement concerning  non  -  exportation. 
When  the  article  was  adopted,  all  but  two 
of  the  South  Carolina  delegation  seceded. 
Gadsden  and  another,  in  the  spirit  of 
Henry,  declared  that  they  were  not  "  South 
Carolinians,"  but  "  Americans."  The  se- 
ceders  were  brought  back,  and  signed  the 
articles  of  association  after  a  compromise 
was  agreed  to,  which  allowed  their  colony 
to  bear  no  part  of  the  burden  of  sacrifice 
imposed  by  the  association.  Short  letters 
were  addressed  to  the  colonies  of  St.  John 
( now  Prince  Edward's ) ,  Nova  Scotia, 
Georgia,  and  the  two  Floridas,  asking 
them  to  join  the  association.  Measures 
were  taken  in  various  colonies  for  en- 
forcing the  observance  of  the  American 
Association.  Philadelphia  set  the  exam- 
ple ( Nov.  22 ) .  New  York  followed  ( Nov. 
23 ) .  Other  provinces  took  measures  to  the 
same  effect. 

American  Bible  Society.  See  Bible 
Society. 

American  Colonization  Society.  See 
CoLoxizATioN  Society,  American. 

American  Learned  Societies,  most  of 
which  are  located  or  have  branches  in 
New  York  City : 

AcTUARiAi,  Society  of  America. — Organized 
in  1889  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  actu- 
arial science.     Membership,  130. 

Alaska  Geographical  Society. — Organized 
1898.     Membership,  1,200. 

American  Academy  of  Medicine. — Present 
membership,    834. 

A:vrERicAN  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science. — Founded  1889.     Members,  2,100. 

A:\iERicAN  Antiquarian  Society. — Domestic 
membership   restricted   to   140. 

American  Asiatic  Association.  —  To  pro- 
mote the  trade  and  commercial  interests 
of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  Asia 
and  Oceanica.     Membership,  260. 

American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
t.ient  of  Science. — Chartered  in  1874,  be- 
ing  a  continuation  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Geologists  and  Naturalists,  or- 
lanized  in  1840.     Membership,  3,000. 


AMERICAN    LEARNED    SOCIETIES 


American  Bar  Association. — Each  State  is  Ami-:rican  Physical  Society. 

represented    by    one    vice-president.      Mem-  American     Psychological     Association.  — 

bership  about  1,700.     Organized  in  1878.  Organized    in    1892    for    "  the   advancement 

American    Chemical    Society. — The    society        of  psychology."      Membership,    120. 

was  organized  in  1876.     Membership,  1,897.  American   Public   Health   Association. 

American   Climatological   Association.  American    Social    Science    Association. — 
American   Dermatological   Association.  New   York   City.      Founded   in   1865. 

American    Dialect    Society. — Organized    in  American    Society    of    Civil    Engineers. — 

1889.     Membership  about  325.  New  Yorlt  City.     Has  2,500  members.      In- 

American   Economic   Association. — The  ob-        stituted  in  1852. 

jects  are  the  study  of  economic  sciences.  American   Society  of  Curio  Collectors. — 
American    Electro-Therapeutic    Society.  Membership,  300. 

American    Entomological    Society. — Organ-  American    Society    of    Mechanical    Engi- 

ized    1859 ;    incorporated    1862.       Member-        neers. — Total  membership,  2,064.     The  so- 

ship,    140.  ciety  was  chartered  in  1881. 

American    Fisheries    Society.  —  Organized  American   Society  of  Naturalists. 

December,    1870.      Membership   about   275.  American    Statistical    Association. — Mem- 


American  Folk-lore  Society. — Organized  in 

1888.     Publishes  American  Folk-lore. 
American  Forestry  Association. 
American  Genealogical  Society. — Object — 


bership,   556.     Organized  1839. 
American   Surgical  Association. 
Archaeological      Institute      of      America 

(New   Yorlv   Society). 


The   promotion   of   the   study   of   American    Association    of   American    Anatomists. 


Member- 


genealogy. 

American      Geographical 

York    City.      Organized    in    1852 
ship,  1,200. 

American  Gynecological  Society. 

American  Historical  Association. — Found- 
ed 1884  :  incorporated  by  Congress  1889. 
Membership,  1,600. 


AssociATifiN  OF  American   Physicians. 
Society.  —  New    Astronomical    and    Physical    Society    of 
America. 

Botanical  Society  of  Ajlerica. 

Geological  Society  of  America. — Society 
founded  in  1888.  Has  245  fellows.  Pub- 
lishes Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society 
of  America. 


American   Institute  of  Architects.  —  The    National   Academy    of   Design. — New    York 


institute  has  26  chapters,  399  fellows,  300 
associates,  58  corresponding  and  69  hon- 
orary  members.     Organized  in  1857. 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers.— New   York.      Membership,    1,350. 

American  Institute  op  Homoeopathy. — 
Organized  in  1844,  and  is  the  oldest  med- 
ical organization  in  the  United  States. 
Membership,  2,000. 


City.  Founded  in  1826.  92  National 
Academicians  :  70  associates. 

National  Academy  of  Sciences. — The  acad- 
emy, incorporated  by  act  of  Congress. 
March  3.  1863.  There  are  at  present  89 
members  and  28  foreign  associates. 

National  Arts  Club. — New  York  City.  Or- 
ganized in  1899. 

National  Dental   Association. 


American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers.  N.4.tional  Educational  Association. — Wash- 

— Membership,  2,897.     Organized  in  1871.  ington,    D.    C.      2,800    active    members   and 

American   Laryngological   Association.  about  10,000  associates. 

American   Library  Association. — Organized  National     Geographic     Society. — Washing- 

in   1876.      Incorporated   in   1879.      Member-  ton,   D.   C.      It   publishes   a  monthly   maga- 


ship  over  1,000. 
American     Mathematical     Society. 

York  City.     Membership,  375.     The  society 

publishes  two  Journals. 
American   Medical   Association. — Publishes 

a  weekly  journal.     Membership  over  11,000. 
American    Microscopical    Society. — Organ- 
ized 1878  ;  incorporated  1891.     Membership, 

300. 
American  Neurological  AssociATioN.^New 

York  City. 
American  Numismatic  and  Archaeological 

Society. — Membership,  300. 
American  Opthalmological  Society. 


zine.     There  are  2.500   members. 
New    National    Sculpture     Society. — New    York 
City.     Incorporated  in  1896. 

New  York  Zoological  Society. — The  Zoo- 
logical Park  is  under  the  management  of 
the  society. 

Scientific  Alliance  of  New  Y'ork. — The 
Council  of  the  Scientific  Alliance  is  com- 
posed of  three  delegates  from  each  of  eight 
scientific  societies. 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricult- 
ural Science. 

Society  of  American  Artists. — New  Y'ork 
City.     Annual  exhibition.     Members.  110. 


American     Oriental     Society.  —  Organized    Society    of    American    Authors. — Object — 


Sept.  7,  1842,  for  the  cultivation  of  learn- 
ing in  the  Asiatic,  African,  and  Polynesian 
languages.     Membership,  380. 

American  Ornithologists'  Union. — Mem- 
bership,  734. 

American  Orthopedic  Association. 

American  Philological  Association.  — 
Membership  about  550. 

American  Philosophical  Society. — Phila- 
delphia.      Object  —  For    promoting    useful 


The  advancement  of  the  interests  and  the 
protection  of  the  rights  of  authors.  Mem- 
bership over  400. 

Society  of  Chemical  Industry  (New  York 
Section). — Membership,   871. 

Society  of  Naval  Architects  and  Marine 
Engineers. — Object — The  promotion  of  the 
art  of  ship-building,  commercial  and  naval. 
Incorporated.  Headquarters,  New  Y'ork 
City.     Membership.   775. 


knowledge.      Founded    in    1743.      Has    200    University    Extension    Society. — Philadel- 


resident  and  300  non-resident  members. 


122 


phia.     Incorporated  in  1892. 


AMEBICAN    NATIONAL    ARBITRATION    BOARD 

American        National        Arbitration  States;  Cornelius  N.  Bliss,  former  Secre- 

Board.       The    industrial    department    of  tary    of    the    Interior;     Charles    Francis 

the    National    Civic    Federation    called    a  Adams,    president    of    the    Union    Pacific 

conference  of  the  leading  capitalists   and  Railroad;     Bishop    Henry    C.    Potter,    of 

labor    representatives    to    meet    in    New  New   York;    Archbishop   John   Ireland,   of 

York    City    Dec.    16,    1901.      On    Dee.    17  St.   Paul;   Charles  W.   Eliot,  president  of 

the    meeting    appointed    thirty-six    repre-  Harvard  University;   Franklin  Macveagh, 

sentative  men  to  form  a  permanent  board  wholesale   grocer,    of   Chicago;    James    H. 

of  arbitration.     The  men  selected  were:  Eckels,  bank  president,  Chicago;   John  J. 

To     Represent     CapiiaL  —  Marcus     A.  McCook,   lawyer;    John   G.   Milburn,   law- 

Hanna,    United    States    Senator;    Charles  yer,    of    Buffalo;    Charles    J.    Bonaparte, 

M.  Schwab,  president  of  the  United  States  of    Baltimore;     Oscar    S.    Strauss,    mer- 

Steel  Corporation;   S.  R.  Callaway,  presi-  chant,    and    former    minister    to    Turkey; 

dent   of   the   American   Locomotive    Com-  secretary    of    the    commission,    Ralph    M. 

pany;   Charles  A.  Moore,  president  of  the  Easley,    of    the    National    Civic    Federa- 

American  Tool  Company;  John  D.  Rocke-  tion. 

feller,  Jr.,  Standard  Oil  Company;   H.  H.  The  committee  met  Dec.   18  and  passed 
Vreeland,    president    of    the    Metropolitan  the  following  resolutions : 
Street   Railway ;    Lewis   Nixon,   owner   of  That    this    committee    shall    be    known 
the  Crescent  Ship-yard,  Elizabethport,  N.  as  the  Industrial  Department  of  the  Na- 
J. ;   James  A.  Chambers,  president  of  the  tional  Civic  Federation. 
American      Glass      Company,      Pittsburg;  That    the    scope    and    province    of    this 
William  H.  Pf abler,  president  of  the  Na-  department  shall  be  to  do  what  may  seem 
tional    Stove   Manufacturers'    Association,  best   to   promote   industrial   peace;    to   be 
Philadelphia;     Julius     Kruttschnitt,     as-  helpful   in   establishing   rightful   relations 
sistant  to   the   president  of  the   Southern  between    employers    and    workers;    by    its 
Paciiic  Railroad ;   E.   P.   Ripley,  president  good    offices    to    endeavor    to    obviate    and 
of   the   Atchison,    Topeka,    and    Santa   Fe  prevent  strikes  and  lockouts;  to  aid  in  re- 
Railroad;  Marcus  M.  Marks,  president  of  newing  industrial  relations  where  a  rupt- 
the  National  Association  of  Clothing  Man-  ure  has  occurred, 
ufacturers.  That    at    all    times    representatives    of 

To  Represent  Labor. — Samuel  Gompers,  employers  and  workers,   organized  or  un- 

president  of  the   American   Federation  of  organized,    should   confer   for   the   adjust- 

Labor;    John    Mitchell,    president    of    the  ment  of  difficulties  or  disputes  before  an 

United  Mine  Workers  of  America;   Frank  acute    stage    is    reached,    and    thus    avoid 

P.  Sargent,  grand-master  of  the  Brother-  or   minimize    the    number   of   strikes    and 

hood  of  Locomotive  Firemen;  Theodore  P.  lockouts. 

Shaffer,  president  of  the  Amalgamated  That  mutual  agreements  as  to  condi- 
Association  of  Iron,  Steel,  and  Tin  Work-  tions  under  which  labor  shall  be  perform- 
ers; James  J.  Duncan,  first  vice-presi-  ed  should  be  encouraged,  and  that  when 
dent  of  the  American  Federation  of  La-  agreements  are  made  the  terms  thereof 
bor;  Daniel  J.  Keefe,  president  of  the  should  be  faithfully  adhered  to,  both  in 
International  Association  of  Longshore-  letter  and  spirit,  by  both  parties, 
men;  Martin  Fox,  president  of  the  Iron  That  -this  department,  either  as  a 
Moulders  of  America;  James  E.  Lynch,  whole  or  a  subcommittee  by  it  appointed, 
president  of  the  International  Typograph-  shall,  when  required,  act  as  a  forum  to 
ical  Union;  E.  E.  Clark,  grand  conductor  adjust  and  decide  upon  questions  at  issue 
of  the  Association  of  Railway  Conductors;  between  workers  and  their  employers,  pro- 
Heliry  White,  secretary  of  the  Garment  vided  in  its  opinion  the  subject  is  one 
Workers  of  America;  Walter  Macarthur,  of  sufficient  importance, 
editor  of  the  Coast  Seamen's  Journal  of  That  this  department  will  not  consider 
San  Francisco;  James  O'Connell,  presi-  abstract  industrial  problems, 
dent  of  the  International  Association  of  That  this  department  assumes  no 
Machinists.  power   of  arbitration  unless   such   powers 

To      Represent      the      Public.  —  Grover  be    conferred    by    both    parties    to    a    dis- 

Cleveland,  former  President  of  the  United  pute. 

123 


AMERICAN    PARTY— AMERICA' S    CUP 


That  this  department  shall  adopt  a  set  a  site  given  by  the  Greek  government,  and 
of  by-lavi^s  for  its  government.  is   valued,   together   with   its   grounds,   at 

Senator  Hanna  was  chosen  chairman.  $46,000.  The  endowment  is  about  $50,000. 
The  other  officers  are:  Samuel  Gompers  Aside  from  the  study  of  known  remains  of 
and  Oscar  Strauss,  vice-chairmen;  Charles  Greek  art  and  civilization,  the  school  has 
A.  Moore,  treasurer,  and  Ralph  M.  Easley,  engaged  in  independent  excavations  at 
secretary,  Eretria  and  Argos,  with  valuable  results. 

Araerican  Party,  a  political  organi-  Associated  with  it  are  similar  institu- 
zation,  founded  in  1854,  the  members  of  tions  supported  by  the  German,  English, 
which  became  known  as  "  Know-nothings,"  French,  and  Greek  governments, 
because  in  their  endeavors  to  preserve  the  American  System,  a  phrase  used  to 
secrecy  of  their  movements  they  were  in-  express  the  policy  of  protection  to  home 
structed  to  reply  "  I  don't  know  "  to  any  industries  by  means  of  duties  on  imports ; 
question  asked  in  reference  to  the  party.  *  applied  by  Henry  Clay  to  his  scheme  for 
It  was  at  first  a  secret  political  organi-  protective  duties  and  internal  improve- 
zation,  the  chief  object  of  which  was  the  ments,  which  resulted  in  the  enactment  of 
proscription  of  foreigners  by  the  repeal  the  tariff  bill  of  1824.  See  Free  Trade; 
of  the  naturalization  laws  of  the  United    Protection. 

States,  and  the  exclusive  choice  of  Ameri-  AmLerica's  Cup,  the  popular  name  of  a 
cans  for  office.  The  more  radical  members  yachting  trophy  originally  called  the 
of  the  party  advocated  a  purely  American  Queen's  Cup,  which  was  offered  by  the 
school  system,  and  uncompromising  oppo-  Eoyal  Yacht  Squadron  of  England  in  a 
sition  to  the  Roman  Catholics.  Such  nar- 
row views  were  incompatible  with  the  gen- 
erosity and  catholic  spirit  of  enlightened 
American  citizens.  In  1856  they  nomi- 
nated ex-President  Fillmore  for  the  Presi- 
dency, who  received  874,534  popular  and 
eight  electoral  votes ;  made  no  nominations 
in  1860,  but  united  with  the  Constitu- 
tional Union  party,  whose  candidates,  Bell 
and  Everett,  received  590,631  popular  and 
thirty-nine  elctoral  votes ;  reappeared  with 
a  ticket  in  1880,  which  received  707 
popular  votes ;  and  again  in  1888,  when 
1,591  votes  were  cast  for  the  party  candi- 
dates in  California;  and  have  made  no 
nominations  since.  See  Know-nothing 
Party. 

Am.erican  Protective  Association,  a 
secret  organization  which  acquired  noto- 
riety first  in  1890-95,  and  according  to 
popular  belief  was  opposed  to  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  According  to  W.  J.  H.  Tray- 
nor,  its  president,  "  it  is  neither  a  religious 
body  nor  an  institution  adverse  to  the  re- 
ligion, per  se,  of  any  person,  sect,  or  faith." 

American  School  of  Classical  Stud- 
ies, an  institution  founded  in  Athens, 
Greece,  in  1882.  It  is  a  branch  of  the 
Archaeological  Institute  of  America,  and 
is  supported  through  an  independent  com- 
mittee of  representatives  from  a  number  competition  open  to  the  yachts  of  all  na- 
of  American  colleges,  each  of  which  con-  tions  in  1851.  The  cup  was  Avon  by  the 
tributes  $250  a  year  for  this  purpose.  It  Boston  -  built  schooner  -  yacht  A7nerica. 
was  erected  by  private  subscriptions,  upon    Since  then  there  were   challenge   contests 

124 


AMERICA'S   CUP. 


AMERICUS    VESPTJCIUS 


in  1870,  1871,  1876,  1881,  1885,  1886, 
1887,  1893,  1895,  and  1899,  and  in  each 
instance  the  cup  was  defended  by  Ameri- 
can yachts,  with  success.  In  1895  Lord 
Dunraven's  yacht,  ValTxyrie,  after  having 
been  defeated  in  one  race,  won  the  second, 
but  was  deprived  of  the  victory  because 
of  a  foul.  The  Englishman  claimed  that 
he  had  been  cheated,  and  refused  to  race 
again.  He  charged  the  American  yachts- 
men with  unsportsmanlike  conduct,  and 
visited  this  country  to  press  his  charges. 


His  complaints  were  dismissed  and  he  was 
dropped  from  the  list  of  members  of  the 
New  York  Yacht  Club,  under  whose  auspices 
the  races  had  been  held.  One  of  the  most 
notable  of  the  several  contests  was  that  in 
1899,  when  Sir  Thomas  Lipton  sailed  the 
Shamrock  against  the  American  defender 
Columbia.  The  contest  was  characterized 
by  the  highest  type  of  international 
courtesy  and  good  feeling,  and  resulted  in 
the  issue  of  a  second  challenge  by  Sir 
Thomas  Lipton  for  a  contest  in  1901. 


AMERICUS    VESPUCIITS 


Americus  Vespucius,  navigator;  born 
in  Florence,  INIareh  9,  1451.  When  Colum- 
bus was  in  Seville  preparing  for  his  second 
voyage,  Vespucius  was  there  as  a  commer- 
cial agent  of  the  Medici  family  of  Flor- 
ence, and  he  became  personally  acquainted 
with   the   discoverer.      That   acquaintance 


AMERICUS   VESPUCIUS. 


inspired  the  Florentine  with  an  ardent  de- 
sire to  make  a  voyage  to  the  newly  found 
continent,  and  he  was  gratified  when,  in 
1499,  he  sailed  from  Spain  with  Alonzo 
de  Ojeda  as  an  adventurer  and  self-con- 
stituted geographer  of  the  expedition. 
Ojeda  followed  the  track  of  Columbus  in 
his  third  voyage,  and  discovered  moun- 
tains in  South  America  when  oflF  the  coast 
of  Surinam.  He  ran  up  the  coast  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River  (where  Co- 
lumbus had  discovered  the  continent  the 


year  before),  passed  along  the  coast  of 
Venezuela,  crossed  the  Caribbean  Sea  to 
Santo  Domingo,  kidnapped  some  natives 
of  the  Antilles,  and  returned  to  Spain  in 
June,  1500,  and  sold  his  victims  for  slaves 
to  Spanish  grandees.  In  May,  1501,  Ves- 
pucius, then  in  the  service  of  the  King  of 
Portugal,  sailed  on  his  second  voyage  to 
America,  exploring  the  coast  of  Brazil.  In 
1503  he  commanded  a  caravel  in  a  squad- 
ron destined  for  America,  but  parted  com- 
pany with  the  other  A'essels,  and  off  the 
coast  of  Brazil  discovered  the  Bay  of  All- 
Saints.  He  then  ran  along  the  coast  260 
leagues,  and,  taking  in  a  cargo  of  Brazil 
wood,  returned  to  Lisbon  in  1504.  He 
entered  the  Spanish  service  again  in  1505, 
was  made  chief  pilot  of  the  realm,  and 
again  voyaged  to  America.  In  1504  Ves- 
pucius, in  a  letter  to  the  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine, gave  an  account  of  his  four  voy- 
ages to  the  New  World,  in  which  was 
given  the  date  of  May  29,  1497,  as  the 
time  when  he  sailed  on  his  first  voyage. 
That  was  a  year  earlier  than  the  discovery 
of  the  continent  of  South  America  by  Co- 
lumbus and  of  North  America  by  Cabot, 
and  made  it  appear  that  Vespucius  was 
the  first  discoverer.  After  the  death  of 
Columbus,  in  1506,  a  friend  of  Vespucius 
proposed  to  the  Academy  of  Cosmography 
at  Strasburg,  upon  the  authority  of  the 
falsely  dated  letter,  to  give  the  name 
"  America  "  to  the  Western  Continent  in 
compliment  to  its  "  first  discoverer."  It 
was  done,  and  so  Columbus  and  Cabot  were 
both  deprived  of  the  honor  of  having  their 
names  associated  with  the  title  of  this 
continent  by  fraud.  Vespucius  died  in 
Seville,  Feb.  22,  1512. 


125 


AMERICirS    VESPUCIUS 


His  First  Voyage. — He  started  from 
Cadiz  on  May  10,  1497,  and  returned  to 
that  city  on  Oct.  15,  1498.  His  letter  to 
Pier  Soderini,  gonfalonier  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Florence,  is  as  follows: 


Magnificent  Lord.  After  humble  rever- 
ence and  due  commendations,  etc.  It  may 
be  that  your  Magnificence  will  be  sur- 
prised by  {this  conjunction  of)  my  rash- 
ness and  your  customary  wisdom,  in  that 
I  should  so  absurdly  bestir  myself  to 
write  to  your  Magnificence,  the  present 
so-prolix  letter;  knowing  (as  I  do)  that 
your  Magnificence  is  continually  employed 
in  high  councils  and  affairs  concerning 
the  good  government  of  this  sublime  Re- 
public. And  will  hold  me  not  only  pre- 
sumptuous, but  also  idly-meddlesome  in 
setting  myself  to  write  things,  neither 
suitable  to  your  station,  nor  entertaining, 
and  written  in  barbarous  style,  and  out- 
side of  every  canon  of  polite  literature: 
but  my  confidence  which  I  have  in  your 
virtues  and  in  the  truth  of  my  writing, 
which  are  things  (that)  are  not  found 
written  neither  by  the  ancients  nor  by 
modern  writers,  as  your  Magnificence  will 
in  the  sequel  perceive,  make  me  bold.  The 
chief  cause  which  moved  (me)  to  write 
to  you,  was  at  the  request  of  the  present 
bearer,  who  is  named  Benvenuto  Ben- 
venuti  our  Florentine  {fellow-citizen), 
very  much,  as  it  is  proven,  your  Magnifi- 
cence's servant,  and  my  very  good  friend: 
who  happening  to  be  here  in  this  city  of 
Lisbon,  begged  that  I  should  make  com- 
munication to  your  Magnificence  of  the 
things  seen  by  me  in  divers  regions  of  the 
world,  by  virtue  of  four  voyages  which  I 
have  made  in  discovery  of  new  lands;  two 
by  order  of  the  king  of  Castile,  King  Don 
Ferrando  VI.,  across  the  great  gulf  of  the 
Ocean-sea,  towards  the  west:  and  the 
other  two  by  command  of  the  puissant 
King  Don  Manuel  King  of  Portugal, 
towards  the  south :  Telling  me  that  your 
Magnificence  would  take  pleasure  thereof, 
and  that  herein  he  hoped  to  do  you  ser- 
vice: wherefore  I  set  me  to  do  it:  because 
I  am  assured  that  your  Magnificence  holds 
me  in  the  number  of  your  servants,  remem- 
bering that  in  the  time  of  our  youth  I 
was  your  friend,  and  now  {am  your)  ser- 
vant: and  {rememhering  our)  going  to 
hear  the  rudiments  of  grammar  under  the 


fair  example  and  instruction  of  the  ven- 
erable monk  friar  of  Saint  Mark  Fra 
Giorgio  Antonio  Vespucci:  whose  counsels 
and  teaching  would  to  God  that  I  had  fol- 
lowed: for  as  saith  Petrarch,  I  should  be 
another  man  than  what  I  am.  Howbeit 
soever,  I  grieve  not:  because  I  have  ever 
taken  delight  in  worthy  matters:  and  al- 
though these  trifles  of  mine  may  not  be 
suitable  to  your  virtues,  I  will  say  to  you 
as  said  Pliny  to  Maecenas,  you  were  some- 
time wont  to  take  pleasure  in  my  prat- 
tlings:  even  though  your  Magnificence  be 
continuously  busied  in  public  affairs,  you 
will  take  some  hour  of  relaxation  to  con- 
sume a  little  time  in  frivolovis  or  amusing 
things:  and  as  fennel  is  customarily  given 
atop  of  delicious  viands  to  fit  them  for 
better  digestion,  so  may  you,  for  a  relief 
from  your  so  heavy  occupations,  order 
this  letter  of  mine  to  be  read:  so  that 
they  may  withdraw  you  somewhat  from 
the  continual  anxiety  and  assiduous  re- 
flection upon  public  affairs:  and  if  I  shall 
be  prolix,  I  crave  pardon,  my  Magnificent 
Lord.  Your  Magnificence  shall  know  that 
the  motive  of  my  coming  into  this  realm 
of  Spain  was  to  traffic  in  merchandise: 
and  that  I  pursued  this  intent  about  four 
years:  during  Avhich  I  saw  and  knew  the 
inconstant  shiftings  of  Fortune:  and  how 
she  kept  changing  those  frail  and  transi- 
tory benefits;  and  how  at  one  time  she 
holds  man  on  the  summit  of  the  wheel, 
and  at  another  time  drives  him  back  from 
her,  and  despoils  him  of  what  may  be 
called  his  borrowed  riches:  so  that,  know- 
ing the  continuous  toil  which  man  under- 
goes to  win  them,  submitting  himself  to 
so  many  anxieties  and  risks,  I  resolved  to 
abandon  trade,  and  to  fix  my  aim  upon 
something  more  praiseworthy  and  stable: 
whence  it  was  that  I  made  preparation 
for  going  to  see  part  of  the  world  and  its 
wonders:  and  herefor  the  time  and  place 
presented  themselves  most  opportunely  to 
me:  which  was  that  the  King  Don  Fer- 
rando of  Castile  being  about  to  despatch 
four  ships  to  discover  new  lands  towards 
the  west,  I  was  chosen  by  his  Highness  to 
go  in  that  fleet  to  aid  in  making  discov- 
ery: and  we  set  out  from  the  port  of  Cadiz 
on  the  10  day  of  May  1497,  and  took  our 
route  through  the  great  gulph  of  the 
Ocean-sea:  in  Avhich  voyage  we  were 
eighteen   months    {engaged)  :    and   discov- 


126 


AMERICtrS    VESPTTCItJS 


ered  much  continental  land  and  innumer- 
able islands,  and  great  part  of  them  in- 
habited; whereas  there  is  no  mention  made 
by  the  ancient  writers  of  them:  I  believe, 
because  they  had  no  knowledge  thereof: 
for,  if  I  remember  well,  I  have  read  in 
some  one  {of  those  tcriters)  that  he  con- 
sidered that  this  Ocean-sea  was  an  un- 
peopled sea:  and  of  this  opinion  was 
Dante  our  poet  in  the  xxvi.  chapter  of 
the  Inferno,  where  he  feigns  the  death 
of  Ulysses:  in  which  voyage  I  beheld 
things  of  great  wondrousness  as  your 
Magnificence  shall  understand.  As  I  said 
above,  we  left  the  port  of  Cadiz  four  con- 
sort ships:  and  began  our  voyage  in  direct 
course  to  the  Fortunate  Isles,  which  are 
called  to-day  la  gran  Canaria,  which  are 
situated  in  the  Ocean-sea  at  the  extremity 
of  the  inhabited  west,  {and)  set  in  the 
third  climate:  over  which  the  North  Pole 
has  an  elevation  of  27  and  a  half  degrees 
beyond  their  horizon:  and  they  are  280 
leagues  distant  from  this  city  of  Lisbon, 
by  the  wind  between  mezzo  di  and  Ubeccio : 
where  we  remained  eight  days,  taking  in 
provision  of  water,  and  wood  and  other 
necessary  things:  and  from  hei'e,  having 
said  our  prayers,  we  weighed  anchor,  and 
gave  the  sails  to  the  wind,  beginning  our 
course  to  westward,  taking  one  quarter 
by  south-west:  and  so  we  sailed  on  till  at 
the  end  of  37  days  we  reached  a  land 
which  we  deemed  to  be  a  continent:  which 
is  distant  westwardly  from  the  isles  of 
Canary  about  a  thousand  leagues  beyond 
the  inhabited  region  within  the  torrid 
zone :  for  we  found  the  North  Pole  at  an  ele- 
vation of  16  degrees  above  its  horizon,  and 
{it  was)  westward,  according  to  the  shew- 
ing of  our  instruments,  75  degrees  from 
the  isles  of  Canary:  whereat  we  anchored 
with  our  ships  a  league  and  a  half  from 
land:  and  we  put  out  our  boats  freighted 
with  men  and  arms:  we  made  towards  the 
land,  and  before  we  reached  it,  had  sight 
of  a  great  number  of  people  who  were 
going  along  the  shore:  by  which  we  were 
much  rejoiced:  and  we  observed  that  they 
were  a  naked  race:  they  shewed  them- 
selves to  stand  in  fear  of  us:  I  believe 
{it  was)  because  they  saw  us  clothed  and 
of  other  appearance  {than  their  own): 
they  all  withdrew  to  a  hill,  and  for  what- 
soever signals  we  made  to  them  of  peace 
and  of  friendliness,  they  would  not  come 

li 


to  parley  with  us:  so  that,  as  the  night 
was  now  coming  on,  and  as  the  ships  were 
anchored  in  a  dangerous  place,  being  on  a 
rough  and  shelterless  coast,  we  decided  to 
remove  from  there  the  next  day,  and  to 
go  in  search  of  some  harbour  or  bay, 
where  we  might  place  our  ships  in  safety: 
and  we  sailed  with  the  maestrale  wind, 
thus  running  along  the  coast  with  the 
land  ever  in  sight,  continually  in  our 
course  observing  people  along  the  shore: 
till  after  having  navigated  for  two  days, 
we  found  a  place  sufficiently  secure  for 
the  ships,  and  anchored  half  a  league  from 
land,  on  which  we  saw  a  very  great  num- 
ber of  people:  and  this  same  day  we  put 
to  land  with  the  boats,  and  sprang  on 
shore  full  40  men  in  good  trim:  and  still 
the  land's  people  appeared  shy  of  converse 
with  us,  and  we  were  unable  to  encourage 
them  so  much  as  to  make  them  come  to 
speak  with  us:  and  this  day  we  laboured 
so  greatly  in  giving  them  of  our  wares, 
such  as  rattles  and  mirrors,  beads, 
spalline,  and  other  trifles,  that  some  of 
them  took  confidence  and  came  to  discourse 
with  us:  and  after  having  made  good 
friends  with  them,  the  night  coming  on, 
we  took  our  leave  of  them  and  returned  to 
the  ships:  and  the  next  day  when  the 
dawn  appeared  we  saw  that  there  were 
infinite  numbers  of  people  upon  the  beach, 
and  they  had  their  women  and  children 
with  them:  we  went  ashore,  and  found 
that  they  were  all  laden  with  their  worldly 
goods  which  are  suchlike  as,  in  its 
{proper)  place,  shall  be  related:  and  be- 
fore we  reached  the«  land,  many  of  them 
jumped  into  the  sea  and  came  swimming 
to  receive  us  at  a  bowshot's  length  {from 
the  shore),  for  they  are  very  great  swim- 
mers, with  as  much  confidence  as  if  they 
had  for  a  long  time  been  acquainted  with 
us:  and  we  were  pleased  with  this  their 
confidence.  For  so  much  as  we  learned  of 
their  manner  of  life  and  customs,  it  was 
that  they  go  entirely  naked,  as  well  the 
men  as  the  women.  .  .  .  They  are  of 
medium  stature,  very  well  proportioned: 
their  flesh  is  of  a  colour  that  verges  into 
red  like  a  lion's  mane:  and  I  believe  that 
if  they  were  clothed,  they  would  be  as 
white  as  we:  they  have  not  any  hair  upon 
the  body,  except  the  hair  of  the  head 
which  is  long  and  black,  and  especially  in 
the  women,  whom  it  renders  handsome;  in 


AMEEICUS    VESPUCIUS 


aspect  they  are  not  very  good-looking,  be- 
cause they  have  broad  faces,  so  that  they 
seem  Tartar-like:  they  let  no  hair  grow 
on  their  eyebrows,  nor  on  their  eyelids,  nor 
elsewhere  except  the  hair  of  the  head: 
for  they  hold  hairness  to  be  a  filthy 
thing:  they  are  very  light-footed  in  walk- 
ing and  in  running,  as  well  the  men  as 
the  women :  so  that  a  woman  recks  nothing 
of  running  a  league  or  two,  as  many  times 
wo  saw  them  do:  and  herein  they  have  a 
very  great  advantage  over  us  Christians : 
they  swim  {with  an  expertness)  beyond  all 
belief,  and  the  women  better  than  the 
men:  for  we  have  many  times  found  and 
seen  them  swimming  two  leagues  out  at 
sea  without  anything  to  rest  upon.  Their 
arms  are  bows  and  arrows  very  well 
made,  save  that  (the  arrows)  are  not 
(tipped)  with  iron  or  any  other  kind  of 
hard  metal:  and  instead  of  iron  they  put 
animals'  or  fishes'  teeth,  or  a  spike  of 
tough  wood,  with  the  point  hardened  by 
fire:  they  are  sure  marksmen  for  they  hit 
whatever  they  aim  at:  and  in  some  places 
the  women  use  these  bows:  they  have  other 
weapons,  such  as  fire-hardened  spears,  and 
also  clubs  with  knobs,  beautifully  carved. 
Warfare  is  used  amongst  them,  which 
they  carry  on  against  people  not  of  their 
own  language,  very  cruelly,  without  grant- 
ing life  to  any  one,  except  ( to  reserve 
him)  for  greater  suffering.  When  they  go 
to  war,  they  take  their  women  with  them, 
not  that  these  may  fight,  but  because  they 
carry  behind  them  their  worldly  goods, 
for  a  woman  carries  on  her  back  for 
thirty  or  forty  leagues  a  load  which  no 
man  could  bear:  as  we  have  many  times 
seen  them  do.  They  are  not  accustomed 
to  have  any  Captain,  nor  do  they  go  in 
any  ordered  array,  for  everyone  is  lord 
of  himself:  and  the  cause  of  their  wars 
is  not  for  lust  of  dominion,  nor  of  extend- 
ing their  frontiers,  nor  for  inordinate 
covetousness,  but  for  some  ancient  enmity 
which  in  by-gone  times  arose  amongst 
them:  and  when  asked  why  they  made 
war,  they  knew  not  any  other  reason  to 
give  than  that  they  did  so  to  avenge  the 
death  of  their  ancestors,  or  of  their  par- 
ents: these  people  have  neither  King,  nor 
Lord,  nor  do  they  yield  obedience  to  any 
one,  for  they  live  in  their  own  liberty: 
and  how  they  be  stirred  up  to  go  to  war 
is  (this)  that  when  the  enemies  have  slain 


or  captured  any  of  them,  his  oldest  kins- 
man rises  up  and  goes  about  the  highways 
haranguing  them  to  go  with  him  and 
avenge  the  death  of  such  his  kinsman: 
and  so  are  they  stirred  up  by  fellow-feel- 
ing: they  have  no  judicial  system,  nor  do 
they  punish  the  ill-doer:  nor  does  the 
father,  nor  the  mother  chastise  the  chil- 
dren: and  marvellously  (seldom)  or  never 
did  we  see  any  dispute  among  them:  in 
their  conversation  they  appear  simple,  and 
they  are  very  cunning  and  acute  in  that 
which  concerns  them:  they  speak  little 
and  in  a  low  tone:  they  use  the  same 
articulations  as  we,  since  they  form  their 
utterances  eitlier  with  the  palate,  or  with 
the  teeth,  or  on  the  lips:  except  that  they 
give  difl'erent  names  to  things.  Many  are 
the  varieties  of  tongues:  for  in  every  100 
leagues  we  found  a  change  of  language, 
so  that  they  are  not  understandable  each 
to  the  other.  The  manner  of  their  living 
is  very  barbarous,  for  they  do  not  eat  at 
certain  hours,  and  as  oftentimes  as  they 
will:  and  it  is  not  much  of  a  boon  to  them 
that  the  will  may  come  more  at  midnight 
than  by  day,  for  they  eat  at  all  hours: 
and  they  eat  upon  the  ground  without  a 
table-cloth  or  any  other  cover,  for  they 
have  their  meats  either  in  earthen  basins 
which  they  make  themselves,  or  in  the 
halves  of  pumpkins:  they  sleep  in  certain 
very  la.rge  nettings  made  of  cotton, 
suspended  in  the  air:  and  although  this 
their  (fashion  of)  sleeping  may  seem  un- 
comfortable, I  say  that  it  is  sweet  to 
sleep  in  those  (nettings)  :  and  we  slept 
better  in  them  than  in  the  counterpanes. 
They  are  a  people  smooth  and  clean  of 
body,  because  of  so  continually  washing 
themselves  as  they  do.  .  .  .  Amongst 
those  people  we  did  not  learn  that  they 
had  any  law,  nor  can  they  be  called 
]\foors  nor  Jews,  and  (they  are)  worse 
than  pagans:  because  we  did  not  observe 
that  they  offered  any  sacrifice:  nor  even 
had  they  a  house  of  prayer:  their  manner 
of  living  I  judge  to  be  Epicurean:  their 
dwellings  are  in  common:  and  their 
houses  (are)  made  in  the  style  of  huts, 
but  strongly  made,  and  constructed  with 
very  large  trees,  and  covered  over  with 
palm-leaves,  secure  against  storms  and 
winds:  and  in  some  places  (they  are)  of 
so  great  breadth  and  length,  that  in  one 
single    house    we    found    there    were    600 


128 


AMERICUS    VESPUCIUS 


souls:  and  we  saw  a  village  of  only  thir- 
teen houses,  where  there  were  four  thou- 
sand souls:  every  eight  or  ten  days  they 
change  their  habitations:  and  when  asked 
why  they  did  so:  (they  said  it  teas)  be- 
.cause  of  the  soil  which,  from  its  filthiness, 
was  already  unhealthy  and  corrupted,  and 
that  it  bred  aches  in  their  bodies,  which 
seemed  to  us  a  good  reason;  their  riches 
consist  of  birds'  plumes  of  many  colours, 
or  of  rosaries  which  they  make  from  fish- 
bones, or  of  white  or  green  stones  which 
they  put  in  their  cheeks  and  in  their  lips 
and  ears,  and  of  many  other  things  which 
we  in  no  wise  value:  they  use  no  trade, 
they  neither  buy  nor  sell.  In  fine,  they 
live  and  are  contented  with  that  Avhich 
nature  gives  them.  The  wealth  that  we 
enjoy  in  this  our  Europe  and  elsewhere, 
such  as  gold,  jewels,  pearls,  and  other 
riches,  they  hold  as  nothing:  and  although 
they  have  them  in  their  own  lands,  they 
do  not  labour  to  obtain  them,  nor  do  they 
value  them.  They  are  liberal  in  giving, 
for  it  is  rarely  they  deny  you  any- 
thing: and  on  the  other  hand,  liberal  in 
asking,  when  they  shew  themselves  your 
friends.  .  .  .  When  they  die,  they  use 
divers  manners  of  obsequies,  and  some 
they  bury  with  water  and  victuals  at  their 
heads:  thinking  that  they  shall  have 
(whereof)  to  eat:  they  have  not  nor  do 
they  use  ceremonies  of  torches  nor  of  lam- 
entation. In  some  other  places,  they 
use  the  most  barbarous  and  inhuman 
burial  which  is  that  when  a  suffering  or 
infirm  (person)  is  as  it  were  at  the  last 
pass  of  death,  his  kinsmen  carry  him  into 
a  large  forest,  and  attach  one  of  those 
nets  of  theirs,  in  which  they  sleep,  to 
two  trees,  and  then  put  him  in  it,  and 
dance  around  him  for  a  whole  day:  and 
when  the  night  comes  on  they  place  at 
his  bolster,  water  with  other  victuals,  so 
that  he  may  be  able  to  subsist  for  four  or 
six  days:  and  then  they  leave  him  alone 
and  return  to  the  village:  and  if  the  sick 
man  helps  himself,  and  eats,  and  drinks, 
and  survives,  he  returns  to  the  village,  and 
(friends)  receive  him  with  ceremony:  but 
few  are  they  who  escape:  without  receiv- 
ing any  further  visit  they  die,  and  that  is 
their  sepulture:  and  they  have  many 
other  customs  which  for  prolixity  are  not 
related.  They  use  in  their  sicknesses  va- 
rious forms  of  medicines,  so  different  from 


ours  that  we  marvelled  how  any  one  es- 
caped: for  many  times  I  saw  that  with 
a  man  sick  of  fever,  when  it  heightened 
upon  him,  they  bathed  him  from  head 
to  foot  with  a  large  quantity  of  cold 
water:  then  they  lit  a  great  fire  around 
him,  making  him  turn  and  turn  again 
every  two  hours,  until  they  tired  him  and 
left  him  to  sleep,  and  many  were  (thus) 
cured :  with  this  they  make  use  of  dieting, 
for  they  remain  three  days  without  eat- 
ing, and  also  of  blood-letting,  but  not 
from  the  arm,  only  from  the  thighs  and 
the  loins  and  the  calf  of  the  leg:  also 
they  provoke  vomiting  with  their  herbs 
which  are  put  into  the  mouth:  and  they 
use  many  other  remedies  which  it  would 
be  long  to  relate:  they  are  much  vitiated 
in  the  phlegm  and  in  the  blood  because 
of  their  food  which  consists  chiefly  of 
roots  of  herbs,  and  fruits  and  fish:  they 
have  no  seed  of  wheat  nor  other  grain :  and 
for  their  ordinary  use  and  feeding,  they 
have  a  root  of  a  tree,  from  which  they 
make  flour,  tolerably  good,  and  they  ca.ll 
it  luca,  and  another  which  they  call 
Cazabi,  and  another  Ignami:  they  eat  lit- 
tle flesh  except  human  flesh:  for  your 
Magniflcence  must  know  that  herein  they 
are  so  inhuman  that  they  outdo  every 
custom  (even)  of  beasts;  for  they  eat  all 
their  enemies  whom  they  kill  or  capture, 
as  well  females  as  males  with  so  much 
savagery,  that  (merely)  to  relate  it  ap- 
pears a  horrible  thing:  how  much  more  so 
to  see  it,  as,  infinite  times  and  in  many 
places,  it  was  my  hap  to  see  it:  and  they 
wondered  to  hear  us  say  that  we  did  not 
eat  our  enemies:  and  this  your  Magnifi- 
cence may  take  for  certain,  that  their 
other  barbarous  customs  are  such  that  ex- 
pression is  too  weak  for  the  reality:  and 
as  in  these  four  voyages  I  have  seen  so 
many  things  diverse  from  our  customs, 
I  prepared  to  write  a  common-place-book 
which  I  name  Le  quattro  Giornate:  in 
which  I  have  set  down  the  greater  part 
of  the  things  which  I  saw,  sufficiently  in 
detail,  so  far  as  my  feeble  wit  has  allowed 
me:  which  I  have  not  yet  published,  be- 
cause I  have  so  ill  a  taste  for  my  own 
things  that  I  do  not  relish  those  which  I 
have  written,  notwithstanding  that  many 
encourage  me  to  publish  it:  therein  every- 
thing will  be  seen  in  detail:  so  that  I 
shall  not  enlarge  further  in  this  chapter: 


129 


AMERICUS    VESPUCITJS 


as  in  the  course  of  the  letter  we  shall  come 
to  many  other  things  which  are  particu- 
lar: let  this  suffice  for  the  general.  At 
this  beginning,  we  saw  nothing  in  the  land 
of  much  profit,  except  some  show  of  gold: 
I  believe  the  cause  of  it  was  that  we  did 
not  know  the  language:  but  in  so  far  as 
concerns  the  situation  and  condition  of 
the  land,  it  could  not  be  better:  we  de- 
cided to  leave  that  place,  and  to  go  fur- 
ther on,  continuously  coasting  the  shore: 
upon  which  we  made  frequent  descents, 
and  held  converse  with  a  great  number  of 
people:  and  at  the  end  of  some  days  we 
went  into  a  harbour  where  we  underwent 
very  great  danger:  and  it  pleased  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  save  us:  and  it  was  in  this 
wise.  We  landed  in  a  harbour,  where  we 
found  a  village  built  like  Venice  upon  the 
water:  there  were  about  44  large  dwell- 
ings in  the  form  of  huts  erected  upon 
very  thick  piles,  and  they  had  their  doors 
or  entrances  in  the  style  of  drawbridges: 
and  from  each  house  one  could  pass 
through  all,  by  means  of  the  drawbridges 
which  stretched  from  house  to  house:  and 
when  the  people  thereof  ha-d  seen  us,  they 
ajjpeared  to  be  afraid  of  us,  and  immedi- 
ately drew  up  all  the  bridges:  and  while 
we  were  looking  at  this  strange  action, 
we  saw  coming  across  the  sea  about  22 
canoes,  which  are  a  kind  of  boat  of  theirs, 
constructed  from  a  single  tree:  which 
came  towards  our  boats,  as  they  had  been 
surprised  by  our  appearance  and  clothes, 
and  kept  wide  of  us :  and  thus  remaining, 
we  made  signals  to  them  that  they  should 
approach  us,  encouraging  them  with 
every  token  of  friendliness;  and  seeing 
that  they  did  not  come  we  went  to  them, 
and  they  did  not  stay  for  us,  but  made  to 
the  land,  and,  by  signs,  told  us  to  wait, 
and  they  should  soon  return:  and  they 
went  to  a  hill  in  the  background,  and  did 
not  delay  long:  when  they  returned  they 
led  with  them  16  of  their  girls,  and  en- 
tered with  these  into  their  canoes,  and 
came  to  the  boats:  and  in  each  boat  they 
put  4  of  the  girls.  That  we  marvelled 
at  this  behaviour  your  Magnificence  can 
imagine  how  much,  and  they  placed  them- 
selves with  their  canoes  among  our  boats, 
coming  to  speak  with  us:  insomuch  that 
we  deemed  it  a  mark  of  friendliness:  and 
while  thus  engaged,  we  beheld  a  great 
number     of     people     advance     swimming 


towards  us  across  the  sea,  who  came  from 
the  houses:  and  as  they  were  drawing 
near  to  us  without  any  apprehension;  just 
then  there  appeared  at  the  doors  of  the 
houses  certain  old  Avomen  uttering  very 
loud  cries  and  tearing  their  hair  to  ex- 
hibit grief:  whereby  they  made  us  suspi- 
cious, and  we  each  betook  ourselves  to 
arms:  and  instantly  the  girls  whom  we 
had  in  the  boats,  threw  themselves  into 
the  sea,  and  the  men  of  the  canoes  drew 
away  from  us,  and  began  with  their  bows 
to  shoot  arrows  at  us:  and  those  who 
were  swimming  each  carried  a  lance  held, 
as  covertly  as  they  could,  beneath  the 
water:  so  that,  recognizing  the  treachery, 
we  engaged  with  them,  not  merely  to  de- 
fend ourselves,  but  to  attack  them  vigor- 
ously, and  we  overturned  with  our  boats 
many  of  their  almadie  or  canoes,  for  so 
they  call  them,  we  made  a  slaughter  {of 
them),  and  they  all  flung  themselves  into 
the  water  to  swim,  leaving  their  canoes 
abandoned,  with  considerable  loss  on  their 
side,  they  went  swimming  away  to  the 
shore:  there  died  of  them  about  15  or  20, 
and  many  were  left  wounded:  and  of  ours 
5  were  wounded,  and  all,  by  the  grace  of 
God,  escaped  {death)  :  we  captured  two 
of  the  girls  and  two  men:  and  we  pro- 
ceeded to  their  houses,  and  entered  there- 
in, and  in  them  all  we  found  nothing  else 
than  two  old  women  and  a  sick  man:  we 
took  away  from  them  many  things,  but 
of  small  value:  and  we  would  not  burn 
their  houses,  because  it  seemed  to  us  {as 
though  that  tcould  he)  a  burden  upon  our 
conscience:  and  we  returned  to  our  boats 
with  five  prisoners:  and  betook  ourselves 
to  the  ships,  and  put  a  pair  of  irons  on 
the  feet  of  each  of  the  captives,  except 
the  little  girls:  and  when  the  night  came 
on,  the  two  girls  and  one  of  the  men  fled 
away  in  the  most  subtle  manner  possible; 
and  the  next  day  we  decided  to  quit  that 
harbour  and  go  further  onwards:  we  pro- 
ceeded continuously  skirting  the  coast, 
{until)  we  had  sight  of  another  tribe  dis- 
tant perhaps  some  80  leagues  from  the 
former  tribe:  and  Ave  found  them  very 
diff'erent  in  speech  and  customs:  we  re- 
solved to  cast  anchor,  and  went  ashore 
with  the  boats,  and  we  saw  on  the  beach  a 
great  number  of  people  amounting  prob- 
ably to  4,000  souls:  and  when  Ave  had 
reached  the  shore,  they  did  not  stay  for  us, 


130 


AMERICUS    VESPUCIUS 


but  betook  themselves  to  flight  through 
the  forests,  abandoning  their  things:  we 
jumped  on  land,  and  took  a  pathway  that 
led  to  the  forest:  and  at  the  distance  of  a 
bow-shot  we  found  their  tents,  where  they 
had  made  very  large  fires,  and  two  (of 
them)  were  cooking  their  victuals,  and 
roasting  several  animals  and  fish  of  many 
kinds :  where  we  saw  that  they  were  roast- 
ing a  certain  animal  which  seemed  to  be  a 
serpent,  save  that  it  had  no  wings,  and 
was  in  its  appearance  so  loathsome  that 
we  marvelled  much  at  its  savageness: 
Thus  went  we  on  through  their  houses,  or 
rather  tents,  and  found  many  of  those  ser- 
pents alive,  and  they  were  tied  by  the  feet 
and  had  a  cord  around  their  snouts,  so 
that  they  could  not  open  their  mouths,  as 
is  done  (in  Europe)  with  mastiff -dogs  so 
that  they  may  not  bite:  they  »were  of 
such  savage  aspect  that  none  of  us  dared 
to  take  one  away,  thinking  that  they  were 
poisonous :  they  are  of  the  bigness  of  a  kid, 
and  in  length  an  ell  and  a  half:  their  feet 
are  long  and  thick,  and  armed  with  big 
claws:  they  have  a  hard  skin,  and  are  of 
various  colours:  they  have  the  muzzle  and 
face  of  a  serpent:  and  from  their  snouts 
there  rises  a  crest  like  a  saw  which  ex- 
tends along  the  middle  of  the  back  as  far 
as  the  tip  of  the  tail :  in  fine  we  deemed 
them  to  be  serpents  and  venomous,  and 
(nevertheless,  those  people)  ate  them:  we 
found  that  they  made  bread  out  of  little 
fishes  which  they  took  from  the  sea,  first 
boiling  them  (then)  pounding  them,  and 
making  thereof  a  paste,  or  bread,  and  they 
baked  them  on  the  embers:  thus  did  they 
eat  them:  we  tried  it  and  found  that  it 
was  good:  they  had  so  many  other  kinds 
of  eatables,  and  especially  of  fruits  and 
roots,  that  it  would  be  a  large  matter  to 
describe  them  in  detail :  and  seeing  that 
the  people  did  not  return,  we  decided  not 
to  touch  nor  take  away  anything  of  their, 
so  as  better  to  reassure  them:  and  we  left 
in  the  tents  for  them  many  of  our  things, 
placed  where  they  should  see  them,  and 
returned  by  night  to  our  ships:  and  the 
next  day,  when  it  was  light  we  saw  on 
the  beach  an  infinite  number  of  people: 
and  we  landed:  and  although  they  ap- 
peared timorous  towards  us,  they  took 
courage  nevertheless  to  hold  converse  with 
us,  giving  us  whatever  we  asked  of  them: 
and     shewing    themselves    very    friendly 


towards  us,  they  told  us  that  those  were 
their  dwellings,  and  that  they  had  come 
hither  for  the  purpose  of  fishing:  and 
they  begged  that  we  would  visit 
their  dwellings  and  villages,  because  they 
desired  to  receive  us  as  friends:  and  they 
engaged  in  such  friendship  because  of  the 
two  captured  men  whom  we  had  with  us, 
as  these  were  their  enemies:  insomuch 
that,  in  view  of  such  importunity  on  their 
part,  holding  a  council,  we  determined 
that  28  of  us  Christians  in  good  array 
should  go  with  them,  and  in  the  firm  re- 
solve to  die  if  it  should  be  necessary:  and 
after  we  had  been  here  some  three  days, 
we  went  with  them  inland:  and  at  three 
leagues  from  the  coast  we  came  to  a  vil- 
lage of  many  people  and  few  houses,  for 
there  were  no  more  than  nine  (of  these)  : 
where  we  were  received  with  such  and  so 
many  barbarous  ceremonies  that  the  pen 
suffices  not  to  write  them  down:  for  there 
were  dances,  and  songs,  and  lamentations 
mingled  with  rejoicing,  and  great  quanti- 
ties of  food:  and  here  we  remained  the 
night:  .  .  .  and  after  having  been 
here  that  night  and  half  the  next  day,  so 
great  was  the  number  of  people  who  came 
wondering  to  behold  us  that  they  were 
beyond  counting:  and  the  most  aged 
begged  us  to  go  with  them  to  other  vil- 
lages which  were  further  inland,  making 
display  of  doing  us  the  greatest  honour: 
wherefore  we  decided  to  go:  and  it  would 
be  impossible  to  tell  you  how  much 
honour  they  did  us:  and  we  went  to  sev- 
eral villages,  so  that  we  were  nine  days 
journeying,  so  that  our  Christians  who 
had  remained  with  the  ships  were  already 
apprehensive  concerning  us:  and  when  we 
were  about  18  leagues  in  the  interior  of 
the  land,  we  resolved  to  return  to  the 
ships:  and  on  our  way  back,  such  was  the 
number  of  people,  as  well  men  as  women, 
that  came  with  us  as  far  as  the  sea,  that 
it  was  a  wondrous  thing:  and  if  any  of 
us  became  weary  of  the  march,  they  car- 
ried us  in  their  nets  very  refreshingly: 
and  in  crossing  the  rivers,  which  are 
many  and  very  large,  they  passed  us  over 
by  skilful  means  so  securely  that  we  ran 
no  danger  whatever,  and  many  of  them 
came  laden  with  the  things  which  they 
had  given  us,  which  consisted  in  their 
sleeping-nets,  and  very  rich  feathers, 
many     bows     and     arrows,     innumerable 


131 


AMERICUS    VESPUCIUS 


popin-jays  of  divers  colours:  and  others 
brought  with  them  loads  of  their  house- 
hold goods,  and  of  animals:  but  a  greater 
marvel  which  I  tell  you,  that,  when  we 
had  to  cross  a  river,  he  deemed  himself 
lucky  wTio  was  able  to  carry  us  on  his 
back:  and  when  we  reached  the  sea,  our 
boats  having  arrived,  we  entered  into 
them:  and  so  great  was  the  struggle  which 
they  made  to  get  into  our  boats,  and  to 
come  to  see  our  ships,  that  we  marvelled 
( thereat )  :  and  in  our  boats  we  took  as 
many  of  them  as  we  could,  and  made  our 
way  to  the  ships,  and  so  many  {others) 
came  swimming  that  we  found  ourselves 
embarrassed  in  seeing  so  many  people  in 
the  ships,  for  there  were  over  a-  thousand 
persons  all  naked  and  unarmed :  they  were 
amazed  by  our  {nautical)  gear  and  con- 
trivances, and  the  size  of  the  ships:  and 
with  them  there  occurred  to  us  a  very 
laughable  affair,  which  was  that  we  de- 
cided to  fire  off  some  of  our  great  guns,. 
and  when  the  explosion  took  place,  most 
of  them  through  fear  cast  themselves 
{into  the  sea)  to  swim,  not  otherwise  than 
frogs  on  the  margins  of  a  pond,  when  they 
see  something  that  frightens  them,  will 
jump  into  the  water,  just  so  did  those 
people:  and  those  who  remained  in  the 
ships  were  so  terrified  that  we  regretted 
our  action:  however  we  reassured  them 
by  telling  them  that  with  those  arms  we 
slew  our  enemies:  and  when  they  had 
amused  themselves  in  the  ships  the  whole 
day,  we  told  them  to  go  away  because  we 
desired  to  depart  that  night,  and  so  sepa- 
rating from  us  with  much  friendship  and 
love,  they  went  away  to  land.  Amongst 
that  people  and  in  their  land,  I  knew  and 
beheld  so  many  of  their  customs  and  ways 
of  living,  that  I  do  not  care  to  enlarge 
upon  them:  for  Your  Magnificence  must 
know  that  in  each  of  my  voyages  I  have 
noted  the  most  wonderful  things,  and  I 
have  indited  it  all  in  a  volume  after  the 
manner  of  a  geography:  and  I  entitle  it 
'■  Le  quattro  Giornate" :  in  which  work 
the  things  are  comprised  in  detail,  and 
as  yet  there  is  no  copy  of  it  given  out,  as 
it  is  necessary  for  me  to  revise  it.  This 
land  is  very  populous,  and  full  of  inhabi- 
tants, and  of  numberless  rivers,  {and) 
animals:  few  {of  which)  resemble  ours, 
excepting  lions,  panthers,  stags,  pigs, 
goats,  and  deer :  and  even  these  have  some 


dissimilarities  of  form:  they  have  no 
horses  nor  mules,  nor,  saving  your  rever- 
ence, asses  nor  dogs,  nor  any  kind  of  sheep 
or  oxen:  but  so  numerous  are  the  other 
animals  which  they  have,  and  all  are 
savage,  and  of  none  do  they  make  use  for 
their  service,  that  they  could  not  be  count- 
ed. What  shall  we  say  of  others  {such 
as)  birds?  which  are  so  numerous,  and  of 
so  many  kinds,  and  of  such  variousrcol- 
oured  plumages,  that  it  is  a  marvel  to  be- 
hold them.  The  soil  is  very  pleasant  and 
fruitful,  full  of  immense  woods  and 
forests:  and  it  is  always  green,  for  the 
foliage  never  drops  ofi".  The  fruits  are  so 
many  that  they  are  numberless  and  en- 
tirely different  from  ours.  This  land  is 
within  the  torrid  zone,  clo.se  to  or  just 
under  the  parallel  described  by  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer:  where  the  pole  of  the  horizon 
has  an  elevation  of  23  degrees,  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  second  climate.  Many 
tribes  came  to  see  us,  and  wondered  at  our 
faces  and  our  whiteness :  and  they  asked  us 
whence  we  came :  and  we  gave  them  to  un- 
derstand that  we  had  come  from  heaven,  and 
that  we  were  going  to  see  the  world,  and 
they  believed  it.  In  this  land  we  placed 
baptismal  fonts,  and  an  infinite  {number 
of)  people  were  baptised,  and  they  called 
us  in  their  language  Carabi,  which  means 
men  of  great  Avisdom.  We  took  our  de- 
parture from  that  port:  and  the  province 
is  called  Lariab:  and  we  navigated  along 
the  coast,  always  in  sight  of  land,  until 
we  had  run  870  leagues  of  it,  still  going 
in  the  direction  of  the  maestrale  {north- 
west )  making  in  our  course  many  halts, 
and  holding  intercourse  with  many  peo- 
ples: and  in  several  places  we  obtained 
gold  by  barter  but  not  much  in  quantity, 
for  we  had  done  enough  in  discovering  the 
land  and  learning  that  they  had  gold. 
We  had  now  been  thirteen  months  on  the 
voyage:  and  the  vessels  and  the  tackling 
were  already  much  damaged,  and  the  men 
worn  out  by  fatigue:  we  decided  by  gen- 
eral council  to  haul  our  ships  on  land  and 
examine  them  for  the  purpose  of  stanch- 
ing leaks,  as  they  made  much  water,  and 
of  caulking  and  tarring  them  afresh,  and 
{then)  returning  towards  Spain:  and 
w^hen  we  came  to  this  determination,  we 
were  close  to  a  harbour  the  best  in  the 
world:  into  which  we  entered  with  our 
vessels:  where  we  found  an  immense  num- 


132 


AMERICUS    VESPTJCIUS 


ber  of  people:  who  received  us  with  much 
friendliness:  and  on  the  shore  we  made 
a  bastion  with  our  boats  and  with  barrels 
and  casks,  and  our  artillery,  which  com- 
manded every  point:  and  our  ships  hav- 
ing been  unloaded  and  lightened,  we  drew 
them  upon  land,  and  repaired  them  in 
everything  that  was  needful :  and  the 
land's  people  gave  us  very  great  assist- 
ance: and  continually  furnished  us  with 
their  victuals:  so  that  in  this  port  we 
tasted  little  of  our  own,  which  suited  our 
game  well:  for  the  stock  of  provisions 
which  we  had  for  our  return-passage  was 
little  and  of  sorry  kind:  where  (i.e.,  there) 
we  remained  37  days:  and  went  many 
times  to  their  villages  where  they  paid 
us  the  greatest  honour:  and  (71010)  de- 
siring to  depart  upon  our  voyage,  they 
made  complaint  to  vis  how  at  certain  times 
of  the  year  there  came  from  over  the  sea 
to  this  their  land,  a  race  of  people  very 
cruel,  and  enemies  of  theirs:  and  (who) 
by  means  of  treachery  or  of  violence  slew 
many  of  them,  and  ate  them:  and  some 
they  made  captives,  and  carried  them  away 
to  their  houses,  or  country:  and  how  they 
could  scarcely  contrive  to  defend  them- 
selves from  them,  making  signs  to  us  that 
(those)  were  an  i«land-people  and  lived 
out  in  the  sea  about  a  hundred  leagues 
away:  and  so  piteously  did  they  tell  us 
this  that  we  believed  them:  and  we  prom- 
ised to  avenge  them  of  so  much  wrong: 
and  they  remained  overjoyed  herewith: 
and  many  of  them  offered  to  come  along 
with  us,  but  we  did  not  wish  to  take  them 
for  many  reasons,  save  that  we  took  seven 
of  them,  on  condition  that  they  should 
come  (i.  e.,  return  home)  afterwards  in 
(their  oion)  canoes  because  we  did  not  de- 
sire to  be  obliged  to  take  them  back  to 
their  country:  and  they  were  contented: 
and  so  we  departed  from  those  people, 
leaving  them  very  friendly  towards  us: 
and  having  repaired  our  ships,  and  sailing 
for  seven  days  out  to  sea  between  north- 
east and  east:  and  at  the  end  of  the 
seven  days  we  came  upon  the  islands, 
which  were  many,  some  (of  them)  in- 
habited, and  others  deserted:  and  we 
anchored  at  one  of  them:  where  we  saw 
a  numerous  people  who  called  it  Iti:  and 
having  manned  our  boats  with  strong 
crews,  and  (taken  ammunition  for)  three 
cannon-shots     in      each,     we     made     for 

1 


land:  where  we  found,  (assembled)  about 
400  men,  and  many  women,  and  all  naked 
like  the  former  (peoples).  They  were  of 
good  bodily  presence,  and  seemed  right 
warlike  men:  for  they  were  armed  with 
their  weapons,  which  are  bows,  arrows, 
and  lances:  and  most  of  them  had  square 
wooden  targets  and  bore  them  in  such  wise 
that  they  did  not  impede  the  drawing  of 
the  bow:  and  when  we  had  come  with  our 
boats  to  about  a  bowshot  of  the  land,  they 
all  sprang  into  the  water  to  shoot  their 
arrows  at  us  and  to  prevent  us  from  leap- 
ing upon  shore:  and  they  had  all  their 
bodies  painted  of  various  colours,  and 
(icere)  plumed  with  feathers:  and  the  in- 
terpreters who  were  with  us  told  us  that 
when  (those)  displayed  themselves  so 
painted  and  plumed,  it  was  to  betoken  that 
they  wanted  to  fight:  and  so  much  did 
they  persist  in  preventing  us  from  land- 
ing, that  we  were  compelled  to  play  with 
our  artillery:  and  when  they  heard  the  ex- 
plosion, and  saw  one  of  them  fall  dead, 
they  all  drew  back  to  the  land:  wherefore, 
forming  our  council,  we  resolved  that  42 
of  our  men  should  spring  on  shore,  and, 
-if  they  waited  for  us,  fight  them:  thus 
having  leaped  to  land,  with  our  weapons, 
they  advanced  towards  us,  and  we  fought 
for  about  an  hour,  for  we  had  but  little  ad- 
vantage of  them,  except  that  our  arbalas- 
ters  and  gunners  killed  some  of  them,  and 
they  wounded  certain  of  our  men:  and 
this  was  because  they  did  not  stand  to  re- 
ceive us  within  reach  of  lance-thrust  for 
sword-blow:  and  so  much  vigour  did  we 
put  forth  at  last,  that  we  came  to  sword- 
play,  and  when  they  tasted  our  weapons, 
they  betook  themselves  to  flight  through 
the  mountains  and  the  forests,  and  left  us 
conquerors  of  the  field  with  many  of  them 
dead  and  a  good  number  wounded:  and 
for  that  day  we  took  no  other  pains  to 
pursue  them,  because  we  were  very  weary, 
and  we  returned  to  our  ships,  with  so 
much  gladness  on  the  part  of  the  seven 
men  who  had  come  with  us  that  they 
could  not  contain  themselves  (for  joy)  : 
and  when  the  next  day  arrived,  we  beheld 
coming  across  the  land  a  great  number 
of  people,  with  signals  of  battle,  continu- 
ally sounding  horns,  and  various  other 
instruments  which  they  use  in  their  wars: 
and  all  (of  them)  painted  and  feathered, 
so  that  it  was  a  very  strange  sight  to  be- 
33 


AMERICUS    VESPUCITJS 


hold   them:    wherefore  all   the  ships   held  was   asked   to   come   to   Lisbon,   to   confer 

council,    and    it   was    resolved    that   since  with  his  Highness,  who  promised  to  show 

this  people  desired  hostility  with  us,  we  me  favor.     I  was  not  inclined  to  go,  and 

should  proceed  to  encounter  them  and  try  I  despatched  the  messenger  with  a  reply 

by  every  means  to  make  them  friends:   in  that  I  was  not  well,  but  that,  when  I  had 

case  they  would  not  have  our  friendship,  recovered,  if  his  Highness  still  wished  for 

that  we  should  treat  them  as  foes,  and  so  my  services,  I  would  come  as  soon  as  he 

many  of  them  as  we  might  be  able  to  capt-  might  send  for  me.     Seeing  that  he  could 

ure  should  all  be  our  slaves:   and  having  not  have  me,  he  arranged  to  send  Giuliano 

armed  ourselves  as  best  we  could,  we  ad-  di    Bartholomeo   di    Giocondo   for   me,   he 

vanced  towards  the  shore,  and  they  sought  being   in   Lisbon,   with   instructions   that, 

not  to  hinder  us  from  landing,  I  believe  come   what    might,    he    should    bring   me. 

from  fear  of  the  cannons:  and  we  jumped  The    said   Giuliano    came   to    Seville,   and 

on  land,  57  men  in  four  squadrons,  each  prayed  so  hard  that  I  was  forced  to  go. 

one     {consisting    of)     a    captain    and    his  My  departure  was  taken  ill  by  many  who 

company:    and    we    came    to    blows    with  knew  me,  for  I  left  Castile  where  honor 

them:  and  after  a  long  battle   (in  which)  was   done  me,   and  where   the   King  held 

many  of  them   (were)    slain,  we  put  them  me  in  good  esteem.     It  was  worse  that  I 

to  flight,  and  pursued  them  to  a  village,  went    without    bidding    farewell    to    my 

having  made  about  250  of  them  captives,  host. 

and  we  burnt  the  village,  and  returned  to        When   I   was    presented    to    that   King, 

our  ships  with  victory  and  250  prisoners,  he    showed    his    satisfaction    that    I    had 

leaving  many  of  them  dead  and  wounded,  come,    and   asked   me   to   go    in    company 

and  of  ours  there  were  no  more  than  one  with  three  of  his   ships  that  were  ready 

killed,  and  22  wounded,  who  all   escaped  to  depart  for  the  discovery  of  new  lands. 

(i.   e.,  recovered),   God  be   thanked.      We  As  the  request    of  a  king  is  a  command,  I 

arranged  our  departure,  and  seven  men,  of  had  to  consent  to  whatever  he  asked;  and 

whom  five  were  wounded,  took  an  island-  we  sailed  from  this  port  of  Lisbon  with 

canoe,  and  with  seven  prisoners  that  we  three  ships  on  the   lOtli  of  March,   1501, 

gave  them,  four  women  and  three  men,  re-  shaping  our   course   direct  for  the  island 

turned    to    their     {own)    country    full    of  of   Grand   Canary.        We   passed   without 

gladness,  wondering  at  our  strength:   and  sighting  it,  and  continued  along  the  west 

we  thereon  made  sail  for  Spain  with  222  coast  of  Africa.     On  this  coast  we  made 

captive   slaves:    and   reached   the   port  of  our  fishery  of  a  sort  of  fish  called  parchi. 

Calls  {Cadiz)  on  the  15th  day  of  October,  We  remained  three  days,  and  then  came 

1498,  where  we  were  well  received  and  sold  to  a  port  on  the  coast  of  Ethiopia  called 

our  slaves.     Such  is  what  befell  me,  most  Besechiece,    which    is    within    the    Torrid 

noteworthy,  in  this  my  first  voyage.  Zone,  the  North  Pole  rising  above  it  14° 

His  Third  Voyage. — The  following  is  his  30',    situated   in   the   first   climate.     Here 

account  of  his  third  voyage,  as  detailed  in  we  remained  two  days,  taking  in  wood  and 

letters  to   (1)   Pier  Soderini,  and   (2)   Lo-  water;   for  my  intention  was  to  shape  a 

renzo  Pietro  Francesco  de'  Medici.  course  towards  the  south  in  the  Atlantic 

Gulf.     We    departed    from    this    port    of 

!•  Ethiopia,   and   steered   to   the   south-west. 

Being    afterwards    in     Seville,    resting  taking  a  quarter  point  to  the  south  until, 

from  so  many  labors  that  I  had  endured  after  sixty-seven  days,  we  came  in  sight  of 

during  these  two  voyages,   and   intending  land,    which    was    700    leagues    from    the 

to  return  to  the  land  of  pearls.  Fortune  said    port    to    the    south-west.     In    those 

showed    that    she    was    not    content    with  sixty-seven   days   we   had   the  worst  time 

these  my  labors.     I  know  not  how  there  that    man    ever    endured    who    navigated 

came   into   the  thoughts   of  the  Most   Se-  the    seas,    owing   to    the    rains,    perturba- 

rene   King  Don   Manuel    of   Portugal    the  tions,    and    storms    that    we    encountered, 

wish  to  have  my  services.     But  being  at  The   season  was  very  contrary  to  us,  by 

Seville,  without  any  thought  of  going  to  reason    of    the    course    of   our    navigation 

Portugal,  a  messenger  came  to  me  with  a  being  continually  in  contact  with  the  equi- 

letter  from  the  Eoyal  Crown,  in  which  I  noctial  line,  where,  in  the  month  of  June, 

134 


AMEBICUS    VESPUCITJS 


it  is  winter.  We  found  that  the  day  and 
the  night  were  equal,  and  that  the  shadow 
was  always  towards  the  south. 

It  pleased  God  to  show  us  a  new  land 
on  the  17th  of  August,  and  we  anchored 
at  a  distance  of  half  a  league,  and  got 
our  boats  out.  We  then  went  to  see  the 
land,  whether  it  was  inhabited,  and  what 
it  was  like.  We  found  that  it  was  inhab- 
ited by  people  who  were  worse  than  ani- 
mals. But  your  Magnificence  must  under- 
stand that  we  did  not  see  them  at  first, 
though  we  were  convinced  that  the  coun- 
try was  inhabited,  by  many  signs  observed 
by.  us.  We  took  possession  for  that  Most 
Serene  King,  and  found  the  land  to  be  very 
pleasant  and  fertile,  and  of  good  appear- 
ance. It  was  5°  to  the  south  of  the  equi- 
noctial line.  We  went  back  to  the  ships; 
and,  as  we  were  in  great  want  of  Avood  and 
water,  we  determined,  next  day,  to  return 
to  the  shore,  with  the  object  of  obtaining 
what  we  wanted.  Being  on  shore,  we  saw 
some  people  at  the  top  of  a  hill,  who  were 
looking  at  us,  but  without  showing  any  in- 
tention of  coming  down.  They  were  naked, 
and  of  the  same  color  and  form  as  the 
others  we  had  seen.  We  tried  to  induce 
them  to  come  and  speak  with  us,  but  did 
not  succeed,  as  they  would  not  trust  us. 
Seeing  their  obstinacy,  and  it  being  late, 
we  returned  on  board,  leaving  many  bells 
and  mirrors  on  shore,  and  other  things  in 
their  sight.  As  soon  as  we  were  at  some 
distance  on  the  sea,  they  came  down  from 
the  hill,  and  showed  themselves  to  be  much 
astonished  at  the  things.  On  that  day 
we  were  only  able  to  obtain  water. 

Next  morning  we  saw  from  the  ship 
that  the  people  on  shore  had  made  a  great 
smoke;  and,  thinking  it  was  the  signal  to 
us,  we  went  on  shore,  where  we  found  that 
many  people  had  come,  but  they  still  kept 
at  a  distance  from  us.  They  made  signs 
to  us  that  we  should  come  inland  with 
them.  Two  of  our  Christians  were,  there- 
fore, sent  to  ask  their  captain  for  leave 
to  go  with  them  a  short  distance  inland, 
to  see  what  kind  of  people  they  were,  and 
if  they  had  any  riches,  spices,  or  drugs. 
The  captain  was  contented,  so  they  got 
together  many  things  for  barter,  and  part- 
ed from  us,  with  instructions  that  they 
should  not  be  more  than  five  days  absent 
as  we  would  wait  that  time  for  them.  So 
they  set  out  on  their  road  inland,  and  we 


returned  to  the  ships  to  wait  for  them. 
Nearly  every  day  people  came  to  the  beach, 
but  they  would  not  speak  with  us.  On  the 
seventh  day  we  went  on  shore,  and  found 
that  they  had  arranged  with  their  women ; 
for,  as  we  jumped  on  shore,  the  men  of  the 
land  sent  many  of  their  women  to  speak 
with  us.  Seeing  that  they  were  not  re- 
assured, we  arranged  to  send  to  them  one 
of  our  people,  who  was  a  very  agile  and 
valiant  youth.  To  give  them  more  confi- 
dence, the  rest  of  us  went  back  into  the 
boats.  He  went  among  the  women,  and 
they  all  began  to  touch  and  feel  him,  won- 
dering at  him  exceedingly.  Things  being 
so,  we  saw  a  woman  come  from  the  hill, 
carrying  a  great  stick  in  her  hand.  When 
she  came  to  where  our  Christian  stood,  she 
raised  it,  and  gave  him  such  a  blow  that 
he  was  felled  to  the  ground.  The  other 
women  immediately  took  him  by  the  feet, 
and  dragged  him  towards  the  hill.  The 
men  rushed  down  to  the  beach,  and  shot  at 
us  with  their  bows  and  arrows.  Our  peo- 
ple, in  great  fear,  hauled  the  boats  towards 
their  anchors,  which  were  on  shore;  but, 
owing  to  the  quantites  of  arrows  that 
came  into  the  boats,  no  one  thought  of 
taking  up  their  arms.  At  last  four 
rounds  from  the  bombard  were  fired  at 
them ;  and  they  no  sooner  heard  the  report 
than  they  all  ran  away  towards  the  hill, 
where  the  women  were  still  tearing  the 
Christian  to  pieces.  At  a  great  fire  they 
had  made  they  roasted  him  before  our 
eyes,  showing  us  many  pieces,  and  then 
eating  them.  The  men  made  signs  how 
they  had  killed  the  other  two  Christians 
and  eaten  them.  What  shocked  us  much 
was  seeing  with  our  eyes  the  cruelty  with 
which  they  treated  the  dead,  which  was  an 
intolerable  insult  to  all  of  us. 

Having  arranged  that  more  than  forty 
of  us  should  land  and  avenge  such  cruel 
murder  and  so  bestial  and  inhuman  an 
act,  the  principal  captain  would  not  give 
his  consent.  We  departed  from  them  un- 
willingly, and  with  much  shame  caused 
by  the  decision  of  our  captain. 

We  left  this  place,  and  commenced 
our  navigation  by  shaping  a  course  be- 
tween east  and  south.  Thus  we  sailed 
along  the  land,  making  many  landings, 
seeing  natives,  but  having  no  intercourse 
with  them.  We  sailed  on  until  we  found 
that  the  coast  made  a  turn  to  the  west 


135 


AMERICUS    VESPUCIUS 


when  we  had  doubled  a  cape,  to  which  we  the   voyage,    and   having   seen    that   there 

gave  the  name  of  the  Cape  of  St.  Angus-  was   no   mining  wealth  whatever   in   that 

tine.     We   then   began   to   shape   a   course  land,  we  decided  upon  taking  leave  of  it, 

to    the    south-west.     The    cape    is    distant  and  upon  sailing  across  the  sea  for  some 

from  the  place  where  the  Christians  were  other   part.     Having  held  a   consultation, 

murdered    150    leagues   towards   the   east,  it  was  decided  that  the  course  should  be 

and  this  cape  is  8°   from  the  equinoctial  taken  which  seemed  good  to  me;   and  the 

line  to  the  south.     In  navigating,  we  saw  command  of  the  fleet  was  intrusted  to  me. 

one  day  a  great   multitude  of   people  on  I  gave  orders  that  the  fleet  should  be  sup- 

the  beach,  gazing  at  the  wonderful  sight  plied  with  wood  and  water  for  six  months, 

of   our    ships.     As   we    sailed,   we   turned  such  being  the  decision  of  the  officers  of 

the  ship  towards  them,  anchored  in  a  good  the    ships.     Having    made    our    departure 

place,  and  went  on  shore  with  the  boats,  from  this  land,  we  began  our  navigation 

We  found  the  people  to  be  better   condi-  with   a   southerly   course   on   the   15th   of 

tioned   than   those   we   had   met   with   be-  February,    when    already   the    sun   moved 

fore;    and,    responding    to    our    overtures,  towards  the  equinoctial,  and  turned  tow- 

they  soon  made  friends,  and  treated  with  ards  our   Hemisphere  of   the   North.     We 

us.     We  were  five  days  in  this  place,  and  sailed  so  far  on  this  course  that  we  found 

found  canna  fistola  very  thick  and  green,  ourselves    where    the    South    Pole    had    a 

and  dry  on  the  tops  of  the  trees.     We  de-  height  above  our  horizon  of  52°,  and  we 

termined  to  take  a  pair  of  men  from  this  could    no    longer    see    the    stars    of    Ursa 

place,    that    they    might    teach    us    their  2Iinor  or  of  Ursa  Major.     We  were  then 

language,  and  three  of  them  came  volun-  500    leagues    to    the    south    of    the    port 

tarily  to  go  to  Portugal.  whence  we  had  departed,  and  this  was  on 

Lest  your  Magnificence  should  be  tired  the  .3rd  of  April.     On  this  day  such  a  tem- 

of  so  much  writing,  you  must  know  that,  pest  arose   on  the   sea  that  all   our   sails 

on  leaving  this  port,  we  sailed  along  on  a  were  blown  away,  and  we  ran  under  bare 

westerly  course,  always  in  sight  of  land,  poles,  with  a  heavy  southerly  gale  and  a 

continually    making    many    landings,    and  tremendous   sea,   the   air  being  very  tem- 

speaking  with  an  infinite  number  of  peo-  pestuous.     The  gale  was  such  that  all  the 

pie.     We  were  so  far  south  that  we  were  people   in    the   fleet   were   much    alarmed, 

outside  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  where  the  The  nights  were  very  long,  for  the  night 

South   Pole   rises   above   the   horizon   32°.  we  had  on  the  7th  of  April  lasted  fifteen 

We  had  lost  sight  altogether  of  Ursa  Mi-  hours,  the  sun  being  at  the  end  of  Aries, 

nor  and  Ursa  Major,  which  were  far  below  and  in  that  region  it  was  winter,  as  your 

and    scarcely    seen    on    the    horizon.     We  Magnificence  will  be  well  aware.     Sailing 

guided  ourselves  by  the  stars  of  the  South  in  this  storm,  on  the  7th  of  April  we  came 

Pole,  which  are  numerous  and  much  larger  in  sight  of  new  land,  along  which  we  ran 

and   brighter   than   those   of  our   Pole.     I  for  nearly  20  leagues,  and  found  it  all  a 

traced  the   figure  of   the  greater   part   of  rocky  coast,  without  any  port  or  inhabi- 

those  of  the  first  magnitude,  with  a  dec-  tants.     I  believe  this  was  because  the  cold 

laration  of  their  orbits   round  the  South  was  so  great  that  no  one  in  the  fleet  could 

Pole,    and   of    their    diameters    and    semi-  endure  it.     Finding  ourselves  in  such  per- 

diameters,   as   may   be    seen   in   my   Four  il,    and   in   such   a    storm   that   we    could 

Voyages.     We  sailed  along  that  coast  for  scarcely  see  one  ship  from  another,  owing 

750  leagues,  150  from  the  cape  called  8t.  to    the    greatness    of    the    waves    and    the 

Augustine   to    the   west,    and    600    to   the  blinding  mist,  it  was  agreed  with  the  prin- 

south.  cipal  captain  that  a  signal  should  be  made 

Desiring  to  recount  the  things  I  saw  on  to   the   ships   that   they   should   make   for 

that  coast,  and  Avhat  happened  to  us,  as  land,    and   then   shape   a   course   for   Por- 

many  more   leaves   would   not   suffice   me.  tugal.     This  was  very  good  counsel,  for  it 

On  the  coast  we  saw  an  infinite  number  is  certain  that,  if  we  had  delayed  another 

of  trees,  brazil  wood  and  cassia,  and  those  night,  all  would  have  been  lost;  for,  as  we 

trees  which  yield  myrrh,  as  well  as  other  wore  round  on  the  next  day,  we  were  met 

marvels  of  nature  which  I  am  unable  to  by  such  a   storm  that  we  expected  to  be 

recount.     Having  now  been  ten  months  on  swamped.     We  had  to  undertake  pilgrim- 

136 


AMERICUS    VESPIICIUS 


ages  and  perform  other  ceremonies,  as  is 
the  custom  of  sailors  at  such  times.  We 
ran  for  five  days,  always  coming  towards 
the  equinoctial  line,  Avhere  the  air  and  sea 
became  more  temperate.  It  pleased  God 
to  deliver  us  from  such  peril.  Our  course 
was  now  between  the  north  and  north-east, 
for  our  intention  was  to  reach  the  coast 
of  Ethiopia,  our  distance  from  it  being 
300  leagues,  in  the  Gulf  of  the  Atlantic 
Sea.  By  the  grace  of  God,  on  the  10th 
day  of  May,  we  came  in  sight  of  land, 
where  we  were  able  to  refresh  ourselves, 
the  land  being  called  La  Serra  Liona.  We 
were  there  fifteen  days,  and  thence  shaped 
a  course  to  the  islands  of  the  Azores, 
which  are  distant  nearly  750  leagues  from 
that  Serra.  We  reached  the  islands  in  the 
end  of  July,  where  we  remained  fifteen 
days,  taking  some  recreation.  Thence  we 
departed  for  Lisbon,  distant  300  leagues 
to  the  west,  and  arrived  at  that  port  of 
Lisbon  on  the  7th  of  September,  1502,  may 
God  be  thanked  for  our  salvation,  with 
only  two  ships.  We  burnt  the  other  at 
Serra  Liona,  because  she  was  no  longer 
seaworthy.  We  were  employed  on  this 
voyage  nearly  fifteen  months ;  and  for 
eleven  days  we  navigated  without  seeing 
the  North  Star,  nor  the  Great  or  Little 
Bears,  which  they  call  el  coma,  and  we 
were  guided  by  the  stars  of  the  other  Pole. 
This  is  what  I  saw  on  this  voyage. 

2. 

March  {or  April),  1503. 
Alberico  Vesputio  to  Lorenzo  Pietro  de' 
Medici,  salutation.  In  past  days  I  wrote 
very  fully  to  you  of  my  return  from  the 
new  countries,  which  have  been  found  and 
explored  with  the  ships,  at  the  cost,  and 
by  the  command,  of  this  Most  Serene  King 
of  Portugal;  and  it  is  lawful  to  call  it  a 
new  world,  because  none  of  these  countries 
were  known  to  our  ancestors,  and  to  all 
who  hear  about  them  they  will  be  entirely 
new.  For  the  opinion  of  the  ancients  was 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  world  beyond 
the  equinoctial  line  to  the  south  was  not 
land,  but  only  sea,  which  they  have  called 
the  Atlantic;  and,  if  they  have  affirmed 
that  any  continent  is  there,  they  have 
given  many  reasons  for  denying  that  it  is 
inhabited.  But  this  their  opinion  is  false, 
and  entirely  opposed  to  the  truth.  My 
last  voyage  has  proved  it,  for  I  have  found 


a  continent  in  that  southern  part,  more 
populous  and  more  full  of  animals  than 
our  Europe  or  Asia  or  Africa,  and  even 
more  temperate  and  pleasant  than  any 
other  region  known  to  us,  as  will  be  ex- 
plained further  on.  I  shall  write  succinct- 
ly of  the  principal  things  only,  and  the 
things  most  worthy  of  notice  and  of  being 
remembered,  which  I  either  saw  or  heard 
of  in  this  new  world,  as  presently  will  be- 
come manifest. 

We  set  out,  on  a  prosperous  voyage, 
on  the  14th  of  May,  1501,  sailing  from 
Lisbon,  by  order  of  the  aforesaid  King, 
with  three  ships,  to  discover  new  countries 
towards  the  west;  and  we  sailed  towards 
the  south  continuously  for  twenty  months. 
Of  this  navigation  the  order  is  as  follows: 
Our  course  was  for  the  Fortunate  Islands, 
so  called  formerly,  but  now  we  called  them 
the  Grand  Canary  Islands,  which  are  in 
the  third  climate,  and  on  the  confines  of 
the  inhabited  west.  Thence  we  sailed 
rapidly  over  the  ocean  along  the  coast  of 
Africa  and  part  of  Ethiopia  to  the  Ethi- 
opic  Promontory,  so  called  by  Ptolemy, 
which  is  now  called  Cape  Verde,  and  by 
the  Ethiopians  Biseghier,  and  that  coun- 
try Mandraga,  13°  within  the  Torrid  Zone, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  equinoctial  line. 
The  country  is  inhabited  by  a  black  race. 
Having  taken  on  board  what  we  required, 
we  weighed  our  anchors  and  made  sail, 
taking  our  way  across  the  vast  ocean  tow- 
ards the  Antarctic  Pole,  with  some  west- 
ing. From  the  day  when  we  left  the  be- 
fore-mentioned promontory,  we  sailed  for 
the  space  of  two  months  and  three  days. 
Hitherto  no  land  had  appeared  to  us  in 
that  vast  sea.  In  truth,  how  much  we  had 
suffered,  what  dangers  of  shipwreck,  I 
leave  to  the  judgment  of  those  to  whom 
the  experience  of  such  things  is  very  well 
known.  What  a  thing  it  is  to  seek  un- 
known lands,  and  how  difficult,  being  ig- 
norant, to  narrate  briefly  what  happened! 
It  should  be  known  that,  of  the  sixty- 
seven  days  of  our  voyage,  we  were  navi- 
gating continuously  forty-four.  We  had  co- 
pious thunderstorms  and  perturbations, 
and  it  was  so  dark  that  we  never  could 
see  either  the  sun  in  the  day  or  the  moon 
at  night.  This  caused  us  great  fear,  so 
that  we  lost  all  hope  of  life.  In  these 
most  terrible  dangers  of  the  sea  it  pleased 
the  Most  High  to  show  us  the  continent 


137 


AMERICTJS    VESPTJCIUS 


and  the  new  countries,  being  another  un- 
known world.  These  things  being  in  sight, 
we  were  as  much  rejoiced  as  any  one 
may  imagine  who,  after  calamity  and  ill- 
fortune,  has  obtained  safety.  ■ 

It  was  on  the  7th  of  August,  1501, 
that  we  reached  those  countries,  thanking 
our  Lord  God  with  solemn  prayers,  and 
celebrating  a  choral  Mass.  We  knew  that 
land  to  be  a  continent,  and  not  an  island, 
from  its  long  beaches  extending  without 
trending  round,  the  infinite  number  of  in- 
habitants, the  numerous  tribes  and  peo- 
ples, the  numerous  kinds  of  wild  animals 
unknown  in  our  country,  and  many  others 
never  seen  before  by  us,  touching  which  it 
would  take  long  to  make  reference.  The 
clemency  of  God  was  shown  forth  to  us  by 
being  brought  to  these  regions;  for  the 
ships  were  in  a  leaking  state,  and  in  a 
few  days  our  lives  might  have  been  lost  in 
the  sea.  To  Him  be  the  honor  and  glory, 
and  the  grace  of  the  action. 

We  took  counsel,  and  resolved  to  navi- 
gate along  the  coast  of  this  continent  tow- 
ards the  east,  and  never  to  lose  sight  of 
the  land.  We  sailed  along  until  we  came 
to  a  point  where  the  coast  turned  to  the 
south.  The  distance  from  the  landfall  to 
this  point  was  nearly  300  leagues.  In  this 
stretch  of  coast  we  often  landed,  and  had 
friendly  relations  with  the  natives,  as  I 
shall  presently  relate.  I  had  forgotten  to 
tell  you  that  from  Cape  Verde  to  the  first 
land  of  this  continent  the  distance  is  near- 
ly 700  leagues;  although  I  estimate  that 
we  went  over  more  than  1.800,  partly 
owing  to  ignorance  of  the  route,  and  part- 
ly owing  to  the  tempests  and  foul  winds 
which  drove  us  off  our  course,  and  sent  us 
in  various  directions.  If  my  companions 
had  not  trusted  in  me,  to  whom  cosmog- 
raphy was  known,  no  one,  not  the  leader 
of  our  navigation,  would  have  known 
where  we  were  after  running  .500  leagues. 
We  were  wandering  and  full  of  errors,  and 
only  the  instruments  for  taking  the  alti- 
tudes of  heavenly  bodies  showed  us  our 
position.  These  were  the  quadrant  and 
astrolabe,  as  known  to  all.  These  have 
been  m\ich  used  by  me  with  much  honor ; 
for  I  showed  them  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  marine  chart,  and  the  rules  taught 
by  it,  are  more  worth  than  all  the  pilots 
in  the  world.  For  these  pilots  have  no 
knowledge  beyond  those  places  to  which 


they  have  often  sailed.  Where  the  said 
point  of  land  showed  us  the  trend  of  the 
coast  to  the  south,  we  agreed  to  continue 
our  voyage,  and  to  ascertain  what  there 
might  be  in  those  regions.  We  sailed 
along  the  coast  for  nearly  500  leagues, 
often  going  on  shore  and  having  inter- 
course with  the  natives,  who  received  us  in 
a  brotherly  manner.  We  sometimes  stay- 
ed with  them  for  fifteen  or  twenty  days 
continuously,  as  friends  and  guests,  as  I 
shall  relate  presently.  Part  of  this  conti- 
nent is  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  beyond  the 
equinoctial  line  towards  the  South  Pole. 
But  it  begins  at  8°  beyond  the  equinoctial. 
We  sailed  along  the  coast  so  far  that  we 
crossed  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  found 
ourselves  where  the  Antarctic  Pole  was 
50°  above  our  horizon.  We  went  towards 
the  Antarctic  Circle  until  we  were  17°  30' 
from  it,  all  of  which  I  have  seen,  and  I 
have  known  the  nature  of  those  people, 
their  customs,  the  resources  and  fertility 
of  the  land,  the  salubrity  of  the  air,  the 
positions  of  the  celestial  bodies  in  the 
heavens,  and,  above  all,  the  fixed  stars, 
over  an  eighth  of  the  sphere,  never  seen  by 
our  ancestors,  as  I  shall  explain  below. 

As  regards  the  people:  we  have  found 
such  a  multitude  in  those  countries  that 
no  one  could  enumerate  them,  as  we  read 
in  the  Apocalypse.  They  are  people  gen- 
tle and  tractable,  and  all  of  both  sexes  go 
naked,  not  covering  any  part  of  their 
bodies,  .  .  .  and  so  they  go  until  their 
deaths.  They  have  large,  square-built 
bodies,-  and  well  proportioned.  Their  col- 
or reddish,  which,  I  think,  is  caused  by 
their  going  naked  and  exposed  to  the  sun. 
Their  hair  is  plentiful  and  black.  They 
are  agile  in  walking,  and  of  quick  sight. 
They  are  of  a  free  and  good-looking  ex- 
pression of  countenance,  which  they  them- 
selves destroy  by  boring  the  nostrils  and 
lips,  the  nose  and  ears;  nor  mvist  you  be- 
lieve that  the  borings  are  small,  nor  that 
they  only  have  one,  for  I  have  seen  those 
who  had  no  less  than  seven  borings  in  the 
face,  each  one  the  size  of  a  plum.  They 
stop  up  these  perforations  with  blue 
stones,  bits  of  marble,  of  crystal,  or  very 
fine  alabaster,  also  with  very  white  bones 
and  other  things  artificially  prepared  ac- 
cording to  their  customs,  which,  if  you 
could  see,  it  would  appear  a  strange  and 
monstrous  thing.     One  had  in  the  nostrils 


138 


AMERICUS    VESPUCIUS 


and  lips  alone  seven  stones,  of  which  some 
were  half  a  palm  in  length.  It  will  as- 
tonish you  to  hear  that  I  considered  that 
the  weight  of  seven  such  stones  was  as 
much  as  sixteen  ounces.  In  each  ear  they 
had  three  perforations  bored,  whence  they 
had  other  stones  and  rings  suspended. 
This  custom  is  only  for  the  men,  as  the 
women  do  not  perforate  their  faces,  but 
only  their  ears.  .  .  . 

They  have  no  cloth,  either  of  wool, 
flax,  or  cotton,  because  they  have  no  need 
of  it;  nor  have  they  any  private  prop- 
erty, everything  being  in  common.  They 
live  amongst  themselves  without  a  king  or 
ruler,  each  man  being  his  own  master,  and 
having  as  many  wives  as  they  please.  .  .  . 
They  have  no  temples  and  no  laws,  nor  are 
they  idolaters.  What  more  can  I  say? 
They  live  according  to  nature,  and  are 
more  inclined  to  be  Epicurean  than  Stoic. 
They  have  no  commerce  among  each  other, 
and  they  wage  war  without  art  or  order. 
The  old  men  make  the  youths  do  what 
they  please,  and  incite  them  to  fights,  in 
which  they  mutually  kill  with  great  cruel- 
ty. They  slaughter  those  who  are  capt- 
ured, and  the  victors  eat  the  vanquished; 
for  human  flesh  is  an  ordinary  article  of 
food  among  them.  You  may  be  the  more 
certain  of  this,  because  I  have  seen  a  man 
eat  his  children  and  wife;  and  I  knew  a 
man  who  was  popularly  credited  to 
have  eaten  300  human  bodies.  I  was 
once  in  a  certain  city  for  twenty-seven 
days,  where  human  flesh  was  hung  up 
near  the  houses,  in  the  same  way  as  we 
expose  butcher's  meat.  I  say  further  that 
they  were  surprised  that  we  did  not  eat 
our  enemies,  and  use  their  flesh  as  food; 
for  they  say  it  is  excellent.  Their  arms 
are  bows  and  arrows;  and,  when  they  go 
to  war,  they  cover  no  part  of  their  bodies, 
being  in  this  like  beasts.  We  did  all  we 
could  to  persuade  them  to  desist  from 
their  evil  habits,  and  they  promised  us  to 
leave  off.  .  .  . 

They  live  for  150  years,  and  are  rarely 
sick.  If  they  are  attacked  by  a  disease, 
they  cure  themselves  with  the  roots  of 
some  herbs.  These  are  the  most  note- 
worthy things  I  know  about  them. 

The  air  in  this  country  is  temperate 
and  good,  as  we  were  able  to  learn  from 
their  accounts  that  there  are  never  any 
pestilences    or    epidemics    caused    by    bad 


air.  Unless  they  meet  with  violent  deaths, 
their  lives  are  long.  I  believe  this  is  be- 
cause a  southerly  wind  is  always  blowing, 
a  south  wind  to  them  being  what  a  north 
wind  is  to  us.  They  are  expert  fisher- 
men, and  the  sea  is  full  of  all  kinds  of 
fish.  They  are  not  hunters.  I  think  because 
here  there  are  many  kinds  of  wild  animals, 
principally  lions  and  bears,  innumerable 
serpents,  and  other  horrible  creatures  and 
deformed  beasts,  also  because  there  are 
vast  forests  and  trees  of  immense  size. 
They  have  not  the  courage  to  face  such 
dangers  naked  and  without  any  defence. 

The  land  is  very  fertile,  abounding  in 
many  hills  and  valleys  and  in  large  rivers, 
and  is  irrigated  by  very  refreshing  springs. 
It  is  covered  with  extensive  and  dense 
forests,  which  are  almost  impenetrable, 
and  full  of  every  kind  of  wild  beast. 
Great  trees  grow  without  cultivation,  of 
which  many  yield  fruits  pleasant  to  the 
taste  and  nourishing  to  the  human  body; 
and  a  great  many  have  an  opposite  effect. 
The  fruits  are  unlike  those  in  our  coun- 
try; and  there  are  innumerable  different 
kinds  of  fruits  and  herbs,  of  which  they 
make  bread  and  excellent  food.  They  also 
have  many  seeds  unlike  ours.  No  kind 
of  metal  has  been  found  except  gold,  in 
which  the  country  abounds,  though  we 
have  brought  none  back  in  this  our  first 
navigation.  The  natives,  however,  assur- 
ed us  that  there  was  an  immense  quantity 
of  gold  underground,  and  nothing  was  to 
be  had  from  them  for  a  price.  Pearls 
abound,  as  I  wrote  to  you. 

If  I  was  to  attempt  to  write  of  all  the 
species  of  animals,  it  would  be  a  long  and 
tedious  task.  I  believe  certainly  that  our 
Pliny  did  not  touch  upon  a  thousandth 
part  of  the  animals  and  birds  that  exist 
in  this  region ;  nor  could  an  artist  such  as 
Policletus  succeed  in  painting  them.  All 
the  trees  are  odoriferous,  and  some  of 
them  emit  gums,  oils,  or  other  liquors.  If 
they  were  our  property,  I  do  not  doubt 
but  that  they  would  be  useful  to  man. 
If  the  terrestrial  paradise  is  in  some  part 
of  this  land,  it  cannot  be  very  far  from 
the  coast  we  visited.  It  is,  as  I  have  told 
you,  in  a  climate  where  the  air  is  tem- 
perate at  noon,  being  neither  cold  in  win- 
ter nor  hot  in  summer. 

The  sky  and  air  are  serene  during  a 
great   part   of   the  year.       Thick   vapors, 


139 


AMEBICUS    VESPUCIUS 


with  fine  rain  falling,  last  for  three  or 
four  hours,  and  then  disappear  like  smoke. 
The  sky  is  adorned  with  most  beautiful 
signs  and  figures,  in  which  I  have  noted 
as  many  as  twenty  stars  as  bright  as  we 
sometimes  see  Venus  and  Jupiter.  I  have 
considered  the  orbits  and  motions  of  these 
stars:  and  I  have  measured  the  circum- 
ference and  diameters  of  the  stars  by  a 
geometrical  method,  ascertaining  which 
were  the  largest.  I  saw  in  the  heaven 
three  Canopi,  two  certainly  bright  and  the 
other  obscure.  The  Antarctic  Pole  is  not 
figured  with  a  Great  Bear  and  a  Little 
Bear,  like  our  Arctic  Pole,  nor  is  any 
bright  star  seen  near  it,  and  of  those  which 
go  round  in  the  shortest  circuit  there  are 
three  which  have  the  figure  of  the  orthog- 
onous  tri.angle,  of  which  the  smallest  has 
a  diameter  of  9  half-degrees.  To  the  east 
of  these  is  seen  a  Canopus  of  great  size, 
and  white,  which,  when  in  mid-heaven,  has 
this  figure:  — 


s  s  s  s 

s  s  s  s  s  s 

s  s  s  s 

canopus 
*  -»■ 

After  these  come  two  others,  of  which 
the  half-circumference,  the  diameter,  has 
12  half-degrees;  and  with  them  is  seen 
another  Canopus.  To  these  succeed  six 
other  most  beautiful  and  very  bright  stars, 
beyond  all  the  others  of  the  eighth  sphere, 
which,  in  the  superficies  of  the  heaven, 
have  half  the  circumference,  the  diameter 
32°,  and  with  them  is  one  black  Canopus 
of  immense  size,  seen  in  the  Milky  Way, 
and  they  have  this  shape  when  they  are 
on  the  meridian:  — 


s  s 

s  s  s  s 

s  s  s  s  s  s 

s  s  s 

* 

I  have  known  many  other  very  beautiful 
stars,  which  I  have  diligently  noted  down, 
and  have  described  very  well  in  a  certain 
little  book  describing  this  my  navigation, 
which  at  present  is  in  the  possession  of 
that  Most  Serene  King;  and  I  hope  he  will 


restore  it  to  me.  In  that  hemisphere  I 
have  seen  things  not  compatible  with  the 
opinions  of  philosophers.  Twice  I  have 
seen  a  white  rainbow  towards  the  middle 
of  the  night,  which  was  not  only  observed 
by  me,  but  also  by  all  the  sailors.  Like- 
wise we  often  saw  the  new  moon  on  the 
day  on  which  it  is  in  conjunction  with  the 
sun.  Every  night,  in  that  part  of  the 
heavens  of  which  we  speak,  there  were  in- 
numerable vapors  and  burning  meteors. 
I  have  told  you,  a  little  way  back,  that, 
in  the  hemisphere  of  which  we  are  speak- 
ing, it  is  not  a  complete  hemisphere  in  re- 
spect to  ours,  because  it  does  not  take 
that  form  so  that  it  may  be  properly  call- 
ed so. 

Therefore,  as  I  have  said,  from  Lisbon, 
whence  we  started,  the  distance  from  the 
equinoctial  line  is  39° ;  and  we  navigated 
beyond  the  equinoctial  line  to  50°,  which 
together  make  90°,  which  is  one  quarter 
of  a  great  circle,  according  to  the  true 
measurement  handed  down  to  us  by  the  an- 
cients, so  that  it  is  manifest  that  we  must 
have  navigated  over  a  fourth  part  of  the 
earth.  By  this  reasoning,  we  who  inhabit 
Lisbon,  at  a  distance  of  39°  from  the  equi- 
noctial line  in  north  latitude,  are  to  those 
who  live  under  50°  beyond  the  same  line, 
in  meridional  length,  angularly  5°  on  a 
transverse  line.  I  will  explain  this  more 
clearly:  a  perpendicular  line,  while  we 
stand  upright,  if  suspended  from  a  point 
of  the  heavens  exactly  vertical,  hangs  over 
our  heads;  but  it  hangs  over  them  side- 
ways. Thus,  while  we  are  on  a  right  line, 
they  are  on  a  transverse  line.  An  or- 
thogonal triangle  is  thus  formed,  of  which 
we  have  the  right  line;  but  the  base  and 
hypothenuse  to  them  seems  the  vertical 
line,  as  in  this  figure  it  will  appear.  This 
will  suffice  as  regards  cosmography. 


These  are  the  most  notable  things  that 
T  have  seen  in  this  my  last  navigation,  or. 


140 


AMES 


as  I  call  it,  the  third  voyage.  For  the 
other  two  voyages  were  made  by  order  of 
the  Most  Serene  King  of  Spain  to  the 
west,  in  which  I  noted  many  wonderful 
works  of  God,  our  Creator;  and,  if  I 
should  have  time,  I  intend  to  collect  all 
these  singular  and  wonderful  things  into 
a  geographical  or  cosmographical  book, 
that  my  record  may  live  with  future  gen- 
erations ;  and  the  immense  work  of  the 
omnipotent  God  will  be  known,  in  parts 
still  unknown,  but  known  to  us.  I  also 
pray  that  the  most  merciful  God  will 
prolong  my  life  that,  with  His  good 
grace,  I  may  be  able  to  make  the  best  dis- 
position of  this  my  wish.  I  keep  the 
other  two  journeys  in  my  sanctuary;  and, 
the  Most  Serene  King  restoring  to  me  the 
third  journey,  I  intend  to  return  to  peace 
and  my  country.  There,  in  consultation 
with  learned  persons,  and  comforted  and 
aided  by  friends,  I  shall  be  able  to  com- 
plete my  work. 

I  ask  your  pardon  for  not  having 
sooner  been  able  to  send  you  this  my  last 
navigation,  as  I  had  promised  in  my  for- 
mer letters.  I  believe  that  you  will  under- 
stand the  cause,  which  was  that  I  could 
not  get  the  books  from  this  Most  Serene 
King.  I  think  of  undertaking  a  fourth 
voyage  in  the  same  direction,  and  promise 
is  already  made  of  two  ships  with  their 
armaments,  in  which  I  may  seek  new  re- 
gions of  the  East  on  a  coast  called  Africus. 
In  which  journey  I  hope  much  to  do  God 
honor,  to  be  of  service  to  this  kingdom, 
to  secure  repute  for  my  old  age;  and  I  ex- 
pect no  other  result  with  the"  permission  of 
this  Most  Serene  King.  May  God  permit 
Avhat  is  for  the  best,  and  you  shall  be  in- 
formed of  what  happens. 

This  letter  was  translated  from  the 
Italian  into  the  Latin  language  by  Jo- 
cundus,  interpreter,  as  every  one  under- 
stands Latin  who  desires  to  learn  about 
these  voyages,  and  to  search  into  the 
things  of  heaven,  and  to  know  all  that  is 
proper  to  be  known;  for,  from  the  time 
the  world  began,  so  much  has  not  been 
discovered  touching  the  greatness  of  the 
earth  and  what  is  contained  in  it. 

Ames,  Adelrert,  military  officer;  born 
in  Rockland,  Me.,  Oct.  31,  1835;  was  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1861 ;  and  for  his 
gallant  conduct  in  the  Battle  of  Bull 
Run    (1861)    was    brevetted    major.      He 


served  in  the  campaigns  on  the  Peninsula 
in  1862.  At  Chancellorsville  he  led  a 
brigade,  also  at  Gettysburg,  in  1863,  and 
before  Petersburg,  in  1864,  he  command- 
ed a  division.  In  the  expedition  against 
Fort  Fisher,  near  the  close  of  that  year,  he 
commanded  a  division  of  colored  troops, 
and  afterwards  led  the  same  in  North 
Carolina.  In  the  spring  of  1865  he  was 
brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers  and 
brigadier-general,  U.  S.  A.  In  1871  he 
was  a  representative  of  Mississippi  in  the 
United  States  Senate;  was  governor  in 
1874;  and  was  appointed  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers  June  20,  1898,  serving 
through  the  war  with  Spain. 

Ames,  Fisher,  orator  and  statesman; 
born  in  Dedham,  Mass.,  April  9,  1758;  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1774; 
taught  school  until  1781;  then  began  the 
practice  of  law;  and  soon  displayed  rare 
oratorical"  powers.  He  wrote  political 
essays  for  Boston  newspapers,  over  the 
signatures  of  "  Brutus  "  and  "  Camillus." 
In  Congress  from  1789  until  1797  he  was 
always  distinguished  for  his  great  business 
talent,  exalted  patriotism,  and  brilliant 
oratory.  Ardently  devoted  to  Washing- 
ton, personally  and  politically,  he  was 
chosen  by  his  colleagues  to  write  the  ad- 
dress to  the  first  President  on  his  retiring 


FISHER    AMKS. 


from  office  in  1797.  After  leaving  Congress 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  practice  of  his 
profession ;  but  finally,  on  account  of  de- 
clining health,  gave  it  up  to  engage  exclu- 
sively in  agricultural  pursuits.  In  1804 
he  was  chosen  president  of  Harvard  Col- 


141 


AMES 


lege,  but  declined  tlie  honor.  He  received 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  that  institution. 
His  orations,  essays,  and  letters  were  col- 
lected and  published  in  1  volume,  v^^ith 
a  biographical  sketch  by  Rev.  Dr.  Kirk- 
land,  in  1809.  So  powerful  was  his  great 
speech  in  Congress  in  favor  of  Jay's 
Treaty,  on  April  28,  1795,  that  an  oppo- 
sition member  moved  to  postpone  the  deci- 
sion of  the  question  that  they  might  not 
"  vote  under  the  influence  of  a  sensibility 
which  their  calm  judgment  might  con- 
demn." He  died  in  Dedham,  July  4, 
1808. 

Speech  on  Jay's  Treaty. — The  following 
are  extracts  from  his  speech  made  on 
April  28,  1796: 

The  treaty  is  bad,  fatally  bad,  is  the 
cry.  It  sacrifices  the  interest,  the  honor, 
the  independence  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  faith  of  our  engagements  to  France. 
If  we  listen  to  the  clamor  of  party  intem- 
perance, the  evils  are  of  a  number  not  to 
be  counted,  and  of  a  nature  not  to  be 
borne,  even  in  idea.  The  language  of 
passion  and  exaggeration  may  silence  that 
of  sober  reason  in  other  places;  it  has  not 
done  it  here.  The  question  here  is  whether 
the  treaty  be  really  so  very  fatal  as  to 
oblige  the  nation  to  break  its  faith.  I  ad- 
mit that  svich  a  treaty  ought  not  to  be 
executed.  I  admit  that  self-preservation 
is  the  first  law  of  society,  as  well  as  of 
individuals.  It  would,  perhaps,  be  deemed 
an  abuse  of  terms  to  call  that  a  treaty 
which  violates  such  a  principle.  I  waive, 
also,  for  the  present,  any  inquiry,  what 
departments  shall  represent  the  nation, 
and  annul  the  stipulations  of  a  treaty.  I 
content  myself  with  pursuing  the  inquiry, 
whether  the  nature  of  this  compact  be  such 
as  to  justify  our  refusal  to  carry  it  into 
eflfect.  A  treaty  is  the  promise  of  a  na- 
tion. Now,  promises  do  not  always  bind 
him  that  makes  them.  But  I  lay  down 
two  rules,  which  ought  to  guide  us  in  this 
case.  The  treaty  must  appear  to  be  bad, 
not  merely  in  the  petty  details,  but  in  its 
character,  principle,  and  mass.  And  in 
the  next  place,  this  ought  to  be  ascertain- 
ed by  the  decided  and  general  concurrence 
of  the  enlightened  public. 

I  confess  there  seems  to  be  something 
very  like  ridicule  thrown  over  the  debate 
by  the  discussion  of  the  articles  in  detail. 


The  undecided  point  is,  shall  we  break  our 
faith?  And  while  our  country  and  en- 
lightened Europe  await  the  issue  with 
more  than  curiosity,  we  are  employed  to 
gather  piecemeal,  and  article  by  article, 
from  the  instrument  a  justification  for 
the  deed  by  trivial  calculations  of  com- 
mercial profit  and  loss.  This  is  little 
worthy  of  the  subject,  of  this  body,  or  of 
the  nation.  If  the  treaty  is  bad,  it  will 
appear  to  be  so  in  its  mass.  Evil,  to  a 
fatal  extreme,  if  that  be  its  tendency,  re- 
quires no  proof;  it  brings  it.  Extremes 
speak  for  themselves  and  make  their  own 
law.  What  if  the  direct  voyage  of  Amer- 
ican ships  to  Jamaica,  with  horses  or  lum- 
ber, might  net  1  or  2  per  centum  more 
than  the  present  trade  to  Surinam — would 
the  proof  of  the  fact  avail  anything  in  so 
grave  a  question  as  the  violation  of  the 
public  engagements?  .  .  . 

Why  do  they  complain  that  the  West 
Indies  are  not  laid  open?  Why  do  they 
lament  that  any  restriction  is  stipulated 
on  the  commerce  of  the  East  Indies? 
Why  do  they  pretend  that,  if  they  reject 
this  and  insist  upon  more,  more  will 
be  accomplished?  Let  us  be  explicit — • 
more  would  not  satisfy.  If  all  was  grant- 
ed, would  not  a  treaty  of  amity  with  Great 
Britain  still  be  obnoxious?  Have  we  not 
this  instant  heard  it  urged  against  our 
envoy  that  he  was  not  ardent  enough  in 
his  hati'ed  of  Great  Britain?  A  treaty  of 
amity  is  condemned  because  it  was  not 
made  by  a  foe  and  in  the  spirit  of  one. 
The  same  gentleman,  at  the  same  instant, 
repeats  a  very  prevailing  objection,  that 
no  treaty  should  be  made  with  the  enemy 
of  France.  No  treaty,  exclaim  others, 
should  be  made  with  a  monarch  or  a  des- 
pot; there  will  be  no  naval  security  while 
those  sea-robbers  domineer  on  the  ocean; 
their  den  must  be  destroyed;  that  nation 
must  be  extirpated. 

I  like  this,  sir,  because  it  is  sincerity. 
With  feelings  such  as  these  we  do  not  pant 
for  treaties.  Such  jjassions  seek  nothing, 
and  will  be  content  with  nothing,  but  the 
destruction  of  their  object.  If  a  treaty 
left  King  George  his  island,  it  would  not 
answer;  not  if  he  stipulated  to  pay  rent 
for  it.  It  has  been  said  the  world  ought 
to  rejoice  if  Britain  was  sunk  in  the 
sea;  if  where  there  are  now  men  and 
wealth  and  laws  and  liberty,  there  was  no 


142 


AMES 


more  than  a  sand-bank  for  sea  monsters 
to  fatten  on,  a  space  for  the  storms  of  the 
ocean  to  mingle  in  conflict.  .  .  . 

What  is  patriotism?  Is  it  a  narrow 
affection  for  the  spot  where  a  man  was 
born?  Are  the  very  clods  where  we  tread 
entitled  to  this  ardent  preference  because 
they  are  greener?  No,  sir,  this  is  not  the 
character  of  the  virtue,  and  it  soars 
higher  for  its  object.  It  is  an  extended 
self-love,  mingled  with  all  the  enjoyments 
of  life,  and  twisting  itself  with  the  mi- 
nutest filaments  of  the  heart.  It  is  thus 
we  obey  the  laws  of  society,  because  they 
are  the  laws  of  virtue.  In  their  authority 
we  see  not  the  array  of  force  and  terror, 
but  the  venerable  image  of  our  country's 
honor.  Every  good  citizen  makes  that 
honor  his  own,  and  cherishes  it  not  only 
as  precious,  but  as  sacred.  He  is  will- 
ing to  risk  his  life  in  its  defence,  and  is 
conscious  that  he  gains  protection  while 
he  gives  it.  For,  what  rights  of  a  citizen 
will  be  deemed  inviolable  when  a  state 
renounces  the  principles  that  constitute 
their  security?  Or  if  his  life  should  not 
be  invaded,  what  would  its  enjoyments  be 
in  a  country  odious  in  the  eyes  of 
strangers  and  dishonored  in  his  own? 
Could  he  look  with  affection  and  venera- 
tion to  such  a  country  as  his  parent?  The 
sense  of  having  one  would  die  within  him ; 
he  would  blush  for  his  patriotism,  if  he 
retained  any,  and  justly,  for  it  would  be 
a  vice.  He  would  be  a  banished  man  in 
his  native  land.  I  see  no  exception  to  the 
respect  that  is  paid  among  nations  to 
the  laws  of  good  faith.  If  there  are  cases 
in  this  enlightened  period  when  it  is  vio- 
lated, there  are  none  when  it  is  decried. 
It  is  the  philosophy  of  politics,  the  re- 
ligion of  governments.  It  is  observed  by 
barbarians — a  whiflf  of  tobacco  smoke  or 
a  string  of  beads  gives  not  merely  a  bind- 
ing force  but  sanctity  to  treaties.  Even 
in  Algiers  a  truce  may  be  bought  for 
money,  but,  when  ratified,  even  Algiers 
is  too  wise  or  too  just  to  disown  and  an- 
nul its  obligation.  Thus  we  see  neither 
the  ignorance  of  savages  nor  the  principles 
of  an  association  for  piracy  and  rapine 
permit  a  nation  to  despise  its  engage- 
ments. If,  sir,  there  could  be  a  resur- 
rection from  the  foot  of  the  gallows,  if 
the  victims  of  justice  could  live  again, 
collect  together  and  form  a  society,  they 


would,  however  loath,  soon  find  themselves 
obliged  to  make  justice,  that  justice  under 
which  they  fell,  the  fundamental  law  of 
their  state.  They  would  perceive  it  was 
their  interest  to  make  others  respect — 
and  they  would,  therefore,  soon  pay  some 
respect  themselves  to — the  obligations  of 
good  faith. 

It  is  painful — I  hope  it  is  superfluous 
— to  make  even  the  supposition  that 
America  should  furnish  the  occasion  of 
this  opprobrium.  No,  let  me  not  even 
imagine  that  a  republican  government, 
sprung,  as  our  own  is,  from  a  people  en- 
lightened and  uncorrupted,  a  government 
whose  origin  is  right,  and  whose  daily 
discipline  is  duty,  can,  upon  solemn  de- 
bate, make  its  option  to  be  faithless — • 
can  dare  to  act  what  despots  dare  not 
avow,  what  our  own  example  evinces,  the 
states  of  Barbary  are  unsuspected  of.  No, 
let  me  rather  make  the  supposition  that 
Great  Britain  refuses  to  execute  the 
treaty  after  we  have  done  everything  to 
carry  it  into  effect.  Is  there  any  lan- 
guage of  reproach  pungent  enough  to  ex- 
press your  commentary  on  the  fact?  What 
would  you  say,  or,  rather,  what  would 
you  not  say?  Would  you  not  tell  them, 
wherever  an  Englishman  might  travel, 
shame  would  stick  to  him — he  would  dis- 
own his  country?  You  would  exclaim: 
"  England,  proud  of  your  wealth  and  ar- 
rogant in  the  possession  of  power,  blush 
for  these  distinctions,  which  become  the 
vehicles  of  your  dishonor."  Such  a  na- 
tion might  truly  say  to  corruption,  "  Thou 
art  my  father";  and  to  the  worm,  "Thou 
art  my  mother  and  my  sister."  We  should 
say  of  such  a  race  of  men,  their  name  is  a 
heavier  burden  than  their  debt.  .  .  . 

Ames,  Herman  Vandenburg,  his- 
torian; born  in  Lancaster,  Mass.,  Aug. 
7,  1865;  was  graduated  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege in  1888  and  later  studied  in  Ger- 
many. In  1891-94  he  was  an  instructor 
in  History  at  the  University  of  Michigan; 
in  1896-97  occupied  a  similar  post  in 
Ohio  State  University;  and  in  the  latter 
year  accepted  the  chair  of  American  Con- 
stitutional History  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  is  author  of  The  Pro- 
posed Amendments  to  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  for  which  he  was 
awarded  the  prize  of  the  American  His- 
torical Association  in  1897. 


143 


AMES— AMIDAS 


Ames,  Oakes,  manuf acturev ;  born  in 
Easton,  Mass.,  Jan.  10,  1804;  received  a 
public  school  education;  became  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  manufacture  of 
shovels,  etc.  Subsequently  he  became  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  Oliver  Ames  & 
Sons.  When  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
was  being  built  the  firm  held  large  con- 
tracts which  afterwards  were  transferred 
to  a  corporation  known  as  the  Credit 
Mobil  ier  of  America,  of  which  Oakes 
Ames  became  one  of  the  largest  stockhold- 
ers. In  1862-73  he  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  Massachusetts.  His  connection 
with  the  Credit  Mobilier,  including  an  al- 
legation of  having  improperly  given  stock 
to  several  members  of  Congress,  was  in- 
vestigated by  a  committee  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  he  was  censured 
by  that  body.  He  died  in  North  Easton, 
Mass.,    May"  8,    1873.      See    Credit    Mo- 

BIIJER. 

statesman ;      born     in 

4,    1831:    educated  at 

member   of   the    State 

lieutenant  -  governor, 

in     North     Easton, 


Ames,     Oliver, 
Easton,  Mass.,  Feb. 
Brown   Universitj^ : 
Senate,       1880-81; 
1882-84.       He     died 


Mass.,  Oct.  22,  1895. 

Am.lierst,  Sir  Jeffrey,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Kent,  England,  Jan.  29, 
1717  J  became  an  ensign  in  the  army  in 
1731,  and  was 
aide  to  Lord 
Ligonier  and 
the  Duke  of 
Cumberland. 
In  1756  he  was 
promoted  to 
major  -  gener- 
al and  given 
the  command 
of  the  expedi- 
tion against 
Louisburg  in 
1758,  which  re- 
sulted in  its  capture,  with  other  French 
strongholds,  in  that  vicinity.  In  Septem- 
ber, that  year,  he  was  appointed  command- 
er-in-chief in  America,  and  led  the  troops 


SIR    JEFFREY   AMHERST. 


in  person,  in  1759,  that  drove  the  French 
from  Like  Champlain.  The  next  year 
he  captured  Montreal  and  completed 
the  conquest  of  Canada.  For  these  acts 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  thanks  of 
Parliament  and  the  Order  of  the  Bath. 
In  1763  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia. The  atrocities  of  the  Indians  in 
May  and  June  of  that  year  aroused  the 
anger  and  the  energies  of  Sir  Jeffrey,  and 
he  contemplated  hurling  swift  destruction 
upon  the  barbarians.  He  denounced  Pon- 
tiac  as  the  "  chief  ringleader  of  mis- 
chief"; and,  in  a  proclamation,  said, 
"  Whoever  kills  Pontiac  shall  receive 
from  me  a  reward  of  £100"  ($500).  He 
bade  the  commander  at  Detroit  to  make 
public  proclamation  for  an  assassin  to 
pursue  him.  He  regarded  the  Indians  as 
"  the  vilest  race  of  creatures  on  the  face 
of  the  earth;  and  whose  riddance  from  it 
must  be  esteemed  a  meritorious  act,  for 
the  good  of  mankind."  He  instructed  his 
officers  engaged  in  war  against  them  to 
"  take  no  prisoners,  but  to  put  to  death  all 
that  should  fall  into  their  hands."  Sir 
Jeffrey  was  made  governor  of  the  island 
of  Guernsey  in  1771;  created  a  baron  in 
1776;  was  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces  from  1778  to  1795;  and  became 
field-marshal  in  July,  1796.  He  died  Aug. 
3,  1797. 

Amherst  College,  an  educational  insti- 
tution in  Amherst,  Mass.,  founded  in 
J821;  incorporated  in  1825.  The  funds 
for  the  construction  of  its  buildings  and 
for  its  endowments  have  been  furnished 
by  gifts  of  individuals,  with  the  exception 
of  $50,000  given  by  the  State.  The  Chris- 
tian men  and  women  of  Massachusetts 
have  built  it  up  and  chiefly  sustain  it. 
The  declared  object  of  its  founders  was 
■'  the  education  of  young  men  for  minis- 
terial and  missionary  labor."  In  1899  it 
liad  thirty-six  professors  and  instructors, 
380  students,  buildings  that  cost  over 
.f400,000,  and  valuable  art  and  scientific 
collections.  The  Rev.  George  Harris  D.D., 
was  elected  its  president  in  that  year. 


AMIDAS,    PHILIP 

Amidas,  Philip,  navigator;  was  of  a  sent  two  ships  to  America  in  1584,  the 
Breton  family  in  France,  but  was  born  chief  command  was  given  to  Arthur  Bar- 
in  Hull,  England,  in  1550.     When  Raleigh    low,  who  commanded  one  of  the  vessels, 

144 


AMlDAS,    PHILI]? 


and  Philip  Amidas  the  other.  They  were 
directed  to  explore  the  coasts  within  the 
parallels  of  lat.  32"  and  38°  N.  They 
touched  at  the  Canary  Islands,  the  West 
Indies,  and  Florida,  and  made  their  way 
northward  along  the  coast.  On  July  13, 
1584,  they  entered  Ocrakoke  Inlet,  and 
landed  on  Wocoken  Island.  There  Bar- 
low set  up  a  small  column  with  the  Brit- 
ish arms  rudely  carved  upon  it,  and  took 
formal  possession  of  the  whole  region  in 
the  name  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  as  he  waved 
the  English  banner  over  it  in  the  presence 
of  the  wondering  natives.  They  spent 
scA'eral  weeks  in  exploring  Roanoke  Island 
and  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  sounds.  On 
Koanoke  Island  the  Englishmen  were  en- 
tertained by  the  mother  of  King  Wingini, 
who  was  absent,  and  were  hospitably  re- 
ceived everywhere.  After  getting  what  in- 
formation they  could  about  the  neighbor- 
ing main,  and  inspired  by  the  beauties 
of  nature  around  them,  the  navigators  re- 
turned to  England,  attended  by  Manteo 
and  Wanchese,  two  Indian  chiefs.  The 
former  was  afterwards  created  "  Lord  of 
Eoanoke,"  and  was  the  first  and  last 
American  peer  of  England  created.  The 
glowing  accounts  given  by  Amidas  and 
Barlow  of  the  country  they  had  discov- 
ered captivated  the  Queen,  and  she  named 
the  region,  as  some  say,  in  allusion  to 
her  unmarried  state,  Virginia;  others 
say  it  was  in  allusion  to  the  virgin 
country.  Amidas  was  in  the  maritime 
service  of  England  long  afterwards; 
and  a  few  years  after  his  voyage  to  Vir- 
ginia he  commanded  an  expedition  to 
Newfoundland.  He  died  in  England  in 
1618. 

First  Voyage  to  Roanoke. — The  follow- 
ing is  the  narrative  of  the  first  voyage  to 
Roanoke  by  Amidas  (or  Amadas)  and 
Barlow,  written  by  the  latter: 


The  27  day  of  Aprill,  in  the  yeere  of 
our  redemption,  1584,  we  departed  the 
West  of  England,  with  two  barkes  well 
furnished  with  men  and  victuals,  having 
received  our  last  and  perfect  directions 
by  your  letters,  confirming  the  former  in- 
structions, .and  commandments  delivered 
by  your  selfe  at  our  leaving  the  river  of 
Thames.  And  I  think  it  is  a  matter  both 
unnecessary,  for  the  manifest  discoverie  of 
the    Countrev,    as    also    for    tediousnesse 


sake,  remember  unto  you  the  diurnall 
oi  our  course,  sayling  thither  and  return- 
ing; onely  I  have  presumed  to  present 
unto  you  this  briefe  discourse,  by  which 
you  may  judge  how  profitable  this  land  is 
likely  to  succeede,  as  well  to  your  selfe,  by 
whose  direction  and  charge,  and  by  whose 
servantes  this  our  discoverie  hath  beene 
performed,  as  also  to  her  Highnesse,  and 
the  Commonwealth,  in  which  we  hope  your 
wisdome  wilbe  satisfied,  considering  that 
as  much  by  us  hath  bene  brought  to  light, 
as  by  those  smal  meanes,  and  number  of 
men  we  had,  could  any  way  have  bene  ex- 
pected, or  hoped  for. 

The  tenth  of  May  we  arrived  at  the 
Canaries,  and  the  tenth  of  June  in  this 
present  yeere,  we  were  fallen  with  the 
Islands  of  the  West  Indies,  keeping  a  more 
Southeasterly  course  then  was  needefuU, 
because  wee  doubted  that  the  current  of 
the  Bay  of  Mexico,  disbogging  betweene  the 
Cape  of  Florida  and  Havana,  had  bene  of 
greater  force  than  afterwards  we  found  it 
to  bee.  At  which  Islands  we  found  the 
ayre  very  unwholesome,  and  our  men  grew 
for  the  most  part  ill  disposed:  so  that 
having  refreshed  our  selves  with  sweet 
v/ater,  &  fresh  victuall,  we  departed  the 
twelfth  day  of  our  arrivall  there.  These 
islands,  with  the  rest  adjoining,  are  so 
well  knowen  to  your  selfe,  and  to  many 
others,  as  I  will  not  trouble  you  with  the 
rememberance  of  them. 

The  second  of  July  we  found  shole 
water,  wher  we  smelt  so  sweet,  and  so 
strong  a  smel,  as  if  we  had  bene  in  the 
midst  of  some  delicate  garden  abounding 
with  all  kinde  of  odoriferous  flowers,  by 
which  we  were  assured,  that  the  land 
could  not  be  farre  distant:  and  keeping 
good  watch,  and  bearing  but  slacke  saile, 
the  fourth  of  the  same  moneth  we  arrived 
upon  the  coast,  which  we  supposed  to  be  a 
continent  and  firme  lande,  and  we  sayled 
along  the  same  a  hundred  and  twentie 
English  miles  before  we  could  finde  any 
entrance,  or  river  issuing  into  the  Sea. 
The  first  that  appeared  unto  us.  we  entred, 
though  not  without  some  difficultie,  & 
cast  anker  about  three  harquebuz-shot 
within  the  havens  mouth  on  the  left  hand 
of  the  same;  and  after  thanks  given  to 
God  for  our  safe  arrivall  thither,  we  man- 
ned our  boats,  and  went  to  view  the  land 
next  adjoyning,  and  to  take  possession  of 


I. — K. 


145 


AMtDAS,    PillLii* 


the  same,  in  the  right  of  the  Queenes  most 
excellent  Majestie,  and  i-ightfull  Queene, 
and  Princess  of  the  same,  and  after  de- 
livered the  same  over  to  your  use,  accord- 
ing to  her  Majesties  grant,  and  letters 
patents,  under  her  Highnesse  great  seale. 
Which  being  performed,  according  to  the 
ceremonies  used  in  such  enterprises,  we 
viewed  the  land  about  us,  being,  whereas 
we  first  landed,  very  sandie  and  low  tow- 
ards the  waters  side,  but  so  full  of  grapes, 
as  the  very  beating  and  surge  of  the  Sea 
overflowed  them,  of  which  we  found  such 
plentie,  as  well  there  as  in  all  places  else, 
both  on  the  sand  and  on  the  greene  soile 
on  the  liils,  as  in  the  plaines,  as  well 
on  every  little  shrubbe,  as  also  climing 
towardes  the  tope  of  high  Cedars,  that  I 
thinke  in  all  the  world  the  like  abundance 
is  not  to  be  found;  and  my  selfe  having 
scene  those  parts  of  Eui'ope  that  most 
abound,  find  such  difference  as  were  in- 
credible to  be  written. 

We  passed  from  the  Sea  side  towardes 
the  toppes  of  those  hilles  next  adjoyning, 
being  but  of  meane  higth,  and  from  thence 
wee  behelde  the  Sea  on  both  sides  to  the 
North,  and  to  the  South,  finding  no  ende 
any  of  both  wayes.  This  lande  laye 
stretching  it  selfe  to  the  West,  which  after 
wee  found  to  bee  but  an  Island  of  twentie 
miles  long,  and  not  above  sixe  miles 
broade.  Under  the  banke  or  hill  whereon 
we  stoode,  we  behelde  the  valleys  replenish- 
ed with  goodly  Cedar  trees,  and  having  dis- 
charged our  harquebuz-shot,  such  a  flocke 
of  Cranes  (the  most  part  white),  arose 
under  us,  with  such  a  cry  redoubled  by 
many  ecchoes,  as  if  an  armie  of  men  had 
showted  all  together. 

This  Island  had  many  goodly  woodes 
full  of  Deere,  Conies,  Hares,  and  Fowle, 
even  in  the  middest  of  Summer  in  incredi- 
ble abundance.  The  woodes  are  not  such 
as  you  finde  in  Bohemia,  Moscouia,  or 
Hercynia,  barren  and  fruitless,  but  the 
highest  and  reddest  Cedars  of  the  world, 
farre  bettering  the  Cedars  of  the  Agores, 
of  the  Indies,  or  Lybanus,  Pynes,  Cypres, 
Sassaphras,  the  Lentisk,  or  the  tree  that 
beareth  the  Masticke.  the  tree  that  beareth 
the  rine  of  blacke  Sinamon,  of  which  Mas- 
ter Winter  brought  from  the  streights  of 
Magellan,  and  many  other  of  excellent 
smell  and  qualitie.  We  remained  by  the 
side  of  this  Island  two  whole  dayes  before 

1 


we  saw  any  people  of  the  Countrey:  the 
third  day  we  espied  one  small  boate  row- 
ing towardes  us  having  in  it  three  per- 
sons: this  boat  came  to  the  Island  side, 
foure  harquebuz-shot  from  our  shippes, 
and  there  two  of  the  people  remaining, 
the  third  came  along  the  shoreside  towards 
us,  and  wee  being  then  all  within  boord, 
he  walked  up  and  downe  upon  the  point 
of  the  land  next  unto  us:  then  the  Master 
and  the  Pilot  of  the  Admirall,  Simon  Fer- 
dinando,  and  the  Captaine  Philip  Amadas, 
my  selfe,  and  others  rowed  to  the  land, 
whose  comming  this  fellow  attended, 
never  making  any  shewe  of  fear  or 
doubt.  And  after  he  had  spoken  of  many 
things  not  understood  by  us,  we  brought 
him  with  his  owne  good  liking,  aboord  the 
ships,  and  gave  him  a  shirt,  a  hat  &  some 
other  things,  and  made  him  taste  of  our 
wine,  and  our  meat,  which  he  liked  very 
wel:  and  after  having  viewed  both  barks, 
he  departed,  and  went  to  his  owne  boat 
againe,  which  hee  had  left  in  a  little  Cove 
or  Creeke  adjoyning:  assoone  as  hee  was 
two  bow  shoot  into  the  water,  hee  fell  to 
fishiiig,  and  in  lesse  than  halfe  an  houre, 
he  had  laden  his  boate  as  deepe  as  it 
could  swimme,  with  which  hee  came 
againe  to  the  point  of  the  lande,  and  there 
he  divided  his  fish  into  two  parts,  point- 
ing one  part  to  the  ship,  and  the  other 
to  the  pinnesse:  which,  after  he  had,  as 
much  as  he  might,  requited  the  former 
benefites  received,  departed  out  of  our 
sight. 

The  next  day  there  came  unto  us  di- 
vers boates,  and  in  one  of  them  the  Kings 
brother,  accompanied  with  fortie  or  fiftie 
men,  very  handsome  and  goodly  people, 
and  in  their  behaviour  as  mannerly  and 
civill  as  any  of  Europe.  His  name  was 
Granganimeo,  and  the  king  is  called  Win- 
gina,  the  countrey  Wingandacoa,  and  now 
by  her  Majestie  Virginia.  The  manner  of 
his  comming  was  in  this  sort:  hee  left  his 
boates  altogether  as  the  first  man  did  a 
little  from  the  shippes  by  the  shore,  and 
came  along  to  the  place  over  against  the 
shipes,  followed  with  fortie  men.  When 
he  came  to  the  place,  his  servants  spread 
a  long  matte  upon  the  ground,  on  which  he 
sate  downe,  and  at  the  other  ende  of  the 
matte  foure  others  of  his  companie  did 
the  like,  the  rest  of  his  men  stood  round 
nbout  him,  somewhat  a  farre  off:  when  we 
It) 


AMIDAS,    PHILIP 


came  to  the  shore  to  him  ivith  our  weap- 
ons, hee  never  mooved  from  his  place,  nor 
any  of  the  other  foure,  nor  never  mis- 
trusted any  harme  to  be  offered  from  us, 
but  sitting  still  he  beckoned  us  to  come 
and  sit  by  him,  which  we  performed:  and 
being  set  hee  made  all  signes  of  joy  and 
welcome,  striking  on  his  head  and  his 
breast  and  afterwardes  on  ours  to  shew 
wee  were  all  one,  smiling  and  making 
shewe  the  best  he  could  of  al  love,  and 
familiaritie.  After  hee  had  made  a  long 
speech  unto  us,  wee  presented  him  with 
divers  things,  which  hee  received  very  joy- 
fully, and  thankefully.  None  of  the  com- 
pany, durst  speake  one  worde  all  the  time : 
only  the  foure  which  were  at  the  other 
ende,  spake  one  in  the  others  eare  very 
softly. 

The  King  is  greatly  obeyed,  and  his 
brothers  and  children  reverenced:  the 
King  himself  in  person  was  at  our  being 
there,  sore  wounded  in  a  fight  which  hee 
had  with  the  King  of  the  next  countrey, 
called  Wingina,  and  was  shot  in  two 
places  through  the  body,  and  once  cleane 
through  the  thigh,  but  yet  he  recovered: 
by  reason  whereof  and  for  that  hee  lay  at 
the  chief  towne  of  the  countrey,  being 
sixe  dayes  journey  off,  we  saw  him  not  at 
all. 

After  we  had  presented  this  his  brother 
with  such  things  as  we  thought  he  liked, 
wee  likewise  gave  somewhat  to  the  other 
that  sat  with  him  on  the  matte:  but  pres- 
ently he  arose  and  tooke  all  from  them 
and  put  it  into  his  owne  basket,  making 
signes  and  tokens,  that  all  things  ought 
to  bee  delivered  unto  him,  and  the  rest 
were  but  his  servants,  and  followers.  A 
day  or  two  after  this,  we  fell  to  trading 
with  them,  exchanging  some  things  that 
we  had,  for  Chamoys,  Buffe,  and  Deere 
skinnes:  when  we  shewed  him  all  our 
packet  of  merchandize,  of  all  things  that 
he  sawe,  a  bright  tinne  dish  most  pleased 
him,  which  hee  presently  tooke  up  and 
clapt  it  before  his  breast,  and  after  made 
a  hole  in  the  brimme  thereof  and  hung  it 
about  his  necke,  making  signes  that  it 
would  defende  him  against  his  enemies 
arrowes:  for  those  people  maintaine  a 
deadly  and  terrible  warre,  with  the  people 
and  King  adjoyning.  We  exchanged  our 
tinne  dish  for  twentie  skinnes,  woorth 
twentie  Crowneg,  or  twentie  Nobles:   and 


a  copper  kettle  for  fiftie  skins  woorth  fifty 
CroAvnes.  They  offered  us  good  exchange 
for  our  hatchets,  and  axes,  and  for  knives, 
and  would  have  given  any  thing  for 
swordes:  but  wee  would  not  depart  with 
any.  After  two  or  three  dayes  the  Kings 
brother  came  aboord  the  shippes,  and 
dranke  wine,  and  eat  of  our  meat  and  of 
our  bread,  and  liked  exceedingly  thereof: 
and  after  a  few  days  overpassed,  he 
brought  his  wife  with  him  to  the  ships, 
his  daughter  and  two  or  three  children: 
his  wife  was  very  well  favoured,  of  meane 
stature,  and  very  bashfull :  shee  had  on 
her  backe  a  long  cloake  of  leather,  with 
the  furre  side  next  to  her  body,  and  before 
her  a  piece  of  the  same:  about  her  fore- 
head she  had  a  bande  of  white  Corall,  and 
so  had  her  husband  many  times:  in  her 
eares  shee  had  bracelets  of  pearles  hanging 
do\vii  to  her  middle,  whereof  wee  delivered 
your  worship  a  little  bracelet,  and  those 
were  of  the  bignes  of  good  pease.  The  rest 
of  her  women  of  the  better  sort  had  pen- 
dants of  copper  hanging  in  either  eare,  and 
some  of  the  children  of  the  Kings  brother 
and  other  noble  men,  have  five  or  sixe  in 
either  eare:  he  himselfe  had  upon  his  head 
a  broad  plate  of  golde,  or  copper,  for  being 
unpolished  we  knew  not  what  mettal  it 
should  be,  neither  would  he  by  any  means 
suffer  us  to  take  it  off  his  head,  but  feeling 
it,  it  would  bow  very  easily.  His  apparell 
was  as  his  wives,  onely  the  women  weare 
their  haire  long  on  both  sides,  and  the 
men  but  on  one.  They  are  of  colour  yel- 
lowish, and  their  haire  black  for  the  most 
part,  and  yet  we  saw  children  that  had 
very  fine  auburne  and  chestnut  coloured 
haire. 

After  that  these  women  had  bene  there, 
tliere  came  downe  from  all  parts  great 
store  of  people,  bringing  with  them 
leather,  corall,  divers  kindes  of  dies,  very 
excellent,  and  exchanged  with  us:  but 
when  Granganimeo  the  kings  brother  was 
present,  none  durst  trade  but  himselfe:  ex- 
cept such  as  weare  red  pieces  of  copper 
on  their  heads  like  himselfe:  for  that  is 
the  difference  betweene  the  noble  men,  and 
the  gouvernours  of  countreys,  and  the 
meaner  sort.  And  we  both  noted  there, 
and  you  have  understood  since  by  these 
men,  which  we  brought  home,  that  no 
people  in  the  worlde  cary  more  respect  to 
their    King,    Nobilitie,    and    Governours, 


147 


AMIDAS,    PHILIP 


than  these  do.  The  Kings  brothers  wife, 
when  she  came  to  us,  as  she  did  many 
times,  was  followed  with  forty  or  fifty 
women  alwayes:  and  when  she  came  into 
the  shippe,  she  left  them  all  on  land,  sav- 


the  day  and  performed  his  promise.  He 
sent  us  every  day  a  brase  or  two  of  fat 
Bucks,  Conies,  Hares,  Fish  and  best  of  the 
world.  He  sent  us  divers  kindes  of  fruites, 
Melons,     Walnuts,     Cucumbers,     Gourdes, 


ing  her  two  daughters,  her  nurse  and  one  Pease,  and  divers  rootes,  and  fruites  very 

or  two  more.     The  kings  brother  alwayes  excellent    good,    and    of    their    Countrey 

kept   this    order,    as    many   boates    as    he  corne,  which  is  very  white,  faire  and  well 

would    come    withall    to    the    shippes,    so  tasted,    and   groweth   three   times    in    five 

many  fires  would   he  make  on  the  shore  moneths:   in  May  they  sow,  in  July  they 

a  farre  off,  to  the  end  we  might  understand  reape :   in  June  they  sow,  in  August  they 


with  what  strength  and  company  he  ap- 
proached. Their  boates  are  made  of  one 
tree,  either  of  Pine  or  of  Pitch  trees:  a 
wood  not  commonly  knowen  to  our  people. 


reape;  in  July  they  sow,  in  September 
they  reape:  onely  they  caste  the  corne 
into  the  ground,  breaking  a  little  of  the 
soft  turfe  with  a  Avodden  mattock,  or  pick- 


nor  found  growing  in  England.   They  have  axe;  our  selves  prooved  the  soile,  and  put 

no   edge-tooles  to  make  them  withall:    if  some  of  our  Pease  in  the  ground,  and  in 

they   have   any   they   are   very   fewe,    and  tenne  dayes  they  were  of  fourteene  ynches 

those    it   seemes   they   had    twentie   yeres  high:  they  have  also  Beanes  very  faire  of 

since,  which,  as  those  two  men  declared,  divers    colours    and    wonderfull    plentie: 

Avas  out  of  a  wrake  which  happened  upon  some  growing  naturally,  and  some  in  their 

their  coast  of  some  Christian  ship,  being  g;ardens,  and  so  have  they  both  wheat  and 

beaten  that  way  by  some  storme  and  out-  oates. 

ragious    weather,    whereof    none    of    the        The  soile  is  the  most  plentifull,  sweete, 

people    were    saved,    but    only    the    ship,  fruitfull  and  wholesome  of  all  the  worlde: 

or  some  part  of  her  being  cast  upon  the  there  are  above  fourteene  severall  sweete 

sand,   out   of  whose   sides   they   drew   the  smelling  timber  trees,  and  the  most  part 

nayles    and    the    spikes,    and    with    those  of  their  underwoods  are  Bayes  and   such 

thev   made    their    best    instruments.     The  like:   they  have  those  Okes  that  we  have, 

manner   of  making  their   boates   is   thus:  but  farre  greater  and  better.     After  they 

they  burne  down  some  great  tree,  or  take  had  bene  divers  times  aboord  our  shippes, 

such    as    are    winde    fallen,    and    putting  my    selfe,   and   seven   more   went   twentie 

gumme  and  rosen  upon  one  side  thereof,  mile  into  the  River,  that  runneth  towarde 

they   set   fire   into   it,   and   when   it  hath  the  Citie  of  Skicoak,  which  Eiver  they  call 

burnt   it   hollow,   they   cut   out   the   coale  Occam:    and    the    evening    following    wee 

with    their    shels,    and    ever    where    they  came  to   an  Island  which  they  call  Roa- 

would  burne  it  deeper  or  wider  they  lay  noak,  distant  from  the  harbour  by  which  we 

on  gummes,  which  burne  away  the  timber,  entred,   seven  leagues:    and  at  the  North 

and  by  this  means  they  fashion  very  fine  end  thereof  was  a  village  of  nine  houses, 

boates    and  such  as  will  transport  twentie  built  of  Cedar,  and  fortified  round  about 

men.     Their   oares   are   like   scoopes,   and  with  sharpe  trees,  to  keepe  out  their  ene- 


many  times  they  set  with  long  poles,   as 
the  depth  serveth. 

The    Kings    brother    had    great    liking 
of  our  armour,  a  sword,  and  divers  other 


mies,  and  the  enti'ance  into  it  made  like 
a  turnepike  very  artificially;  when  wee 
came  towardes  it,  standing  neere  unto  the 
waters  side,  the  wife  of  Granganimo  th*^ 


thino-s  which  we  had:  and  offered  to  lay  a  Kings  brother  came  running  out  to  meete 

great  boxe  of  pearls  in  gage  for  them:  but  us  very  cheerfully  and  friendly,  her  hus- 

we   refused   it   for   this   time,   because  we  band  was  not  then  in  the  village;  some  of 

would  not  make  them  knowe,  that  we  es-  her  people  shee  commanded  to  drawe  our 

teemed  thereof,  untill  we  had  understoode  boate    on    shore    for    the    beating    of    the 

in  what  places  of  the  countrey  the  pearle  billoe:  others  she  appointed  to  carry  us  on 

grew:    which  now  your  Worshippe   doeth  their  backes  to  the  dry  ground,  and  others 

very  Avell  understand.  to  bring  our  oares  into  the  house  for  feare 

He  was  very  just  of  his  promise:    for  of  stealing.     When  we  were  come  into  the 

many  times  we  delivered  him  merchandize  utter   roome,   having   five   roomes    in   her 

upon  his  worde,  but  ever  he  came  within  house,   she  caused  us  to   sit   downe  by  a 

148 


AMidAs,  PHiLi:^ 


great  fire,  and  after  tooke  off  our  clothes 
and  washed  them,  and  dryed  them  againe: 
some  of  the  women  plucked  off  our  stock- 
ings and  washed  them,  some  washed  our 
feete  in  warme  water,  and  she  herselfe 
tooke  great  paines  to  see  all  things  ordered 
in  the  best  maner  shee  could,  making 
great  haste  to  dresse  some  meate  for  us  to 
eate. 

After  we  had  thus  dryed  ourselves,  she 
brought  us  into  the  inner  roome,  where 
shee  set  on  the  boord  standing  along  the 
house,  some  wheate  like  furmentie,  sodden 
Venison,  and  roasted,  fish  sodden,  boyled 
and  roasted,  Melons  rawe,  and  sodden, 
rootes  of  divers  kindes  and  divers  fruites: 
their  drinke  is  commonly  water,  but  while 
the  grape  lasteth,  they  drinke  wine,  and 
for  want  of  caskes  to  keepe  it,  all  the  yere 
after  they  drink  water,  but  it  is  sodden 
with  Ginger  in  it  and  blacke  Sinamon,  and 
sometimes  Sassaphras,  and  divers  other 
wholesome,  and  medicinable  hearbes  and 
trees.  We  were  entertained  with  all  love 
and  kindnesse,  and  with  much  bountie, 
after  their  maner,  as  they  could  possibly 
devise.  We  found  the  people  most  gentle, 
loving  and  faithfull,  voide  of  all  guile 
and  treason,  and  such  as  live  after  the 
manner  of  the  golden  age.  The  people 
onely  care  howe  to  defend  themselves  from 
the  cold  in  their  short  winter,  and  to  feed 
themselves  with  such  meat  as  the  soile 
aft'oordeth:  there  meat  is  very  well  sodden 
and  they  make  broth  very  sweet  and  sa- 
vorie:  their  vessels  are  earthen  pots,  very 
large,  white  and  sweete,  their  dishes  are 
wooden  platters  of  sweet  timber :  within 
the  place  where  they  feede  was  their 
lodging,  and  within  that  their  Idoll,  which 
they  worship,  of  whome  they  speake  in- 
credible things.  While  we  were  at  meate, 
there  came  in  at  the  gates  two  or  three 
men  with  their  bowes  and  arrowes  from 
hunting,  whom  when  wee  espied,  we  be- 
ganne  to  looke  one  towardes  another,  and 
offered  to  reach  our  weapons:  but  as  soone 
as  shee  espied  our  mistrust,  shee  was  very 
much  mooved,  and  caused  some  of  her 
men  to  runne  out,  and  take  away  their 
bowes  and  arrowes  and  breake  them,  and 
withall  beate  the  poore  fellowes  out  of 
the  gate  againe.  When  we  departed  in  the 
evening  and  would  not  tary  all  night  she 
was  very  sorry,  and  gave  us  into  our 
boate  our  supper  halfe  dressed,  pottes  and 


all,  and  brought  us  to  our  boate  side,  in 
which  wee  lay  all  night,  remooving  the 
same  a  prettie  distance  from  the  shoare: 
shee  perceiving  our  jealousie,  was  much 
grieved,  and  sent  divers  men  and  thirtie 
women,  to  sit  all  night  on  the  banke  side 
hy  us,  and  sent  us  into  our  boates  five 
mattes  to  cover  us  from  the  raine,  using 
very  many  wordes,  to  entreate  us  to  rest 
in  their  houses:  but  because  wee  were  fewe 
men,  and  if  wee  had  miscarried,  the  voyage 
had  bene  in  very  great  danger,  wee  durst 
not  adventure  any  thing,  although  there 
was  no  cause  of  doubt:  for  a  more  kinde 
and  loving  people  there  can  not  be  found 
in  the  worlde,  as  farre  as  we  have  hitherto 
had  triall. 

Beyond  this  Island  there  is  the  maine 
lande,  and  over  against  this  Island  falleth 
into  this  spacious  water  the  great  river 
called  Occam  by  the  inhabitants,  on  which 
standeth  a  towne  called  Pomeiock,  &  sixe 
days  journey  from  the  same  is  situate 
their  greatest  citie,  called  Skicoak,  which 
this  people  aflirme  to  be  very  great:  but 
the  Savages  were  never  at  it,  only  they 
speake  of  it  by  the  report  of  their  fathers 
and  other  men,  whom  they  have  heard 
aflirme  it  to  bee  above  one  houres  journey 
about. 

Into  this  river  falleth  another  great 
river,  called  Cipo,  in  which  there  is  found 
great  store  of  Huskies  in  which  there  are 
pearles:  likewise  there  descendeth  into 
this  Occam,  another  river,  called  Nomo- 
pana,  on  the  one  side  whereof  standeth 
a  great  towne  called  Chawanook,  and  the 
Lord  of  that  to\^'ne  and  countrey  is  called 
Pooneno:  this  Pooneno  is  not  subject  to 
the  King  of  Wingandacoa,  but  is  a  free 
Lord:  beyond  this  country  is  there  another 
king,  whom  they  cal  Menatonon,  and 
these  three  kings  are  in  league  with  each 
other.  Towards  the  Southwest,  foure 
dayes  journey  is  situate  a  towme  called 
Sequotan,  which  is  the  Southermost  towne 
of  Wingandacoa,  neere  unto  which,  sixe 
and  twentie  yeres  past  there  was  a  ship 
cast  away,  whereof  some  of  the  people 
were  saved,  and  those  Avere  white  people 
whom   the   countrey   people   preserved. 

And  after  ten  days  remaining  in  an 
out  Island  unhabited,  called  Wocokon, 
they  with  the  help  of  some  of  the  dwell- 
ers of  Sequotan  fastened  two  boates  of 
the  countrey  together  &  made  mastes  unto 


149 


AMIDAS,    PHILIP 


them  and  sailes  of  their  shiites,  and  hav- 
ing taken  into  them  such  victuals  as  the 
countrey  yeelded,  they  departed  after 
they  had  remained  in  this  out  Island  3 
weekes:  but  shortly  after  it  seemed  they 
were  cast  away,  for  the  boates  were  found 
upon  the  coast  cast  a  land  in  another 
Island  adjoyning:  other  than  these,  there 
was  never  any  people  apparelled,  or  white 
of  colour,  either  seene  or  heard  of  amongst 
these  people,  and  these  aforesaid  were 
seene  onely  of  the  inhabitantes  of  Secotan, 
which  appeared  to  be  very  true,  for  they 
wondred  marvelously  when  we  were 
amongst  them  at  the  whitenes  of  our 
skins,  ever  coveting  to  touch  our  breasts, 
and  to  view  the  same.  Besides  they  had 
our  ships  in  marvelous  admiration,  &  all 
things  els  were  so  strange  unto  them,  as  it 
appeared  that  none  of  them  had  ever  seene 
the  like.  When  we  discharged  anj^  piece, 
were  it  but  an  hargubuz,  they  would  trem- 
ble thereat  for  very  feare  and  for  the 
strangenesso  of  the  same:  for  the  weapons 
Avliich  themselves  use  are  bowes  and  ar- 
rowes :  the  arrowes  are  but  of  small  canes, 
headed  with  a  sharpe  shell  or  tooth  of  a 
fish  sufficient  ynough  to  kill  a  naked  man. 
Their  swordes  be  of  wood  hardened:  like- 
wise they  use  wooden  breastplates  for 
their  defence.  They  have  beside  a  kinde 
of  club,  in  the  end  whereof  they  fasten 
the  sharpe  horns  of  a  stagge,  or  other 
beast.  When  they  goe  to  warres  they 
cary  about  with  them  their  idol,  of  whom 
they  aske  counsel,  as  the  Romans  were 
woont  of  the  Oracle  of  Apollo.  They  sing 
songs  as  they  march  towardes  the  battell 
in  stead  of  drummes  and  trumpets:  their 
warres  are  very  cruell  and  bloody,  by  rea- 
feon  whereof,  and  of  their  civill  dissen- 
tions  which  have  happened  of  late  yeeres ' 
amongst  them,  the  people  are  marvelously 
wasted,  and  in  some  places  the  countrey 
left  desolate. 

AdjojTiing  to  this  countrey  aforesaid 
called  Secotan  beginneth  a  countrey  called 
Pomouik,  belonging  to  another  king  whom 
they  call  Piamacum,  and  this  king  is  in 
league  with  the  next  king  adjoyning 
towards  the  setting  of  the  Sunne,  and  the 
countrey  Newsiok,  situate  upon  a  goodly 
river  called  Neus:  these  kings  have  mor- 
tall  warre  with  Wingina.  king  of  Wingan- 
dacoa:  but  about  two  yeeres  past  there 
was    a    peace    made    betweene    the    King 


Piemacum,  and  the  Lord  of  Secotan,  as 
these  men  which  we  have  brought  with  us 
to  England,  have  given  us  to  understand: 
but  there  remaineth  a  mortall  malice  in 
the  Secotanes,  for  many  injuries  &  slaugh- 
ters done  upon  them  by  this  Piema- 
cum. They  invited  divers  men,  and  thirtie 
women  of  the  best  of  his  countrey  to  their 
towne  to  a  feast:  and  when  they  were  al- 
together merry,  &  praying  before  their 
Idoll,  which  is  nothing  els  but  a  meer  il- 
lusion of  the  devill,  the  captaine  or  Lord 
of  the  town  came  suddenly  upon  the,  and 
slewe  them  every  one,  reserving  the  women 
and  children:  and  these  two  have  often- 
times since  perswaded  us  to  surprise  Pie- 
macum in  his  towne,  having  promised  and 
assured  us,  that  there  will  be  found  in  it 
great  store  of  commodities.  But  whether 
their  perswasion  be  to  the  ende  they  may 
be  revenged  of  their  enemies,  or  for  the 
love  they  beare  to  us,  we  leave  that  to  the 
tryall  hereafter. 

Beyond  this  Island  called  Roanoak,  are 
maine  Islands,  very  plentifuU  of  fruits  and 
other  naturall  increases,  together  with 
many  townes,  and  villages,  along  the  side 
of  the  continent,  some  bounding  upon  the 
Islands,  and  some  stretching  up  further 
into  the  land. 

When  we  first  had  sight  of  this  coun- 
trey, some  thought  the  first  land  we  saw 
to  bee  the  continent:  but  after  we  entred 
into  the  Haven,  we  saw  before  us  another 
mighty  long  Sea:  for  there  lyeth  along 
the  coast  a  tracte  of  Islands,  two  hundreth 
miles  in  length,  adjoyning  to  the  Ocean 
sea,  and  betweene  the  Islands,  two  or 
three  entrances:  when  you  are  entred  be- 
tweene them,  these  Islands  being  very 
narrow  for  the  most  part,  as  in  most 
places  sixe  miles  broad,  in  some  places 
lesse,  in  few  more,  then  there  appeai-eth 
another  great  sea,  containing  in  bredth  in 
some  places,  forty,  and  in  some  fifty,  in 
some  twenty  miles  over,  before  you  come 
unto  the  continent:  and  in  this  inclosed 
Sea  there  are  above  an  hundreth  Islands 
of  divers  bignesses,  whereof  one  is  sixteene 
miles  long,  at  which  we  were,  finding  it  a 
most  pleasant  and  fertile  ground;  replen- 
ished with  goodly  Cedars,  and  divers  oth- 
er sweete  woods,  full  of  Corrants,  of  flaxe, 
and  many  other  notable  commodities,which 
we  at  that  time  had  no  leasure  to  view 
Besides  this  island  there  are  many,  as  I 


150 


AMISTAD— AMMIDOWN 


have  sayd,  some  of  two,  or  three,  or  foure,  of  S.  S.  Jocelyn,  Joshua  Leavitt,  and 
of  five  miles,  some  more,  some  lesse,  most  Lewis  Tappan,  was  appointed  in  New  York 
beautiful!  and  pleasant  to  behold,  replen-  to  solicit  funds  and  employ  counsel  to 
ished  with  Deere,  Conies,  Hares  and  divers  protect  the  rights  of  the  negroes.  After  a 
beasts,  and  about  them  the  goodliest  and  great  struggle  the  court,  through  Justice 
best  fish  in  the  world,  and  in  greatest  Story,  pronounced  them  free.  Their  re- 
abundance,  turn   to   Africa   founded   the   Mendi   mis- 

Thus,  Sir,  we  have  acquainted  you  sion. 
with  the  particulars  of  our  discovery  made  Ammen,  Daniel,  naval  officer;  born 
this  present  voyage,  as  farre  foorth  as  the  in  Brown  county,  0.,  May  15,  1820;  en- 
shorthesse  of  the  time  we  there  continued  tered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1836. 
would  affoord  us  to  take  viewe  of:  and  so  In  1861-62  he  commanded  the  gunboat 
contenting  our  selves  with  this  service  at  Seneca  in  the  South  Atlantic  blockading 
this  time,  which  wee  hope  here  after  to  fleet.  His  bravery  was  conspicuous  in  the 
inlarge,  as  occasion  and  assistance  shalbe  battle  of  Port  Royal,  Nov.  7,  1861.  Later, 
given,  we  resolved  to  leave  the  countrey,  under  Dupont's  command,  he  took  part  in 
and  to  apply  ourselves  to  returne  for  Eng-  all  the  operations  on  the  coasts  of  Georgia 
land,  which  we  did  accordingly,  and  ar-  and  Florida.  In  the  engagements  with 
rived  safely  in  the  West  of  England  about  Fort  McAllister,  March  3,  1863,  and  with 
the  middest  of  September.  Fort  Sumter,  April  7,  1863,  he  commanded 

And  whereas  wee  have  above  certified  the  monitor  Patapsco.  In  the  attacks  on 
you  of  the  countrey  taken  in  possession  Fort  Fisher,  in  December,  1864,  and  Janu- 
by  us  to  her  Majesties  use,  and  so  to  yours  ary,  1865,  he  commanded  the  Mohican. 
by  her  Majesties  grant,  wee  thought  good  He  was  pi-omoted  to  rear-admiral  in  1877, 
for  the  better  assurance  thereof  to  record  and  was  retired  June  4,  1878.  Afterwards 
some  of  the  particular  Gentlemen  &  men  he  was  a  member  of  the  board  to  locate 
of  accompt,  who  then  were  present,  as  wit-  the  new  Naval  Observatory,  and  a  repre- 
nesses  of  the  same,  that  thereby  all  occa-  sentative  of  the  United  States  at  the  Inter- 
sion  of  cavill  to  the  title  of  the  countrey,  oceanic  Ship  Canal  Congress  in  Paris, 
in  her  Majesties  behalfe  may  be  prevented.  He  designed  a  cask  balsa  to  facilitate 
which  otherwise,  such  as  like  not  the  ac-  the  landing  of  troops  and  field  artil- 
tion  may  use  and  pretend,  whose  names  lery;  a  life-raft  for  steamers;  and  the 
are:  steel  ram  Katahdin.     His  publications  in- 

Master   Philip  Amadas,)  .  elude  The  Atlantic  Coast  in  The  Navy  in 

Master  Arthur  Barlow,  j  ^^^^^"^'^^*-    the    Civil    War    Series;    Recollections    of 

William   Greenvile,   John   Wood,   James    Grant;  and  The  Old  Navy  and  the  NeiD. 
Browewich,      Henry      Greene,      Benjamin    He   died   in  Washington,   D.   C,   July   11, 
Wood,    Simon   Ferdinando,   Nicholas   Pet-    1898. 
man,  John  Hewes,  of  the  companie.  Ammidown,     Edward     Holmes,     mer- 

We  brought  home  also  two  of  the  Sav-  chant;  born  in  Southbridge,  Mass.,  Oct. 
ages,  being  lustie  men,  whose  names  were  28,  1820;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
Wanchese  and  Manteo.  lege  in  1853.     After  travelling  for  several 

Amistad,  Case  of  the.  A  Portuguese  years  in  the  United  States  and  Europe  he 
slaver  landed  a  cargo  of  kidnapped  Afri-  engaged  in  mercantile  business  in  New 
cans  near  Havana;  a  few  days  afterwards  York  City  in  1860;  later  became  a  direc- 
they  were  placed  on  board  the  Amistad  tor  in  several  banks,  insurance  companies, 
to  be  taken  to  Principe.  On  the  voyage  etc.  In  1881  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  negroes,  led  by  Cinque,  captured  the  the  American  Protective  Tariff  League: 
vessel,  but  killed  only  the  captain  and  and  in  1882  chairman  of  the  Metropolitan 
the  cook.  They  then  ordered  the  white  Industrial  League.  In  1890  President 
crew  to  take  the  ship  to  Africa ;  but  the  Harrison  appointed  him  a  commissioner 
sailors  brought  her  into  American  waters,  for  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  but 
where  she  was  seized  by  Lieutenant  Ged-  he  declined  the  post.  He  is  the  author  of 
ing,  of  the  United  States  brig  Washington,  numerous  political  articles,  including 
and  brought  into  New  London,  Conn.,  National  Illiteracy ;  Capital  and  Labor; 
Aug.   29,   1839.     A   committee,   consisting    etc. 


AMNESTY    PROCLAMATIONS 


Amnesty  Proclamations.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  the  secession  of  the  Southern 
States  and  the  war  that  ensued,  four  very 
important  amnesty  proclamations  were  is- 
sued by  Presidents  of  the  United  States. 
The  first  one  was  by  President  Lincoln, 
Dee.  8,  1863.  The  text  of  the  proclama- 
tion is  as  follows: 


President  Lincoln  in  1863. — Whereas, 
in  and  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  provided  that  the  President 
''  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and 
pardons  for  offences  against  the  United 
States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment"; 
and  whereas  a  rebellion  now  exists  where- 
by the  loyal  State  governments  of  several 
States  have  for  a  long  time  been  subvert- 
ed, and  many  persons  have  committed  and 
are  now  guilty  of  treason  against  the 
United  States;  and  whereas,  with  refer- 
ence to  said  rebellion  and  treason,  laws 
have  been  enacted  by  Congress  declaring 
forfeitures  and  confiscation  of  property 
and  liberation  of  slaves,  all  upon  terms 
and  conditions  therein  stated ;  and  also 
declaring  that  the  President  was  thereby 
authorized  at  any  time  thereafter,  by  proc- 
lamation, to  extend  to  persons  who  may 
have  participated  in  the  existing  rebellion, 
in  any  State  or  part  thereof,  pardon  and 
amnesty,  with  such  exceptions  and  at  such 
times  and  on  such  conditions  as  he  may 
deem  expedient  for  the  public  welfare; 
and  whereas  the  congressional  declaration 
for  limited  and  conditional  pardon  accords 
with  well-established  judicial  exposition  of 
the  pardoning  power;  and  whereas,  with 
reference  to  said  rebellion,  the  President 
of  the  United  States  has  issued  several 
proclamations  with  provisions  in  regard  to 
the  liberation  of  slaves ;  and  whereas  it  is 
now  desired  by  some  persons  heretofore 
engaged  in  said  rebellion  to  resume  their 
allegiance  to  the  United  States,  and  to  re- 
inaugurate  loyal  State  governments  with- 
in and  for  their  respective  States.  There- 
fore, 

I,  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the 
United  States,  do  proclaim,  declare,  and 
make  known  to  all  persons  who  have,  di- 
rectly or  by  implication,  participated  in 
the  existing  rebellion,  except  as  herein- 
after excepted,  that  a  full  pardon  is  here- 
by granted  to  them,  and  each  of  them, 
with  restoration  of  all  rights  of  property, 

1 


excepting  as  to  slaves,  and  in  property 
cases  where  rights  of  third  parties  shall 
have  intervened,  and  upon  the  condition 
that  every  such  person  shall  take  and 
subscribe  an  oath,  and  thenceforward 
keep  and  maintain  such  oath  inviolate; 
and  which  oath  shall  be  registered  for 
permanent  preservation,  and  shall  be  of 
the  tenor  and  effect  following,  to  wit: 


I, 


do    solemnly    swear,    in    pres- 


ence of  Almighty  God,  that  I  will  henceforth 
faithfully  support,  protect,  and  defend  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
union  of  the  States  thereunder  ;  and  that  I 
will  in  like  manner  abide  by  and  faithfully 
support  all  acts  of  Congress  passed  during 
the  existing  rebellion  with  reference  to 
slaves,  so  long  and  so  far  as  not  repealed, 
modified,  or  held  void  by  Congress,  or  by  de- 
cision of  the  Supreme  Court ;  and  that  I  will, 
in  like  manner,  abide  by  and  faithfully  sup- 
port all  proclamations  of  the  President  made 
during  the  existing  rebellion  having  reference 
to  slaves,  so  long  and  so  far  as  not  modified 
or  declared  void  by  decision  of  the  Supreme 
Court.     So  help  me  God." 

The  persons  excepted  from  the  benefits 
of  the  foregoing  provisions  are:  all  who 
are,  or  shall  have  been,  civil  or  diplomatic 
officers  or  agents  of  the  so-called  Confed- 
erate government;  all  who  have  left  ju- 
dicial stations  under  the  United  States  to 
aid  the  rebellion;  all  who  are,  or  shall 
have  been,  military  or  naval  officers  of 
said  so-called  Confederate  government, 
above  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  army,  or 
of  lieutenant  in  the  na^'y ;  all  who  left 
seats  in  the  United  States  Congress  to  aid 
the  rebellion;  all  who  resigned  commis- 
sions in  the  army  or  navy  of  the  United 
States,  and  afterwards  aided  the  rebel- 
lion; and  all  who  have  engaged  in  any 
way  in  treating  colored  persons,  or  white 
persons  in  charge  of  such,  otherwise  than 
lawfully  as  prisoners  of  war,  and  which 
persons  may  have  been  found  in  the 
United  States  service  as  soldiers,  seamen, 
or  in  any  other  capacity. 

And  I  do  further  proclaim,  declare,  and 
make  known,  that  whenever,  in  any  of  the 
States  of  Arkansas,  Texas,  Louisiana, 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Florida,  South  Carolina,  and  Xorth  Caro- 
lina, a  number  of  persons,  not  less  than 
one-tenth  in  number  of  the  votes  cast  in 
such  State  at  the  Presidential  election  of 
the  year  of  our  Lord  1860,  each  having 
taken  the  oath  aforesaid,  and  not  having 
since  violated  it,  and  being  a  qualified 
52 


AMNESTY    PROCLAMATIONS 


voter  by  the  election  law  of  the  State  ex- 
isting immediately  before  the  so-called  act 
of  secession,  and  excluding  all  others, 
shall  re-establish  a  State  government 
which  shall  be  republican,  and  in  nowise 
contravening  said  oath,  such  shall  be  rec- 
ognized as  the  true  government  of  the 
State,  and  the  State  shall  receive  there- 
under the  benefits  of  the  constitutional 
provision  which  declares  that  the  "  United 
States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in 
this  Union  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  invasion;  and,  on  application  of 
the  legislature,  or  the  executive  (when 
the  legislature  cannot  be  convened), 
against  domestic  violence." 

And  I  do  further  proclaim,  declare,  and 
make  known  that  any  provision  which 
may  be  adopted  by  such  State  government 
in  relation  to  the  freed  people  of  such 
State,  which  shall  recognize  and  declare 
their  permanent  freedmen,  provide  for 
their  education,  and  which  may  yet  be 
consistent,  as  a  temporary  arrangement, 
with  their  present  condition  as  a  labor- 
ing, landless,  and  homeless  class,  will  not 
be  objected  to  by  the  national  executive. 
And  it  is  suggested  as  not  improper  that, 
in  constructing  a  loyal  State  government 
in  any  State,  the  name  of  the  State,  the 
boundary,  the  subdivisions,  the  constitu- 
tion, and  the  general  code  of  laws,  as  be- 
fore the  rebellion,  be  maintained,  subject 
only  to  the  modifications  made  necessary 
by  the  conditions  hereinbefore  stated,  and 
such  others,  if  any,  not  contravening  said 
conditions,  and  which  may  be  deemed  ex- 
pedient by  those  framing  the  new  State 
government. 

To  avoid  misunderstanding,  it  may  be 
proper  to  say  that  this  proclamation,  so 
far  as  it  relates  to  State  governments, 
has  no  reference  to  States  wherein  loyal 
State  governments  have  all  the  while  been 
maintained.  And  for  the  same  reason,  it 
may  be  proper  to  further  say  that 
whether  members  sent  to  Congress  from 
any  State  shall  be  admitted  to  seats,  con- 
stitutionally rests  exclusive  with  the 
respective  Houses,  and  not  to  any  extent 
with  the  executive.  And  still  further,  that 
this  proclamation  is  intended  to  present 
to  the  people  of  the  States  wherein  the 
national  authority  has  been  suspended, 
and   loyal    State   governments    have   been 

15 


subverted,  a  mode  in  and  by  which  the 
national  authority  and  loyal  State  gov- 
ernments may  be  re-established  within 
said  States,  or  in  any  of  them;  and,  while 
the  mode  presented  is  the  best  the  execu- 
tive can  suggest,  with  his  present  impres- 
sions, it  must  not  be  understood  that  no 
other  possible  mode  would  be  acceptable. 

Given  under  my  hand,  at  the  city  of 
Washington,  the  8th  day  of  December,  a.d. 
1863,  and  of  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  eighty- 
eighth.  Abraham  Lincoln. 

President  Johnson  in  1865. — The  second 
one  was  issued  by  President  Johnson,  under 
date  of  May  29,  1865,  and  was  the  begin- 
ning of  the  reconstruction  measures.  The 
following  is  the  text: 


Whereas,  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  on  the  8th  day  of  December,  1863, 
did,  with  the  object  of  suppressing  the  ex- 
isting rebellion,  to  induce  all  persons  to 
lay  down  their  arms,  to  return  to  their 
loyaltj^  and  to  restore  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  issue  proclamations  of- 
fering amnesty  and  pardon  to  certain  per- 
sons who  had  directly  or  by  implication, 
engaged  in  said  rebellion ;  and 

Whereas,  many  persons  who  had  so 
engaged  in  the  late  rebellion  have,  since 
the  issuance  of  said  proclamation,  failed 
or  neglected  to  take  the  benefits  offered 
thereby ;    and 

Whereas,  many  persons  who  have  been 
justly  deprived  of  all  claims  to  amnesty 
and  pardon  thereunder,  by  reason  of  their 
participation  directly  or  by  implication 
in  said  rebellion,  and  continued  in  hos- 
tility to  the  government  of  the  United 
States  since  the  date  of  said  proclamation, 
noAT  desire  to  apply  for  and  obtain  am- 
nesty and  pardon : 

To  the  end,  therefore,  that  the  author- 
ity of  the  government  of  the  United 
States  may  be  restored,  and  that  peace, 
and  order,  and  freedom  may  be  estab- 
lished, I,  Andrew  Johnson,  President  of 
the  United  States,  do  proclaim  and  de- 
clare, that  I  hereby  grant  to  all  persons 
who  have  directly  or  indirectly  partici- 
pated in  the  existing  rebellion,  except  as 
hereafter  excepted,  amnesty  and  pardon, 
with  restoration  of  all  rights  of  property, 
except  as  to  slaves,  except  in  cases  where 
legal   proceedings   under   the   laws   of   the 


AMNESTY    PROCLAMATIONS 


United  States,  providing  for  the  confisca- 
tion of  property  of  persons  engaged  in 
rebellion,  have  been  instituted,  but  on  the 
condition,  nevertheless,  that  every  such 
person  shall  take  and  subscribe  to  the 
following  oath,  which  shall  be  registered, 
for  permanent  preservation,  and  shall  be 
of  the  tenor  and  effect  following,  to  wit: 


I, 


-,  do  solemnly  swear  or  affirm,  in 


presence  of  Almighty  God,  that  I  will  hence- 
forth support,  protect,  and  faithfully  defend 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and 
will,  in  like  manner,  abide  by  and  faithfully 
support  all  laws  and  proclamations  which 
have  been  made  during  the  existing  re- 
bellion with  reference  to  the  emancipation 
of  slaves.     So  help  me  God." 

The  following  classes  of  persons  are 
excepted  from  the  benefits  of  this  procla- 
mation : 

1.  All  who  are  or  have  been  pretended 
diplomatic  officers,  or  otherwise  domestic 
or  foreign  agents  of  the  pretended  Con- 
federate States. 

2.  All  who  left  judicial  stations  under 
the  United  States  to  aid  in  the  .rebellion. 

3.  All  who  have  been  military  or  naval 
officers  of  the  pretended  Confederate  gov- 
ernment above  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the 
army,  and  lieutenant  in  the  navy. 

4.  All  who  have  left  their  seats  in  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  to  aid  in' 
the  rebellion. 

5.  All  who  have  resigned  or  tendered 
the  resignation  of  their  commissions  in 
the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States  to 
evade  their  duty  in  resisting  the  rebel- 
lion. 

6.  All  who  have  engaged  in  any  way  in 
treating  otherwise  than  lawfully  as  pris- 
oners of  war  persons  found  in  the  United 
States  service  as  officers,  soldiers,  sea- 
men, or  in  other  capacities. 

7.  All  persons  who  have  been  or  are 
absentees  from  the  United  States  for  the 
purpose  of  aiding  the  rebellion. 

8.  All  military  or  naval  officers  in  the 
rebel  service  Avho  were  educated  by  the 
government  in  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point,  or  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy. 

9.  All  persons  who  held  the  pretended 
offices  of  governors  of  the  States  in  in- 
surrection against  the  United  States. 

10.  All  persons  Avho  left  their  homes 
within  the  jurisdiction  and  protection  of 


tjie  United  States,  and  passed  beyond  the 
Federal  military  lines  into  the  so-called 
Confederate  States  for  the  purpose  of 
aiding   the   rebellion. 

11.  All  persons  who  have  engaged  in 
the  destruction  of  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States  upon  the  high  seas,  and  all 
persons  who  have  made  raids  into  the 
United  States  from  Canada,  or  been  en- 
gaged in  destroying  the  commerce  of  the 
United  States  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  that 
separate  the  British  provinces  from  the 
United  States. 

12.  All  persons  who,  at  a  time  when 
they  seek  to  obtain  the  benefits  hereof  by 
taking  the  oath  herein  prescribed,  are 
in  military,  naval,  or  civil  confinement  or 
custody,  or  under  bond  of  the  military  or 
naval  authorities  or  agents  of  the  United 
States  as  prisoners  of  any  kind,  either  be- 
fore or  after   their   conviction. 

13.  All  persons  who  have  voluntarily 
participated  in  said  rebellion,  the  esti- 
mated value  of  whose  taxable  property  is 
over  $20,000. 

14.  All  persons  who  have  taken  the 
oath  of  amnesty  as  prescribed  in  the  Presi- 
dent's proclamation  of  Dec.  8,  1863,  or 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States 
since  the  date  of  said  proclamation,  and 
who  have  not  thenceforward  kept  the 
same  inviolate;  provided,  that  special  ap- 
plication may  be  made  to  the  President 
for  pardon  by  any  person  belonging  to 
the  excepted  classes,  and  such  clemency 
will  be  extended  as  may  be  consistent  with 
the  facts  of  the  case  and  the  peace  and 
dignity  of  the  United  States.  The  Sec- 
retary of  State  will  establish  rules  and 
regulations  for  administering  and  record- 
ing the  said  amnesty  oath,  so  as  to  insure 
its  benefits  to  the  people,  and  guard  the 
government  against  fraud. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto 
set  my  hand,  and  caused  the  seal  of  the 
United  States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington,  this 
the  29th  day  of  May,  1865,  and  of  the  in- 
dependence of  America  the  89th. 

Andrew  Johnson. 

President  Johnson  in  1868.  ■ —  In  this 
3'ear  President  Johnson  issued  two  such 
proclamations.  The  first  dated  July  4. 
pardoning  all  persons  engaged  in  the  Civil 
War  except  those  under  presentment  oi 
indictment    in    any    court    of    the    United 


154 


Amnesty  piiocLAMATioisrs 


States  having  competent  jurisdiction,  was 
as  follows: 


Whereas,  in  the  month  of  July,  a.d. 
1861,  in  accepting  the  conditions  of  civil 
war,  which  was  brought  about  by  insur- 
rection and  rebellion  in  several  of  the 
States  which  constitute  the  United  States, 
the  two  Houses  of  Congress  did  solemnly 
declare  that  the  war  was  not  waged  on  the 
part  of  the  government  in  any  spirit  of  op- 
pression, nor  for  any  purpose  of  conquest 
or  subjugation,  nor  for  any  purpose  of 
overthrowing  or  interfering  with  the 
rights  or  established  institutions  of  the 
States,  but  only  to  defend  and  maintain 
the  supremacy  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  preserve  the  Union 
with  all  the  dignity,  equality,  and  rights 
of  the  several  States  unimpaired;  and 
that,  so  soon  as  these  objects  should  be 
accomplished,  the  war  on  the  part  of  the 
government  should  cease; 

And  whereas,  the  President  of  the 
United  States  has  heretofore,  in  the  spirit 
of  that  declaration,  and  with  the  view  of 
securing  for  its  ultimate  and  complete 
eflfect,  set  forth  several  proclamations, 
offering  amnesty  and  pardon  to  persons 
who  had  been  or  were  concerned  in  the 
aforesaid  rebellion,  which  proclamations, 
however,  were  attended  with  prudential 
reservations  and  exceptions  then  deemed 
necessary  and  proper,  and  which  proclama- 
tions were  respectively  issued  on  the  8th 
day  of  December,  1863,  on  the  26th  day  of 
March,  1864,  on  the  29th  day  of  May,  1865, 
and  on  the  7th  day  of  September,  1867; 

And  whereas,  the  said  lamentable 
Civil  War  has  long  since  altogether  ceased, 
with  an  acknowledged  guarantee  to  all  the 
States  of  the  supremacy  of  the  federal 
Constitution  and  the  government  there- 
under ;  and  there  no  longer  exists  any 
reasonable  ground  to  apprehend  a  re- 
newal of  the  said  Civil  War,  or  any 
foreigTi  interference,  or  any  unlawful  re- 
sistance by  any  portion  of  the  people  of 
Bnj  of  the  States  to  the  Constitution  and 
laws  of  the  United  States ; 

And  whereas,  it  is  desirable  to  reduce 
the  standing  army,  and  to  bring  to  a 
speedy  termination  military  occupation, 
martial  law,  militaiy  tribunals,  abridg- 
ment of  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press, 
and  suspension  of  the  privilege  of  haheas 


corpus,  and  the  right  of  trial  by  jury — 
such  encroa.chments  upon  our  free  institu- 
tions in  time  of  peace  being  dangerous  to 
2)ublic  liberty,  incompatible  with  the  indi- 
vidual rights  of  the  citizens,  contrary  to 
the  genius  and  spirits  of  our  republican 
form  of  go^''ernnlent,  and  exhaustive  of 
the  national  resources; 

And  Avhereas,  it  is  believed  that  am- 
nesty and  pardon  will  tend  to  secure  a 
complete  and  universal  establishment  and 
prevalence  of  municipal  law  and  order,  in 
conformity  with  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  remove  all  appear- 
ances or  presumptions  of  a  retaliatory 
or  vindictive  policy  on  the  part  of  the 
government,  attended  by  unnecessary  dis- 
qualifications, pains,  penalties,  confisca- 
tions, and  disfranchisements ;  and  on  the 
contrary,  to  promote  and  procure  complete 
fraternal  reconciliation  among  the  whole 
people,  with  due  submission  to  the  Con- 
stitution and  laws; 

Now,  therefore,  be  it  known  that  I, 
Andrew  Johnson,  President  of  the  United 
States,  do,  by  virtue  of  the  Constitution 
and  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  hereby  proclaim  and  de- 
clare, unconditionally  and  without  reser- 
vation, to  all  and  to  every  person  who  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  participated  in  the 
late  insurrection  or  rebellion,  excepting 
such  person  or  persons  as  may  be  under 
presentment  or  indictment  in  any  court  of 
the  United  States  having  competent  juris- 
diction, upon  a  charge  of  treason  or  other 
felony,  a  full  pardon  and  amnesty  for  the 
ofi'ence  of  treason  against  the  United 
States,  or  of  adhering  to  their  enemies 
during  the  late  Civil  War,  with  restora- 
tion of  all  rights  of  property,  except  as  to 
slaves,  and  except  also  as  to  any  property 
of  which  any  person  may  have  been  legal- 
ly divested  under  the  laws  of  the  United 
States. 

In  testimony  Avhereof  I  have  signed 
these  presents  with  my  hand,  and  have 
caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be 
hereunto  fixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington,  the 
fourth  day  of  July,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  six- 
ty-eight, and  of  the  Independence  of  the 
Ignited  States  of  America  the  ninety- 
third.  Andrew  Johnson. 

The  second,  issued  Dec.  25,  proclaimed 
55 


AMSflfiST'S'   JP&ddiLAMAtlONfe— ANARCiHIg^g 


unconditionally    a    full    pardon    and    am- 
nesty.    It  was  as  follows: 


Whereas,  the  President  of  the  United 
States  has  heretofore  set  forth  several 
proclamations  oflfering  amnesty  and  par- 
don to  persons  who  had  been  or  were  con- 
cerned in  the  late  rebellion  against  the 
lawful  authority  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  which  proclamations  were 
severally  issued  on  the  8th  day  of  De- 
cember, 1863,  on  the  6th  day  of  March, 
1864,  on  the  29th  day  of  May,  1865,  on 
the  7th  day  of  September,  1867,  and  on 
the  4th  day  of  July  in  the  present  year; 
and. 

Whereas,  the  authority  of  the  fed- 
eral government  having  been  re-established 
in  all  the  States  and  Territories  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  it  is 
believed  that  such  prudential  reservations 
and  exceptions,  as  at  the  dates  of  said 
several  proclamations  were  deemed  neces- 
sary and  proper,  may  now  be  wisely  and 
justly  relinquished,  and  that  a  universal 
amnesty  and  pardon,  for  participation  in 
said  rebellion,  extended  to  all  who  have 
borne  any  part  therein,  will  tend  to  secure 
permanent  peace,  order,  and  prosperity 
throughout  the  land,  and  to  renew  and 
fully  restore  confidence  and  fraternal  feel- 
ing among  the  whole  people,  and  their 
respect  for  and  attachment  to  the  national 
government,  designed .  by  its  patriotic 
founders  for  the  general  good: 

Now,  therefore,  be  it  known  that  I, 
Andrew  Johnson,  President  of  the  United 
States,  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  author- 
ity in  me  vested  by  the  Constitution,  and 
in  the  name  of  the  sovereign  people  of  the 
United  States,  do  hereby  proclaim  and  de- 
clare unconditionally  and  without  reser- 
vation, to  all  and  to  every  person  who  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  participated  in  the 
late  insurrection  or  rebellion,  a  full  par- 
don and  amnesty  for  the  offences  of  trea- 
son against  the  United  States,  or  of  ad- 
hering to  their  enemies  during  the  late 
Civil  War,  with  restoration  of  all  rights, 
privileges,  and  immunities  imder  the  Con- 
stitution and  the  laws  which  have  been 
made  in  pursuance  thereof. 

In  testimony  whereof  T  have  signed 
these  presents  with  my  hand,  and  have 
caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be 
hereunto  affixed. 


Done  at  the  city  of  Washington,  the 
twenty-fifth  day  of  December,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  sixty-eight,  and  of  the  Independence 
of  the  United  States  of  America  the  nine- 
ty-third. Andrew  Johnson. 

Anaesthesia.  See  Morton,  William 
Thomas  Green. 

Anarchists.  The  battle  on  the  part  of 
society  against  the  anarchists  in  the 
United  States  may  be  said  to  have  been 
fought  and  won.  From  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  up  to  1886,  the  number  of  anar- 
chists in  the  country  constantly  increased. 
The  organization  is  supposed  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  Russia,  the  object  of  its  exist- 
ence being  apparently  to  secure  greater 
freedom  for  the  people  through  the  as- 
sassination of  those  government  officers, 
most  notably  the  Czar,  who  to  the  popular 
notion  embodied  tyranny.  The  members 
of  anarchist  bands  knew  but  five  of 
their  fellows,  though  the  society  at  one 
time  is  said  to  have  had  over  40,000 
members.  The  members  were  divided 
into  groups  of  six,  one  member  of  each 
group  communicating  with  one  of  another, 
thus  forming  a  great  chain,  but  diminish- 
ing the  fear  of  traitors.  The  oaths  of  the 
members  are  said  to  be  of  a  most  terrible 
character.  From  its  original  inception 
anarchism  soon  changed  until  the  members 
of  the  society  in  all  lands  Avere  regarded 
as  standing  solely  for  the  overthrow  of 
existing  institutions.  The  growth  of  the 
society  in  this  country  began  to  alarm 
police  officials.  The  agitators  kept  busy 
among  the  unemployed  masses  in  all  the 
large  cities.  Dire  predictions  were  made 
when  on  May  4,  1886,  an  anarchistic  meet- 
ing in  Chicago  resulted  in  such  a  disturb- 
ance that  the  people  became  aroused  and 
anarchy  received  a  death-blow.  On  the 
night  of  May  4,  a  great  number  of  an- 
archists held  a  meeting  in  Haymarket 
Square,  Chicago.  The  city  was  in  a  rest- 
less state  at  the  time  because  of  frequent 
labor  troubles.  One  of  the  speakers  waved 
a  red  flag  and  shouted  to  the  people  to  get 
dynamite  and  blow  up  the  houses  of  the 
rich.  At  these  words  a  small  body  of  police 
charged  the  anarchists.  Suddenly  a  dy- 
namite bomb  was  thrown  at  the  officers, 
and  five  officers  and  four  civilians  in  the 
crowd  were  killed.  Seven  of  the  leading 
anarchists  were  arrested,  and  after  a  trial 


156 


ANDERSON 


Ttere  condemned  to  death.     The  sentences    graduated    at    Wabash    College    in    1883; 


of  two  of  them  were  afterwards  commuted 
to  life  imprisonment,  but  in  1894  they 
were  pardoned  by  Governor  Altgeld.  One 
of  the  anarchists  committed  suicide  while 
in  prison  and  four  were  hanged.  On  July 
30,  1900,  Angelo  Bresei,  an  anarchist,  for- 
merly residing  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  assassi- 
nated King  Humbert  I.,  at  Mozana,  Italy. 
See  Altgeld,  JoHJsr  Peter;  Socialism. 

Anderson,  Alexander,  the  first  en- 
graver on  wood  in  America;  born  in  New 
York,  April  21,  1775.  His  father  was  a 
Scotchman,  who  printed  a  Whig  newspaper 
in  New  York,  called  The  Constitutional 
Gazette,  until  he  was  driven  from  the  city 


ALEXANDER    AXDERSON. 

by  the  British  in  1776.  After  the  yellow 
fever  in  1798,  he  abandoned  the  practice 
of  medicine  and  made  engraving  his  life 
profession.  Having  seen  an  edition  of 
Bewick's  History  of  Quadrupeds,  illus- 
trated with  wood-engravings  by  that  mas- 
ter, Anderson  first  learned  that  wood  was 
used  for  such  a  purpose.  From  that  time 
he  used  it  almost  continuously  until  a  few 
months  before  his  death,  in  Jersey  City, 
N.  J.,  Jan.  17,  1870.  A  vast  number  of 
American  books  illustrated  by  Anderson  at- 
test the  skill  and  industry  of  this  pioneer 
of  the  art  of  wood-engraving  in  America. 
Anderson,  Edwin  Hatfield,  librarian; 
born   in  Zionsville,   Ind.,   Sept.   27,    1861; 


appointed  librarian-in-chief  of  the  Car- 
negie Library,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  1895. 

Anderson,  Fort,  North  Carolina.  At- 
tacked simultaneously  on  Feb.  18,  1865, 
by  Admiral  Porter  with  fifteen  vessels 
and  by  the  army  under  Schofield  and 
Terry.  The  garrison  of  6,000  Confederates 
under  Hoke  fled  late  in  the  day. 

Anderson,  Larz,  diplomatist;  born  in 
Paris,  France,  Aug.  15,  1866;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1888;  spent 
two  years  in  foreign  travel ;  was  appoint- 
ed second  secretary  of  the  United  States 
legation  and  embassy  in  London  in  1891- 
93,  and  first  secretary  of  the  embassy 
in  Rome  in  1893-97.  During  the  war 
with  Spain  he  served  as  a  captain  and 
adjutant  -  general  of  United  States  vol- 
unteers. 

Anderson,  Martin  Brewer,  educator; 
born  in  Brunswick.  Me.,  Feb.  12,  1815; 
was  of  Scotch  descent  on  his  father's  side; 
was  graduated  at  Waterville  (now  Colby) 
College  in  1840;  and  in  1850  became  editor 
and  part  proprietor  of  the  New  York  Re- 
corder, a  Baptist  publication.  A  univer- 
sity having  been  established  at  Rochester 
by  the  Baptists,  he  was  called  to  the  presi- 
dency of  it  in  1853,  and  held  the  office  till 
1889.  In  1868  he  was  offered  the  presi- 
dency of  Brown  University,  but  declined 
it.  He  was  one  of  the  most  efficient  incor- 
porators and  earlier  trustees  of  Vassar 
College.     He  died  Feb.  26,  1890. 

Anderson,  Rasmus  Bjorn,  author  and 
diplomatist;  born  in  Albion,  Wis.,  of  Nor- 
wegian parentage,  Jan.  12,  1846;  was 
graduated  at  the  Norwegian  Lutheran  Col- 
lege in  Decorah,  la.,  in  1866;  was  Profes- 
sor of  Scandinavian  Languages  and  Litera- 
ture at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in 
1875-84.  and  United  States  minister  to 
Denmark  in  1885-89.  He  is  author  of 
Norse  Mythology;  Viking  Tales  of  the 
North;  America  Not  Discovered  by  Coluin- 
l)us;  The  Younger  Edda;  First  Chapter  of 
Norioegian  Immigration ;  several  Avorks  in 
Norwegian :  and  also  many  translations  of 
Norse  writings. 

Anderson,  Richard  Herron,  military 
officer;  born  in  South  Carolina,  Oct.  7, 
1S21 ;  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1842.  He  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico; 
and  in  March,  1861,  he  left  the  army  and 
became  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Confed- 


157 


ANDERSON 


erate  service.  He  was  wounded  at  Antie- 
tamj  commanded  a  division  at  Gettys- 
burg; and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1864.  He  died  in  Beaufort,  S.  C,  June 
26,  1879. 

Anderson,  Robert,  defender  of  Fort 
Sumter  in  1861;  born  near  Louisville,  Ky., 
June  14,  1805.  He  was  a  graduate  of 
West  Point  Military  Academy,  and  entered 
the  artillery.  He  was  instructor  for  a 
while  at  West  Point.  He  served  in  the 
Black  Hawk  War  {q.  v.),  and  in  Flori- 
da. In  May,  1838,  he  became  assistant  ad- 
jutant-general on  the  staff  of  General 
Scott,  and  accompanied  that  officer  in  his 
campaign  in  Mexico,  where  he  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  El  Molino  del 
Rey  (q.  v.).  In  1857  he  was  commission- 
ed major  of  artillery.  In  October,  1860, 
Secretary  Floyd  removed  Colonel  Gardiner 
from  the  command  of  the  defences  of 
Charleston  Harbor,  because  he  attempted 
to  increase  his  supply  of  ammunition,  and 
Major  Anderson  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him.  He  arrived  there  on  the  20th,  and 
was  satisfied,  by  the  tone  of  conversation 
and  feeling  in  Charleston,  and  by  the 
military  drills  going  on,  that  a  revolution 
was  to  be  inaugurated  there.  He  commu- 
nicated his  suspicions  to  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral Cooper.     In  that  letter  Anderson  an- 


ROBERT    ANDERSON. 

nounced  to  the  government  the  weakness 
of  the  forts  in  Charleston  Harbor,  and 
urged  the  necessity  of  immediately 
strengthening  them.  He  told  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  that  Fort  Moultrie,  his  head- 
quarters, was  so  weak  as  to  invite  attack. 
"  Fort   Sumter   and   Castle  Pinckney,"  he 


said,  "  must  be  garrisoned  immediately,  if 
the  government  determines  to  keep  com- 
mand of  this  harbor."  Fort  Sumter,  he 
said,  had  40,000  lb.  of  cannon  powder 
and  other  ammunition,  but  was  lying  com- 
pletely at  the  mercy  of  an  enemy.  He  in- 
formed the  Secretary  of  evident  prepara- 
tions for  a  speedy  seizure  of  the  defences 
of  the  harbor  by  South  Carolinians.  Gen- 
eral Scott,  aware  of  the  weakness  of  the 
Southern  forts,  urged  the  government, 
from  October  until  the  close  of  December, 
to  reinforce  those  on  the  coasts  of  the 
slave  States.  But  nothing  was  done,  and 
Anderson,  left  to  his  own  resources,  was 
compelled  to  assume  grave  responsibilities. 
He  began  to  strengthen  Castle  Pinck- 
ney, near  the  city,  and  Fort  Moultrie. 
When  the  South  Carolina  ordinance  of 
secession  had  passed,  menaces  became  more 
frequent  and  alarming.  He  knew  that  the 
convention  had  appointed  commissioners 
to  repair  to  Washington  and  demand  the 
surrender  of  the  forts  in  Charleston  Har- 
bor, and  he  was  conscious  that  the  latter 
were  liable  to  be  attacked  at  any  moment. 
He  knew,  too,  that  if  he  should  remain 
in  Fort  Moultrie,  their  efforts  would  be 
successful.  Watch-boats  were  out  contin- 
ually spying  his  movements.  He  had  ap- 
plied to  the  government  for  instructions, 
but  received  none,  and  he  determined  to 
leave  Fort  Moiiltrie  with  his  garrison  and 
take  post  in  stronger  Fort  Sumter.  This 
he  did  on  the  evening  of  Dec.  26.  The 
vigilance  of  the  Confederates  had  been 
eluded.  They,  amazed,  telegraphed  to 
Floyd.  The  latter,  by  telegraph,  ordered 
Anderson  to  explain  his  conduct  in  acting 
without  orders.  Anderson  calmly  replied 
that  it  was  done  to  save  the  government 
works.  In  Sumter,  he  was  a  thorn  in  the 
flesh  of  the  Confederates.  Finally  they 
attacked  him,  and  after  a  siege  and  furi- 
ous bombardment,  the  fort  was  evacuated 
in  April,  1861.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general  in  the  regu- 
lar army,  and  commander  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Cumberland,  but  failing  health 
caused  him  to  retire  from  the  service  in 
1863,  when  he  was  brevetted  a  major-gen- 
eral. In  1868  he  went  to  Europe  for  the 
benefit  of  his  health,  and  died  in  Nice, 
France,  Oct.  27,  1871.  See  Pickens, 
Fort;  Sumter,  Fort. 

Anderson,     Thomas    McArthub,    ?gl« 


158 


ANDEPvSONVlLLE— ANDRf: 


dier;  born  in  Chillicothe,  0.,  Jan.  22,  1S36; 
entered  the  army  as  a  private  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  rose  to  be  brigadier-gen- 
eral, March,  1899.  He  commanded  the 
1st  division,  8th  army  corps,  in  the  first 
expedition  to  the  Philippines. 

Andersonville.  See      Confederate 

Prisons. 

Andrade,  Jose,  diplomatist;  born  in 
Merida,  Venezuela,  in  1838;  studied  law 
in  Columbia  College;  was  successively 
treasurer,  secretary,  and  governor  of  the 
state  of  Zulia  in  1880-84;  representative 
for  the  same  state  in  the  National  House 
of  Representatives  in  1884-88;  and  was 
appointed  plenipotentiary  to  settle  the 
claims  of  France  against  Venezuela  in 
1888.  In  1889-90  he  represented  Venez- 
uela in  Washington,  D.  C,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Venezuelan  and  Marine  Com- 
missions; was  also  a  delegate  to  the  In- 
ternational Maritime  Conference,  and  to 
the  Pan-American  Congress;  in  1893 
served  in  the  National  Assembly  which 
framed  the  new  constitution  of  Venez- 
uela; and  in  the  same  year  was  appoint- 
ed minister  to  the  United  States.  In  1895 
he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  and 
Venezuela  Claims  Commission  in  Wash- 
ington. On  Feb.  2,  1897,  he  signed  the 
treaty  of  arbitration  between  Venezuela 
and  England  to  arrange  the  boundary  dis- 
jjute;  the  same  year  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Universal  Postal  Congress  in  Wash- 
ington; and  in  1899  was  appointed  envoy 
extraordinary  and  minister  plenipotenti- 
ary to  Great  Britain. 

Andre,  John,  British  military  oflBcer; 
born  in  London  in  1751 ;  was  the  son  of  a 
Genevan,  who  was  a  merchant  in  London. 
After  receiving  an  education  at  Geneva, 
young  Andre  returned,  and  entered  a  mer- 
cantile house  in  London  when  he  was 
eighteen  years  of  age.  He  was  a  youth 
of  great  genius — painted  well  and  wrote 
poetry  with  fluency.  His  literary  tastes 
brought  to  him  the  acquaintance  of  lit- 
erary people.  Among  these  was  the  poet- 
ess, Anna  Seward,  of  Lichfield,  to  whose 
cousin,  Honora  Sneyd,  Andre  became 
warmly  attached.  They  were  betrothed, 
but  their  youth  caused  a  postponement  of 
their  nuptials,  and  Andre  entered  the 
army  and  came  to  America,  in  1774,  as 
lieutenant  of  the  Royal  Fusileers.  With 
them,   in  Canada,  he  was  taken  prisoner 

15 


by  Montgomery,  at  St.  Johns  (Nov.  2, 
1775),  and  was  sent  to  Lancaster,  Pa. 
In  December,  1776,  he  was  exchanged,  and 
promoted  to  captain  in  the  British  army. 
He  was  appointed  aide  to  General  Grey 
in  the  summer  of  1777,  and  on  the  depart- 
ure of  that  officer  he  was  placed  on  the 
staff  of  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  by  whom  he 
was  promoted  (1780)  to  the  rank  of  ma- 
jor, and  appointed  adjutant-general  of  the 
British  forces  in  America.  His  talents 
were  appreciated,  and  wherever  taste  was 
to  be  displayed  in  any  arrangements,  the 
matter  was  left  to  Andre.  He  was  the 
chief  actor  in  promoting  and  arranging 
the  Mischianza,  and  took  a  principal  part 
in  all  private  theatrical  performances. 
Sir  Henry  employed  him  to  carry  on  the 
correspondence  with  Arnold  respecting  the 


JOHN    ANDKE. 


betrayal  of  his  country.  Having  held  a 
personal  interview  with  the  traitor,  he 
was  returning  to  New  York  on  horseback, 
when  he  was  arrested,  near  Tarry  town, 
conveyed  to  Tappan,  in  Rockland  county, 
nearly  opposite,  tried  as  a  spy,  and  was 
condemned  and  executed,  Oct.  2,  1780. 

In  March,  1901,  Lord  Grey,  in  examin- 
ing a  lot  of  family  papers  that  had  not 
been  disturbed  since  the  close  of  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  discovered  what  was  be- 
lieved to  be  the  original  diary  of  Major 
Andre,  in  which  is  given  a  narrative  of 
the  campaign  of  1777-78  day  by  day. 

The  story  of  Major  Andre's  career,  in 
connection  with  the  complot  of  Sir  Henry 
Clinton  and  Gen.  Benedict  Arnold 
9 


ANDR:^,    JOHN 


WASHINGTON'S    HEADQUARTERS    AT    TAPPAN. 


(qq.  v.),  occupies  a  conspicuous  place  in  with  us,  and  afterwards  joined  the  enemy, 
our  history,  and  sympathy  for  the  offend-  shall  be  immediately  hanged."  This  in- 
er,  not  unmixed  with  denunciations  of  the  eluded  all  officers  and  men,  even  those, 
court  of  inquiry  that  condemned  him,  have  as  in  South  Carolina,  where  this  subal- 
tieen   abundant,    and   not   always   wise   or    tern  was  serving,  who  had  been  forced  into 

the  royal  service.  This  order 
Clinton  approved,  and  sent  it  to 
Secretary  Germain.  That  sec- 
retary answered  Clinton's  letter, 
saying,  "  The  most  disaffected 
will  now  be  convinced  that  we 
are  not  afraid  to  punish."  The 
order  was  rigorously  executed. 
Men  of  great  worth  and  purity 
were  hanged,  without  the  forms 
of  a  trial,  for  bearing  arms  in 
defence  of  their  liberty;  Andre 
was  hanged,  after  an  impartial 
trial,  for  the  crime  of  plotting 
and  abetting  a  scheme  for  the 
enslavement  of  3,000,000  people. 
He  deserved  his  fate  according 
to  the  laws  of  war.  It  was  just 
towards  him  and  merciful  to  a 
nation.  Cicero  justly  said,  in 
just.  The  court  that  condemned  him  saw  regard  to  Catiline,  "  Mercy  towards  a 
clearly,  by  his  own  confession,  that  he  de-  traitor  is  an  injury  to  the  state."  Andre 
served  the  fate  of  a  spy;  and  if  they  had  was  treated  with  great  consideration  by 
been  swayed  by  other  motives  than  those  Washington,  whose  headquarters  at  Tap- 
of  justice  and  the  promotion  of  the  public  pan  were  near  the  place  of  his  trial.  The 
good,  they  had  full  justification  in  the  commander-in-chief  supplied  the  former 
course  of  the  British 
officers  in  pursuit  of 
the  British  policy  tow- 
ards the  Americans. 
Scores  of  good  men,  not 
guilty  of  any  offence 
but  love  of  country  and 
defence  of  their  rights, 
had  been  hanged  by  the 
positive  orders  of  Corn- 
"wallis  in  the  South ; 
and  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
himself,  who  ungener- 
ously attributed  the  act 
of  the  board  of  inquiry 
in  condemning  Andre, 
and  of  Washington  in 
approving  the  sentence, 
to  "  personal  rancor," 
for  which  no  cause  ex- 
isted, had  approved  of  ten-fold  more  "  in- 
humanity "  in  the  acts  of  his  suborni- 
nates.     One  of  them  wrote  to  Clinton,  "  I 


THE    CAPTORS'  MEDAL. 


w^ith  all  needed  refreshments  for  his  table. 
Washington  did  not  have  a  personal  in- 
terview with    Andre,   but   treated   him   as 

have  ordered,  in  the  most  positive  manner,    leniently  as  the  rules  of  war  would  allow. 

that  every  militiaman  who  has  borne  arms        The  captors  of  Major  Andre  were  John 

160 


ANDRE— ANDREWS 


Paulding,  David  Williams,  and  Isaac  Van 
Wart.  Washington  recommended  Con- 
gress to  reward  them  for  their  fidelity. 
They  were  each  jiresented  with  a  silver 
medal,  and  they  were  voted  a  pension  of 
$200  a  year  each  in  silver  or  its  equiva- 
lent. Monuments  have  been  erected  to  the 
memory  of  the  captors — to  Paulding,  in 
St.  Peter's  church-yard,  near  Peekskill ;  to 
Van  Wart,  by  the  citizens  of  Westchester 
county,  in  1829,  in  the  Presbyterian 
church-yard  at  Greenburg,  of  which  church 
the  captor  was  an  active  officer  and  chor- 
ister for  many  years ;  and  to  Williams,  in 
Schoharie  county,  N.  Y. 

The  King  caused  a  monument  to  be 
placed  in  Westminster  Abbey  to  the  mem- 
ory of  Andr$.  It  seems  to  be  quite  out  of 
place  among  the  "  worthies  "  of  England, 
for  he  was  hanged  as  a  spy,  and  was  a 
plotter  for  the  ruin  of  a  people  struggling 
for  justice.  But  his  monarch  honored  him 
for  an  attempted  state  service,  knighted 
his  brother,  and  pensioned  his  family.  His 


Andrew,   John   Albiox,  war  governor 
of  Massachusetts;  was  born  in  Windham, 


ANDRE'S   MONUMENT    IN  WESTMINSTER    ABBEY. 

remains  were  at  first  interred  at  the  place 
of  his  execution,  and  in  1821  were  ex- 
humed and  conveyed  to  England.  A  mon- 
ument was  erected  at  the  place  of  his  exe- 
cution to  commemorate  the  event  by  the 
late  Cyrus  W.  Field,  but  it  was  soon  after- 
wards blown  up  by  unknown  persons. 


JOHN   A.   ANDREW. 


Me.,  May  31,  1818;  was  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1837,  and  became  conspic- 
uous as  an  anti-slavery  advocate.  He  was 
chosen  governor  of  Massachusetts,  in  1860, 
by  the  largest  popular  vote  ever  cast  for 
any  candidate  for  that  office.  Foreseeing 
a  conflict  with  the  Confederates,  he  took 
means  to  make  the  State  militia  efficient; 
and,  within  a  week  after  the  President's 
call  for  troops,  he  sent  five  regiments  of 
infantry,  a  battalion  of  riflemen,  and  a 
battery  of  artillery  to  the  assistance  of 
the  government.  He  was  active  in  raising 
troops  during  the  war  and  providing  for 
their  comfort.  An  eloquent  orator,  his 
voice  was  very  efficacious.  He  was  re- 
elected in  1862,  and  declined  to  be  a  can- 
didate in  1864.  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct.  30,  1867. 

Andrews,  Charles  McLean,  historian ; 
born  at  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  Feb.  22,  1863; 
was  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1884;  and  was  called  to  the  Chair 
of  History  in  Bryn  Mawr  College  in  1889. 
His  publications  include  The  River  Toions 
of  Connecticut ;  The  Old  English  Manor; 
The  Historical  Development  of  Modern 
Europe;  and  articles  in  reviews  and  his- 
torical periodicals. 

Andrews,  Christopher  Columbus,  law- 
yer and  diplomatist;  born  in  Hillsboro, 
N.  H.,  Oct.  27,  1829;  was  educated  at  the 
Harvard  Law  School;  admitted  to  the 
Massachusetts  bar  in  1850,  and  later  set- 


161 


AiSTDHEWS— ANDHOg 


tied  in  St.  Cloud,  Minn.  In  the  Civil  War  Andrews,  Lorrin,  missionary;  born  in 
he  rose  from  the  ranks  to  brevet  major-  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  April  29,  1795;  was 
general  in  the  Union  army.  In  1869-77  educated  at  Jefferson  College  and  Prince- 
he  was  United  States  minister  to  Norway  ton  Theological  Seminary.  In  1827  he 
and  Sweden,  and  in  1882-85  consul-gen-  went  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  as  a  mis- 
eral  to  Rio  de  Janeiro.  He  has  published  sionary,  and  founded  there,  in  1831,  the 
a  History  of  the  Campaign  of  Mobile;  Lahainaluna  Seminary,  which  subsequent- 
Brasil,  Its  Conditions  and  Prospects ;  Ad-  ly  became  the  Hawaii  University,  where 
ministrative  Reform,   etc.  he   passed   ten  years   as   a   professor.      In 

Andrews,    Elisha    Benjamin,    educa-  1845  he  was  appointed  a  judge  and  secre- 

tor;    born    in    Hinsdale,    N.    H.,   Jan.    10,  tary  of  the  privy   council.     His   writings 

1844;   graduated  at  Brown  University  in  include  a  translation  of  a  portion  of  the 

1870,  and  at  Newton  Theological  Institute  Bible  into  the  Hawaiian  language;  several 

in   1874;  was  president  of  Brown  Univer-  works  on  the  literature  and  antiquities  of 

sityin  1889-98;  superintendent  of  the  Chi-  Hawaii,  and  a  Hawaiian  dictionary.     He 

cago  Public  Schools  in  1898-1900;  and  in  died  Sept.  29,  1868. 

the    last   year    became    chancellor    of    the  Andrews,     Stephen     Pearl,     author; 

University  of  Nebraska.     He  is  author  of  born  in  Templeton,  Mass.,  March  22,  1812. 

History  of  the  United  States;  An  Honest  After    practising    law    in    the    South,    he 

Dollar,  a  Plea  for  Bimetallism,  etc.  settled    in    New    York    in    1847,    and    be- 

Andrews,     Ethan     Allen,     educator;  came   a   prominent   abolitionist.     He   gave 


born  in  New  Britain,  Conn.,  April  7,  1787; 
was  Professor  of  Ancient  Languages  at  the 
University  of  North  Carolina  in  1822-28; 
and  editor  (with  Jacob  Abbott)  of  the  Re- 


much  attention  to  phonographic  reporting, 
and  to  the  development  of  a  universal 
philosophy  which  he  named  "  Integi-alism," 
and  to  a  universal  language  named  "  Al- 


ligious  Magazine,  but  was  chiefly  engaged  wato."    He  was  aiithor  of  numerous  works 

in  compiling  classical  text-books.     In  1850  relating  to  these  subjects,  besides  Compari- 

he    edited    the    well-known    Latin-English  son  of  the  Common  Laio  with  the  Roman, 

Lexicon,  based  on  Freund ;   and  Andrews'  French,  or  Spanish  Civil  Laio  on  Entails, 

and  Stoddard's  Latin  Grammar.     He  died  etc.;    Love,    Marriage    and    Divorce;    The 

March  4,  1858.  Labor  Dollar;  Transactions  of  the  Collo- 

Andrews,    George    Leonard,    military  quiu^n     (an   organization    established    by 

officer ;   born  in  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  Aug.  himself  and  friends  for  philosophical  dis- 

lil,  1828;  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  cussion),  etc.     He  died  in  New  York,  May 

1S51,  entering  the  engineer  corps.     He  re-  21,   1886. 

signed  in   1855.     In   1861   he  became  first        Andres,  Sir  Edmund,  born  in  London, 

lieutenant-colonel  and  then  colonel  of  the  Dec.   6,    1637.      In    1674   he   succeeded   his 

2d  Massachusetts  Regiment.    He  was  made  father  as  bailiff  of  Guernsey  Island.     In 

brigadier  -  general  in  1862,  and  led  a  bri-  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  govern- 

gade   in   Banks's   expedition   in   Louisiana  or    of    the    province    of    New    York.      He 

and    against   Port   Hudson    in    1863.      He  administered  public  affairs  wholly  in  the 

assisted    in    the    capture    of    Mobile,    and  interest  of  his  master,  the  Duke  of  York, 

was    appointed    Professor    of    French    at  His    private    life    was    unblemished;    but 

West    Point    Feb.    27,    1871;    was    retired  such    was   his    public   career    that   he   ac- 

Aug.  31,  1892;  and  died  April  4,  1899.  quired    the    title    of    "tyrant."      Andros 

Andrews,     John     New^man,     military  became  involved  in  serious  disputes  with 

officer;    born    in    Wilmington,    Del.,    Sept.  the  colonists.     In  1680  he  deposed  Philip 


16,  1838;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1860;  pro- 
moted first  lieutenant  in  1861;  colonel, 
in   1895;    and  was  retired  April   1,   1899. 


Carteret,  and  seized  the  government  of 
East  Jersey.  The  next  year  he  was  re- 
called, and  retired  to  Guernsey,  after 
having  cleared  himself  of  several  chai'ges 


From  June  3,  1898,  to  Feb.  24,  1899,  he  that  had  been  preferred  against  him.  The 
was  a  brigadier  -  general  of  volunteers.  New  England  governments  were  consoli- 
After  the  Civil  War  he  served  in  a  num-  dated  in  1686,  and  Andros  was  appointed 
ber  of  Indian  campaigns,  and  in  1898  governor  -  general.  Under  instructions, 
through  the  war  with  Spain.  he  forbade  all  printing  in  those  colonies. 

162 


ANDROS— ANGLICAN    CHURCH 


He  was  aiithorized  to  appoint  and  remove  sent  from  the  Rose  to  take  off  the  gov- 

his   own   council,   and   with   their   consent  ernor  and  his  council  was  intercepted  and 

to  enact  laws,  levy  taxes,  and  control  the  captured.     Andros  yielded,  and,  with  the 

militia.     These    privileges    were    exercised  royal  ex-President  Dudley,  Randolph,  and 

in  a  despotic  manner,  and  his  government  his  other  chief  partisans,  was  imprisoned 

became  odious.     He  attempted  to  seize  the  (April  18,  1689).     Andros,  by  the  conniv- 

charter  of  Connecticut,   but   failed.     New  ance  of  a  sentinel,  escaped  to  Rhode  Isl- 

York  and  New  Jersey  were  added  to  his  and,  but  was  brought  back.     In  July  fol- 

jurisdiction  in   1688.  lowing  he  was  sent  to  England,  by  royal 

In   the   former   he   succeeded   the   clear-  order,  with  a   committee  of  his   accusers, 

headed   and   right-minded   Governor   Don-  but  was  acquitted  without  a  formal  trial, 

gan.     He  entered  New  York  City  early  in  Andros   was    appointed   governor    of   Vir- 

August,   with   a   viceregal   commission   to  ginia  in  1692,  where  he  became  popular; 

rule  that  province  in  connection  with  all  but,  through  the  influence  of  Commissary 

New    England.     He    had    journeyed    from  Blair,  he  was  removed  in  1698.     In  1704-6 

Boston,  and  was  received  by  Colonel  Bay-  he  was  governor  of  Guernsey.     He  died  in 

ard's  regiment  of  foot  and  horse.     He  was  London,  Feb.  24,  1714. 

entertained  by  the  loyal  aristocracy.     In  Angell,   James   Burrill,  educator  and 

the   midst   of   the   rejoicings,   news    came  diplomatist;  born  in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  Jan. 

that  the  Queen,  the  second  wife  of  James  7,  1829;  was  graduated  at  Brown  Univer- 

II.,  had  given  birth  to  a  son,  who  became  sity   in    1849;    Professor   of  Modern  Lan- 

heir  to  the  throne.     The  event  was  cele-  guages  and  Literature  at  Brown  Univer- 

brated,  on  the  evening  of  the  day  of  the  sity  in  1853-60;   president  of  the  Univer- 

arrival  of  the  intelligence,  by  bonfires  in  sity   of   Vermont   in    1866-71;    and    since 

the  streets  and  a  feast  at  the  City  Hall.  1871  president  of  the  University  of  Michi- 

At  the  latter.   Mayor   Van   Cortlandt   be-  gan.     In    1880-81    he   was   United    States 

came  so  hilarious  that  he  made  a  notable  minister  to  China;   in   1887  a  member  of 

display  of  his  loyalty  to  the   Stuarts  by  the  Anglo-American  Commission  on  Cana- 

setting  fire  to  his  hat   and  periwig,   and  dian  Fisheries;    in   1896  chairman  of  the 

waving  the  burning  coverings  of  his  head  Canadian-American    Commission   on   Deep 

over    the    banquet    on    the    point    of    his  Waterways  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the 

straight-sword.     When  news  came  to  Bos-  Sea;   and  in   1897-98  United  States  min- 


ton  of  the  revolution  in  England,  Gov- 
ernor Andros  affected  to  disbelieve  it,  and 
imprisoned  those  who  brought  it.       With 


ister  to  Turkey.     He  is  author  of  numer- 
ous addresses  and  magazine  articles. 

Ang'lican  Church.     The  earliest  Angli- 


the  people  the  "  wish  was  father  to  the  can  congregation  in  New  England  was  or- 
thought,"  and  they  gave  credence  to  the  ganized  in  1630,  when  about  1,000  emi- 
rumor  and  arranged  a  popular  insurrec-  grants  arrived  in  Massachusetts  from 
tion.  A  mob  gathered  in  the  streets  of  England,  under  the  leadership  of  John 
Boston.  The  sheriff  who  attempted  to  dis-  Winthrop,  who  had  been  appointed  gov- 
perse  them  was  made  a  prisoner;  so  also  ernor  under  the  royal  charter.  Winthrop 
was  the  commander  of  the  frigate  Rose  brought  the  charter  with  him.  On  the  day 
as  he  landed  from  his  boat.  The  militia  before  they  sailed  from  the  Isle  of  Wight 
assembled  in  arms  at '  the  town-house  the  leaders  sent  an  address  to  "  the  rest 
under  their  old  officers.  Andros  and  his  of  the  brethren  in  and  of  the  Church  of 
council  withdrew  in  alarm  to  a  fort  which  England,"  and  spoke  of  that  Church  with 
crowned  an  eminence  still  known  as  Fort  affection  as  their  "dear  mother."  This 
Hill.  Simon  Bradstreet,  a  former  govern-  was  to  correct  a  "  misreport "  that  the 
or,  then  eighty-seven  years  of  age,  was  emigrants  intended  to  separate  from  the 
seen  in  the  crowd  by  the  militia,  and  im-  Church.  Notwithstanding  this  dutiful  ad- 
mediately  proclaimed  the  chief  magistrate  dress,  when  they  set  foot  on  American 
of  the  redeemed  colony.  The  magistrates  soil  a  sense  of  freedom  overcame  their  al- 
and other  citizens  formed  themselves  into  legiance,  and,  following  the  example 
a  council  of  safety.  The  ready  pen  of  Cot-  of  the  "  Plymouthians  "  and  Endicott,  they 
ton  Mather  wrote  a  proclamation,  and  An-  established  separate  churches  and  chose 
dros  was  summoned  to  surrender.  A  barge  their  own  officers.     Without  any  express 

163 


ANGLO-AMERICAN    COMMISSION— ANNAPOLIS 


renunciation  of  the  authority  of  the 
Church  of  England,  the  Plymouth  people 
had  laid  aside  its  liturgy  and  rituals.  En- 
dicott  followed  this  example  at  Salem,  and 
had  the  sympathy  of  three  "  godly  min- 
isters "  there — Higginson,  Skelton,  and 
Bright;  also  of  Smith,  a  sort  of  interloper. 
A  church  was  organized  there — the  first 
in  New  England,  for  that  at  Plymouth 
Avas  really  in  a  formative  state  yet.  All 
of  the  congregation  were  not  prepared 
to  lay  aside  the  liturgy  of  the  Church 
of  England,  and  two  of  them  (John 
and  Samuel  Browne)  protested,  and  set 
up  a  separate  worship.  The  energetic 
Endicott  promptly  arrested  the  "  malcon- 
tents "  and  sent  them  to  England.  Fol- 
lowing up  the  system  adopted  at  Salem, 
the  emigrants,  under  the  charter  of  1630, 
established  Nonconformist  churches  wher- 
ever settlements  were  planted — Charles- 
town,  Watertown,  Boston,  Dorchester,  etc. 
At  Salem  the  choice  of  minister  and  teach- 
er was  made  as  follows :  "  Every  fit  mem- 
ber wrote  in  a  note  the  name  whom  the 
Lord  moved  him  to  think  was  fit  for  pas- 
tor," and  so  likewise  for  teacher.  Skelton 
was  chosen  for  the  first  office,  Higginson  for 
the  second.  When  they  accepted,  three  or 
four  of  the  gravest  members  of  the  church 
laid  their  hands  upon  Mr.  Skelton  and 
Mr.  Higginson,  using  prayer  therewith. 
Such  was  the  first  New  England  ordina- 
tion. See  Protestant  Episcopal  Church; 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 

Anglo-American  Commission,  a  joint 
commission  appointed  by  the  United  States 
and  the  British  governments  in  1898  for 
the  purpose  of  preparing  a  plan  by  which 
the  controversial  qixestions  pending  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada 
might  be  definitely  settled.  As  originally 
constituted  the  American  members  were: 
United  States  Senators  Fairbanks  and 
Gray,  Congressman  Dingley,  ex-Secretary 
of  State  Foster,  and  Eeciprocity  Commis- 
sioner Kasson:  and  the  British  members: 
Lord  Herschell,  Sir  Wilfred  Laurier,  Sir 
Richard  Cartwright,  Sir  Louis  H.  Davies, 
and  Mr.  J.  Charlton,  a  member  of  the 
Dominion  Parliament.  Of  these  commis- 
sioners. Congressman  Dingley  died  Jan. 
13,  1899,  and  Lord  Herschell,  March  1, 
1899.  The  questions  assigned  to  the  com- 
mission for  consideration  were  as  follows: 

Seal-fisheries    of    Bering    Sea ;    fisheries 


off  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts;  Alaska- 
Canadian  boundary;  transportation  of 
merchandise  by  land  and  water  between 
the  countries ;  transit  of  merchandise  from 
one  country  to  be  delivered  in  the  other 
beyond  the  frontier ;  alien  labor  laws ; 
mining  rights  of  citizens  or  subjects  of 
each  country  within  the  territory  of  the 
other;  readjustment  and  concession  of  cus- 
toms duties;  revision  of  agreement  of 
1817  respecting  naval  vessels  on  the  lakes; 
definition  and  marking  of  frontier;  con- 
veyance of  prisoners  through  each  other's 
territory;  reciprocity  in  wrecking  and 
salvage  rights.  Several  sessions  were  held 
in  Canada  and  in  Washington  without 
practical  results. 

Anglo-American  League,  The,  a  soci- 
ety founded  at  Stafford  House,  London, 
England,  July  13,  1898,  for  purposes  in- 
dicated in  the  following  resolution :  "  Con- 
sidering that  the  peoples  of  the  British 
Empire  and  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica are  closely  allied  in  blood,  inherit  the 
same  literature  and  laws,  hold  the  same 
principles  of  self-government,  recognize  the 
same  ideas  of  freedom  and  humanity  in 
the  guidance  of  their  national  policy,  and 
are  drawn  together  by  strong  common  in- 
terests in  many  parts  of  the  world,  this 
meeting  is  of  opinion  that  every  effort 
should  be  made,  in  the  interest  of  civiliza- 
tion and  peace,  to  secure  the  most  cordial 
and  constant  co-operation  between  the  two 
nations."  British  subjects  and  citizens  of 
the  United  States  are  eligible  to  member- 
ship. A  representative  committee  was  ap- 
pointed with  the  Right  Hon.  James  Bryce, 
M.  P.,  as  chairman. 

Anglo-American  Understanding,  Ba- 
sis OF  AN.     See  Abbott,  Lyman. 

Annapolis,  city,  county  seat  of  Anne 
Arundel  county,  and  capital  of  the  State 
of  Maryland;  on  the  Severn  River,  20 
miles  south  by  east  of  Baltimore;  is  the 
seat  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
and  of  St.  John's  College ;  population  in 
1890,  7,604;  1900,  8,402.  Puritan  refugees 
from  Massachusetts,  led  by  Durand,  a 
ruling  elder,  settled  on  the  site  of  Annap- 
olis in  1649,  and,  in  imitation  of  Roger 
Williams,  called  the  place  Providence. 
The  next  year  a  commissioner  of  Lord 
Baltimore  organized  there  the  county  of 
Anne  Arundel,  so  named  in  compliment  to 
Lady  Baltimore,  and  Providence  was  call- 


164 


ANNAPOLIS 


ed  Anne  Arundel  Town.  A  few  years  later 
it  again  bore  the  name  of  Providence,  and 
became  the  seat  of  Protestant  influence 
and  of  a  Protestant  government,  disputing 
the  legislative  authority  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  government  at  the  ancient  capital, 
St.  Mary's.  In  1094  the  latter  was  aban- 
doned as  the  capital  of  the  province,  and 
the  seat  of  government  was  established 
on  the  Severn.  The  village  was  finally 
incorporated  a  city,  and  named  Annapolis, 
in  honor  of  Queen  Anne.  It  has  remained 
the  permanent  political  capital  of  Mary- 
land. It  was  distinguished  for  the  re- 
finement and  wealth  of  its  inhabitants  and 
extensive  commerce,  being  a  port  of  entry 
long  before  the  foundations  of  Baltimore 
were  laid. 

On  the  morning  of  Oct.  15,  1774,  a  vessel 
o^vned  by  Anthony  Stewart,  of  Annapolis, 
entered  the  port  with  seventeen  packages 
of  tea  among  her  cargo,  assigned  to  Stew- 
art. When  this  became  known,  and  that 
Stewart  had  paid  the  duty  on  the  tea,  the 
people  gathered,  and  resolved  that  the 
plant  should  not  be  landed.  Another 
meeting  was  appointed,  and  the  people 
declared  that  ship  and  her  cargo  should 
be  burned.  Stewart  disclaimed  all  inten- 
tion to  violate  non-importation  agree- 
ments, but  the  people  were  inexorable. 
They  had  gathered  in  large  numbers  from 
the  surrounding  country.  Charles  Carroll 
and  others,  fearing  mob  violence,  advised 
Stewart  to  burn  the  vessel  and  cargo  with 
his  own  hands,  which  he  did.  The  vessel 
was  run  ashore  and  destroyed,  when  the 
people  cheered  and  dispersed.  This  was 
the  last  attempt  at  importation  of  tea 
into   the   English-American   colonies. 

On  April  14,  1755,  General  Braddock 
and  Commodore  Keppel,  with  Governors 
Shirley,  of  Massachusetts;  De  Lancey,  of 
New  York ;  Morris,  of  Pennsylvania ; 
Sharpe.  of  Maryland,  and  DinAviddie.  of  Vir- 
ginia, held  a  congress  at  Annapolis.  Brad- 
dock  had  lately  arrived  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  British  forces  in  America.  Un- 
der his  instructions,  he  first  of  all  directed 
the  attention  of  the  government  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  raising  a  revenue  in  America. 
He  expressed  astonishment  that  no  such 
fund  was  already  established.  The  gov- 
ernors told  him  of  their  strifes  with  their 
respective  assemblies,  and  assured  Brad- 
dock  that  no  such  fund  could  ever  be  es- 


tablished in  the  colonies  without  the  aid 
of  Parliament.  The  Congress  then  ._re- 
solved  unanimously  that  it  was  the  opin- 
ion of  its  members  that  it  should  be  pro- 
posed to  his  Majesty's  ministers  to  "  find 
out  some  method  of  compelling  "  the  colo- 
nists to  establish  such  a  public  fund,  and 
for  assessing  the  several  governments  in 
proportion  to  their  respective  abilities.  At 
once  all  the  crown  officers  in  America  sent 
voluminous  letters  to  England,  urging 
such  a  measure  upon  the  government. 

On  July  20,  1775,  a  convention  assem- 
bled at  Annapolis,  and  formed  a  tempo- 
rary government,  which,  recognizing  the 
Continental  Congress  as  invested  with  a 
general  supervision  of  public  aff"airs,  man- 
aged its  own  internal  affairs  through  a 
provincial  Committee  of  Safety  and  sub- 
ordinate executive  committees,  appointed 
in  every  county,  parish,  or  hundred.  It 
directed  the  enrolment  of  forty  companies 
of  minute-men,  authorized  the  emission  of 
over  $500,000  in  bills  of  credit,  and  ex- 
tended the  franchise  to  all  freemen  having 
a  visible  estate  of  £210,  without  any  dis- 
tinction as  to  religious  belief.  The  con- 
vention fully  resolved  to  sustain  Massa- 
chusetts, and  meet  force  by  force  if  neces- 
sary. 

Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  was  in  Philadelphia 
on  April  19,  1801,  when  he  first  heard  of 
the  assault  on  Massachusetts  troops  in 
Baltimore.  He  had  orders  to  go  to  Wash- 
ington through  Baltimore.  It  was  evident 
that  he  could  not  do  so  without  trouble, 
and  he  took  counsel  with  Gen.  Robert 
Patterson,  the  commandei"  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Washington.  He  also  consulted 
Commodore  Dupont,  commander  of  the 
naw-yard  there,  and  it  was  agreed  that 
the  troops  under  General  Butler  should  go 
from  Perrwville,  on  the  Susquehanna,  to 
Annapolis,  by  water,  and  thence  across 
Maryland,  seizing  and  holding  Annapolis 
Junction  by  the  way.  Butler  laid  before 
his  officers  a  plan  which  contemplated 
seizing  and  holding  Annapolis  as  a  means 
of  communication,  and  to  make  a  forced 
march  with  a  part  of  his  troops  from  that 
port  to  Washington.  He  wrote  to  the 
governor  of  Massachusetts  to  send  the 
Boston  Light  Artillery  to  Annapolis,  and 
the  next  morning  he  proceeded  with  his 
troops  to  Perryville,  embarked  in  the 
powerful  steam  ferry-boat  Maryland,  and 


165 


ANNAPOLIS— ANNE 


at  a  little  past  midnight  reached  Annap- 
olis. The  town  and  Naval  Academy  were 
in  the  hands  of  the  Confederates,  and  were 
all  lighted  up  in  expectation  of  the  arrival 
of  a  body  of  Confederates,  by  water,  from 
Baltimore,  to  assist  them  in  seizing  the 
venerable  and  venerated  frigate  Constitu- 
tion, lying  there,  and  adding  her  to  the 
Confederate  navy.  The  arrival  of  these 
troops  was  just  in  time  to  save  her. 
Many  of  Butler's  troops  were  seamen  at 
home,  and  these  assisted  in  getting  the 
Constitution  to  a  place  of  safety  beyond 
the  bar.  Governor  Hicks  was  at  Annapo- 
lis, and  advised  Butler  not  to  land  North- 
ern troops.  ■ "  They  are  not  Northern 
troops,"  said  Butler.  "  They  are  a  part 
of  the  whole  militia  of  the  United  States, 
obeying  the  call  of  the  President."  This 
was  the  root  of  the  matter — the  idea  of 
nationality  as  opposed  to  State  supremacy. 
He  called  oh  the  governor  and  the  mayor 
of  Annapolis.  To  their  remonstrances 
against  his  landing  and  marching  through 
Maryland,  Butler  replied  that  the  orders 
and  demands  of  his  government  were  im- 
perative, and  that  he  should  land  and 
march  on  the  capital  as  speedily  as  possi- 
ble. He  assured  them  that  peaceElble  citi- 
zens should  be  unmolested  and  the  laws  of 
Maryland  be  respected. 

On  the  22d  the  New  York  7th  Begi- 
ment.  Colonel  Leflferts,  arrived  at  Annapo- 
lis on  a  steamer.  All  the  troops  were 
landed  and  quartered  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy. The  Confederates,  meanwhile,  had 
torn  up  the  railway,  taken  the  locomotives 
to  pieces,  and  hidden  them.  Terrible 
stories  reached  Butler  of  a  great  force  of 
Confederates  at  Annapolis  Junction.  He 
did  not  believe  them,  and  moved  on,  after 
taking  formal  military  possession  of  An- 
napolis and  the  railway  to  Annapolis 
Junction.  Two  Massachusetts  companies 
seized  the  railway  station,  in  which  they 
found  a  disabled  locomotive  concealed. 
"  Does  any  one  know  anything  about  this 
machine  ?"  inquired  Butler.  "  Our  shop 
made  that  engine,  general,"  said  Charles 
Homans,  of  the  Beverly  Light  Guard.  "  I 
guess  I  can  put  her  in  order  and  run  her." 
''  Do  it,"  said  the  general ;  and  it  was 
soon  done,  for  that  regiment  was  full  of 
engineers  and  mechanics.  It  was  a  re- 
markable regiment.  Theodore  Winthrop 
said  that  if  the  words  were  given,  "  Poets, 


to  the  front!"  or,  "Painters,  present 
arms!"  or,  "Sculptors,  charge  bayonets!" 
there  would  be  ample  responses.  The 
hidden  rails  were  hunted  up  and  found 
in  thickets,  ravines,  and  bottoms  of 
streams,  and  the  road  was  soon  in  such 
a  condition  that  the  troops  moved  on,  on 
the  morning  of  the  24th,  at  the  fate  of 
about  one  mile  an  hour,  laying  the  track 
anew  and  building  bridges.  Skirmishers 
went  ahead  and  scouts  on  the  flanks.  The 
distance  to  the  Junction  from  Annapolis 
was  20  miles.  They  saw  none  of  the 
terrible  Marylanders  they  had  been  warned 
against.  The  troops  reached  Annapolis 
Junction  on  the  morning  of  the  25th,  when 
the  7th  Begiment  went  on  to  Wash- 
ington and  the  Massachusetts  regiment 
remained  to  hold  the  railroads.  Other 
troops  arrived  at  Annapolis,  and  General 
Scott  ordered  Butler  to  remain  there,  hold 
the  town  and  road,  and  superintend  the 
forwarding  of  troops  to  Washington.  The 
"  Department  of  Annapolis  "  was  created, 
which  embraced  the  country  20  miles 
on  each  side  of  the  railway  to  within  4 
miles  of  the  capital.     See  Baltimore. 

Annapolis  Convention,  1786.  See 
Alexaxdria;  Coxstitutiox  of  the  Unit- 
ed States. 

Anne,  Queen,  second  daughter  of 
James  II.  of  England;  born  at  Twicken- 
ham, near  London,  Feb.  6,  1664.  Her 
parents  became  Roman  Catholics ;  but  she, 
educated  in  the  principles  of  the  Church  of 
England,  remained  a  Protestant.  In  1683 
she  was  married  to  Prince  George  of  Den- 
mark. She  took  the  side  of  her  sister 
Mary  and  her  husband  in  the  revolution 
that  drove  her  father  from  the  throne. 
She  had  intended  to  accompany  her  father 
in  his  exile  to  France,  but  was  dissuaded 
by  Sarah  Churchill,  chief  lady  of  the  bed- 
chamber (afterwards  the  imperious  Duch- 
ess of  Marlborough ) ,  for  Avhom  she  always 
had  a  romantic  attachment.  By  the  act 
of  settlement  at  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary,  the  crown  was  guaranteed  to 
her  in  default  of  issue  to  these  sovereigns. 
This  exigency  happening,  Anne  was  pro- 
claimed queen  (March  8,  1702)  on  the 
death  of  William.  Of  her  seventeen  chil- 
dren, only  one  lived  beyond  infancy — 
Duke  of  Gloucester — Avho  died  at  the  age 
of  eleven  years.  Feeble  in  character,  but 
very  amiable,  Anne's  reign  became  a  con- 


166 


ANNE 


spicuous  one  in  English  history,  for  she 
was  governed  by  some  able  ministers,  and 
she  was  surrounded  by  eminent  literary 
men.  Her  reign  has  been  called  the  "  Au- 
gustan Age  of  English  Literature."  The 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  the  husband  of  her 
bosom    friend,    was    one    of    her    greatest 


QUBKN   ANNB. 

military  leaders.  A  greater  part  of  her 
reign  was  occupied  in  the  prosecution  of 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  known 
in  America  as  "  Queen  Anne's  War."  She 
died  Aug.  1,  1714. 

The  treaty  of  Ryswick  produced  only  a 
lull  in  the  inter-colonial  war  in  America. 
It  was  very  brief.  James  II.  died  in 
France  in  September,  1701,  and  Louis 
XIV.,  who  had  sheltered  him,  acknowl- 
edged his  son.  Prince  James  (commonly 
known  as  The  Pretender) ,  to  be  the  lawful 
heir  to  the  English  throne.  This  natural- 
ly offended  the  English,  for  Louis  had  ac- 
knowledged William  as  king  in  the  Rys- 
wick treaty.  The  British  Parliament  had 
-also  settled  the  crown  on  Anne,  so  as  to 
secure  a  Protestant  succession.  The  Eng- 
lish were  also  offended  because  Louis  had 
placed  his  grandson,  Philip  of  Aragon,  on 
the  Spanish  throne,  and  thus  extended 
the  influence  of  France  among  the  dynas- 
ties of  Europe.  On  the  death  of  William 
III.  (March  8,  1702)  Anne  ascended  the 
throne,  and  on  the  same  day  the  triple 
alliance    between    England,    Holland,    and 


the  German  Empire  against  France  was 
renewed.  Soon  afterwards,  chiefly  because 
of  the  movements  of  Louis  above  mention- 
ed, England  declared  war  against  France, 
and  their  respective  colonies  in  America 
took  up  arms  against  each  other.  The 
war  lasted  eleven  years.  Fortunately,  the 
Five  Nations  had  made  a  treaty  of  neu- 
trality (Aug.  4,  1701)  with  the  French  in 
Canada,  and  thus  became  an  impassable 
barrier  against  the  savages  from  the  St. 
Lawrence.  The  tribes  from  the  Merrimac 
to  the  Penobscot  had  made  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  New  England  (July,  1703)  ; 
but  the  French  induced  them  to  violate  it; 
and  before  the  close  of  that  summer  a  furi- 
ous Indian  raid  occurred  along  the  whole 
frontier  from  Casco  to  Wells.  So  indis- 
criminate was  the  slaughter  that  even 
Quakers  were  massacred. 

The  immediate  cause  of  this  outbreak 
seems  to  have  been  an  attack  upon  and 
plunder  of  the  trading-post  of  the  young 
Baron  de  Castine,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Penobscot.  In  March,  1704,  a  party  of 
French  and  Indians  attacked  Deerfield,  on 
the  Connecticut  River,  killed  forty  of  the 
inhabitants,  burned  the  village,  and  car- 
ried away  112  captives.  Similar  scenes 
occurred  elsewhere.  Remote  settlements 
were  abandoned,  and  fields  were  cultivated 
only  by  armed  parties  united  for  common 
defence.  This  state  of  things  became  in- 
supportable, and  in  the  spring  of  1707 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  New 
Hampshire  prepared  to  chastise  the  Ind- 
ians in  the  east.  Rhode  Island  had 
not  suffered,  for  Massachusetts  sheltered 
that  colony,  but  the  inhabitants  humanely 
helped  their  afflicted  neighbors.  Connec- 
ticut, though  threatened  from  the  north, 
refused  to  join  in  the  enterprise.  Early 
in  June  (1707),  1,000  men  under  Colonel 
Marsh  sailed  from  Nantucket  for  Port_ 
Royal,  Acadia,  convoyed  by  an  English 
man-of-war.  The  French  were  prepared 
for  them,  and  only  the  destruction  of  prop- 
erty outside  the  fort  there  was  accomplish- 
ed. The  war  continued,  with  occasional 
distressing  episodes.  In  September,  1710, 
an  armament  of  ships  and  troops  left  Bos- 
ton and  sailed  for  Port  Royal,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  fleet  from  England  with  troops 
under  Colonel  Nicholson.  They  captured 
Port  Royal  and  altered  the  name  to  An- 
napolis,   in    compliment    to     the     Queen. 


167 


AKTHE— ANNEXED    TERRITOSY 


Acadia  (q.  v.)  was  annexed  to  England, 
under  the  old  title  of  Nova  Scotia,  or  New 
Scotland. 

Tlie  following  year  an  expedition  moved 
against  Quebec.  Sir  Hovenden  Walker  ar- 
rived at  Boston  (June  25,  1711)  with  an 
English  fleet  and  army,  which  were  joined 
by  New  England  forces;  and  on  Aug.  15 
fifteen  men-of-war  and  forty  transports, 
bearing  about  7,000  men,  departed  for  the 
St.  Lawrence.  Meanwhile,  Nicholson  had 
proceeded  to  Albany,  where  a  force  of 
about  4,000  men  were  gathered,  a  por- 
tion of  them  Iroquois  Indians.  These 
forces  commenced  their  march  towards 
Canada  Aug.  28.  Walker,  like  Braddock 
nearly  fifty  years  later,  haughtily  refused 
to  listen  to  experienced  subordinates,  and 
lost  eight  ships  and  about  1,000  men  on 
the  rocks  at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence on  the  night  of  Sept.  2.  Disheart- 
ened by  this  calamity,  Walker  returned  to 
England  with  the  remainder  of  the  fleet, 
and  the  colonial  troops  went  back  to 
Boston.  On  hearing  of  this  failure,  the 
land  force  marching  to  attack  Montreal 
retraced  their  steps.  Hostilities  were  now 
suspended,  and  peace  was  concluded  by  the 
treaty   of    Utrecht,   April    11,    1713.     The 


eastern  Indians  sued  for  peace,  and  at 
Portsmouth  the  governors  of  Massachu- 
setts and  New  Hampshire  made  a  cove- 
nant of  peace  (July  24)  with  the  chiefs 
of  the  hostile  tribes.  A  peace  of  thirty 
years  ensued. 

Anne,  Fort,  a  military  post  in  New 
York  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  When 
the  British  took  possession  of  Ticonderoga 
(July  6,  1777),  Burgoyne  ordered  gun- 
boats to  pursue  the  bateaux  laden  with 
stores,  etc.,  from  the  fort.  The  boom- 
bridge  barrier  across  the  lake  there  was 
soon  broken,  and  the  pursuing  vessels 
overtook  the  fugitive  boats  near  Skenes- 
borough,  and  destroyed  them  and  their 
contents.  Colonel  Long,  in  command  of 
the  men  in  them,  escaped  with  his  people 
and  the  invalids,  and,  after  setting  fire  to 
everything  combustible  at  Skenesborough 
(now  Whitehall),  they  hastened  to  Fort 
Anne,  a  few  miles  in  the  interior,  followed 
by  a  British  regiment.  When  near  the  fort, 
Ijong  turned  on  his  pursuers  and  routed 
them ;  but  the  latter  being  reinforced.  Long 
was  driven  back.  He  burned  Fort  Anne, 
and  fled  to  Fort  Edward,  on  the  Hudson. 

Annexations.  See  Acquisition  of 
Territory. 


ANNEXED  TERRITORY 

Annexed.  Territory,  Status  of.  The  were  further,  by  their  situation,  climate, 
following  is  a  consideration  of  the  rela-  and  soil,  adapted  to  the  use  of  an  increas- 
tions  to  the  United  States  of  the  several  ing  American  population.  We  have  now 
Territories  that  were  annexed  to  it,  writ-  acquired  insular  regions,  situated  in  the 
ten  by  ex-President  Benjamin  Harrison:  tropics  and  in  another  hemisphere,  and 
hence    unsuitable    for'  American    settlers, 

A  legal  argument  upon  this   subject  is  even  if  they  were  not,  as  they  are,  already 

quite  outside  of  my  purpose,  which  is  to  populated  and  their  lands  already  largely 

consider  in  a  popular  rather  than  a  pro-  taken  up. 

fessional  way  some  of  the  questions  that  We    have    taken    over    peoples    rather 

arise,  some  of  the  answers  that  have  been  than  lands,  and  these  chiefly  of  other  race 

proposed,   and   some   of   the   objections   to  stocks — for     there     are     "  diversities     of 

these  answers.  tongues."     The  native  labor  is  cheap  and 

We  have  done  something  out  of  line  Avith  threatens  competition,  and  there  is  a  total 
American  history,  not  in  the  matter  of  ter-  absence  of  American  ideas  and  methods  of 
ritorial  expansion,  but  in  the  character  life  and  government  among  the  eight  or 
of  it.  Heretofore  the  regions  Ave  have  more  millions  of  inhabitants  in  the  Philip- 
taken  over  have  been  contiguous  to  us,  pines.  We  have  said  that  the  Chinese  will 
save  in  the  case  of  Alaska — and,  indeed,  not  "  homologate  " ;  and  the  Filipinos  will 
Alaska  is  contiguous,  in  the  sense  of  being  certainly  be  slow.  Out  of  the  too-late 
near.  These  annexed  regions  were  also,  at  contemplation  of  these  very  real  and  se- 
the  time  of  annexation,  either  unpeopled  or  rious  problems  has  arisen  the  proposition 
very  sparsely  peopled  by  civilized  men,  and  to  solve  them,  as  many  think,  by  wresting 

168 


ANNEXED     TEBRITORY 


our  government  from  its  constitutional 
basis;  or  at  least,  as  all  must  agree,  by 
the  introduction  of  wholly  new  views  of  the 
status  of  the  people  of  the  Territories,  and 
of  some  startlingly  new  methods  of  deal- 
ing witli  them.  It  is  not  open  to  question, 
I  think,  that,  if  we  had  taken  over  only 
the  Sandwich  Islands  and  Porto  Rico, 
these  new  views  of  the  status  of  the  people 
of  our  Territories,  and  these  new  methods 
of  dealing  with  them,  would  never  have 
been  suggested  or  used. 

The  question  of  the  constitutional  right 
of  the  United  States  to  acquire  territory, 
as  these  new  regions  have  been  acquired, 
must,  I  suppose,  be  taken  by  every  one  to 
have  been  finally  adjudged  in  favor  of  that 
right.  The  Supreme  Court  is  not  likely 
to  review  the  decision  announced  by  Chief- 
Justice  Marshall. 

It  is  important  to  note,  however,  that 
the  great  chief-justice  derives  the  power 
to  acquire  territory  by  treaty  and  con- 
quest, from  the  Constitution  itself.       He 


"  The  Constitution  confers  absolutely  on 
the  government  of  the  Union  the  powers 
of  making  war  and  of  making  treaties; 
consequently  that  government  possesses 
the  power  of  acquiring  territory  either  by 
conquest  or  by  treaty." 

While  this  decision  stands,  there  is  no 
room  for  the  suggestion  that  the  power 
of  the  United  States  to  acquire  territory, 
either  by  a  conquest  confirmed  by  treaty, 
or  by  a  treaty  of  purchase  from  a  nation 
with  which  we  are  at  peace,  is  doubtful, 
and  as  little  for  the  suggestion  that  this 
power  is  an  extra-constitutional  power. 
The  people,  then,  have  delegated  to  the 
President  and  Congress  the  power  to  ac- 
quire territory  by  the  methods  we  have 
used  in  the  cases  of  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Hawaiian  and  Philippine  Islands.  But 
some  have  suggested  that  this  poAver  to  ac- 
quire new  territory  is  limited  to  certain 
ends :  that  it  can  only  be  used  to  acquire 
territory  that  is  to  be,  or  is  capable  of 
being,  erected  into  States  of  the  Union. 
If  this  view  were  allowed,  the  attitude 
of  the  courts  to  the  question  would  not  be 
much  changed ;  for  they  could  not  inquire 
as  to  the  purpose  of  Congress,  nor,  I  sup- 
pose, overrule  the  judgment  of  Congress 
as  to  the  adaptability  of  territory  for  the 
creation    of    States.      The    appeal    would 


be  to  Congress  to  limit  the  use  of  the 
power. 

The  islands  of  Haw^aii,  of  Porto  Rico, 
and  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago  have 
been  taken  over,  not  for  a  temporary  pur- 
pose, as  in  the  case  of  Cuba,  but  to  have 
and  to  hold  forever  as  a  part  of  the  region 
over  which  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States  extends.  We  have  not  put  our- 
selves under  any  pledge  as  to  them — at 
least,  not  of  a  written  sort.  Indeed,  we 
have  not,  it  is  said,  made  up  our  minds 
as  to  anything  affecting  the  Philippines, 
save  this — that  they  are  a  part  of  our 
national  domain,  and  that  the  inhabitants 
must  yield  obedience  to  the  sovereignty  of 
the  United  States  so  long  as  we  choose  to 
hold  them. 

Our  title  to  the  Philippines  has  been 
impeached  by  some  upon  the  ground  that 
Spain  was  not  in  possession  when  she  con- 
veyed them  to  us.  It  is  a  principle  of 
private  law  that  a  deed  of  property  ad- 
versely held  is  not  good.  If  I  have  been 
ejected  from  a  farm  to  which  I  claim 
title,  and  another  is  in  possession  under 
a  claim  of  title,  I  must  recover  the  posses- 
sion before  I  can  make  a  good  convey- 
ance; otherwise  I  sell  a  lawsuit  and  not 
a  farm,  and  that  the  law  counts  to  be 
immoral.  It  has  not  been  shown,  how- 
ever, that  this  principle  has  been  incor- 
porated into  international  law;  and,  if 
that  could  be  shown,  there  would  still  be 
need  to  show  that  Spain  has  been  ef- 
fectively ousted. 

It  is  very  certain,  I  suppose,  that  if 
Great  Britain  had,  during  our  Revolution- 
ary struggle,  concluded  a  treaty  of  cession 
of  the  colonies  to  France,  we  would  have 
treated  the  cession  as  a  nullity,  and  con- 
tinued to  fight  for  liberty  against  the 
French.  No  promises  of  liberal  treatment 
by  France  would  have  appeased  us. 

But  what  has  that  to  do  with  the  Philip- 
pine situation?  There  are  so  many  points 
of  difference.  We  were  Anglo-Saxons ! 
We  were  capable  of  self-government.  And, 
after  all,  what  we  would  have  done  under 
the  conditions  supposed  has  no  bearing 
upon  the  law  of  the  case.  It  is  not  to  be 
doubted  that  any  international  tribunal 
would  affirm  the  completeness  of  our  legal 
title  to  the  Philippines. 

The  questions  that  perplex  us  relate  to 
the  status  of  these  new  possessions,  and 


169 


ANNEXED    TERRITORY 


to  the  rights  of  their  civilized  inhabitants 
who  have  elected  to  renounce  their  alle- 
giance to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  either 
by  choice  or  operation  of  law  have  become 
American — somethings.  What?  Subjects 
or  citizens?  There  is  no  other  status, 
since  they  are  not  aliens  any  longer,  unless 
a  newspaper  heading  that  recently  attract- 
ed my  attention  offers  another.  It  ran 
thus :  "  Porto  Ricans  not  citizens  of  the 
United  States  proper."  Are  they  citizens 
of  the  United  States  improper,  or  improp- 
er citizens  of  the  United  States  ?  It  seems 
clear  that  there  is  something  improper. 
To  call  them  "  citizens  of  Porto  Eico  "  is 
to  leave  their  relations  to  the  United 
States  wholly  undefined. 

Now,  in  studying  the  questions  whether 
the  new  possessions  are  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  their  free  civilized  inhabitants 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  the  Consti- 
tution should,  naturally,  be  examined  first. 
Whatever  is  said  there  is  final — an/ 
treaty  or  act  of  Congress  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding.  The  fact  that  a  treaty 
must  be  constitutional,  as  well  as  an  act 
of  Congress,  seems  to  have  been  overlooked 
by  those  who  refer  to  the  treaty  of  cession 
as  giving  to  Congress  the  right  to  gov- 
ern the  people  of  Porto  Rico,  who  do  not 
retain  their  Spanish  allegiance,  according 
to  its  pleasure.  Has  the  Queen  Re- 
gent, with  the  island,  decorated  Congress 
with  one  of  the  jewels  from  the  Spanish 
crown  ? 

In  Pollard  vs.  Hogan,  3  Howard,  the 
court  says: 

"  It  cannot  be  admitted  that  the  King 
if  Spain  could  hy  treaty,  or  otherwise, 
impart  to  the  United  States  any  of  his 
royal  prerogatives ;  and  much  less  can  it 
be  admitted  that  they  have  capacity  to  re- 
ceive or  power  to  exercise  them." 

A  treaty  is  a  part  of  the  supreme  law 
of  the  land  in  the  same  sense  that  an  act 
of  Congress  is,  not  in  the  same  sense  that 
the  Constitution  is.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  cannot  be  abrogated  or 
impaired  by  a  treaty.  Acts  of  Congress 
and  treaties  are  only  a  part  of  the  "  su- 
preme law  of  the  land  "  when  they  pur- 
sue the  Constitution.  The  Supreme  Court 
has  decided  that  a  treaty  may  be  abro- 
gated by  a  later  statute,  on  the  ground 
that  the  statute  is  the  later  expression 
of  the  sovereign's  will.     Whether  a  statute 

17 


may  be  abrogated  by  a  later  treaty,  we  do 
not  know;  but  we  do  know  that  neither 
a  statute  nor  a  treaty  can  abrogate  the 
Constitution. 

If  the  Constitution  leaves  the  question 
open  whether  the  inhabitants  of  Porto 
Rico  shall  or  shall  not  upon  annexation 
become  citizens,  then  the  President  and 
the  Senate  may  exercise  that  discretion 
by  a  treaty  stipulation  that  they  shall 
or  shall  not  be  admitted  as  citizens;  but 
if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Constitution 
gives  no  such  discretion,  but  itself  con- 
fers citizenship,  any  treaty  stipulation 
to  the  contrary  is  void.  To  refer  to  the 
treaty  in  this  connection  is  to  beg  the 
question. 

If  we  seek  to  justify  the  holding  of 
slaves  in  a  territory  acquired  by  treaty, 
or  the  holding  of  its  civilized  inhabitants 
'in  a  condition  less  favored  than  that  of 
citizenship,  by  virtue  of  the  provisions 
'of  a  treaty,  it  would  seem  to  be  necessary 
to  show  that  the  Constitution,  in  the  one 
case,  allows  slavery,  and,  in  the  other,  a 
relation  of  civilized  people  to  the  govern- 
ment that  is  not  citizenship. 

Now  the  Constitution  declares  (Four- 
teenth Amendment)  that  "  all  persons  born 
or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are 
citizens  of  the  United  States."  This  dis- 
poses of  the  question,  unless  it  can  be 
maintained  that  Porto  Rico  is  not  a  part 
of  the  United  States. 

But  the  theory  that  any  part  of  the 
Constitution,  of  itself,  embraces  the  Terri- 
tories and  their  people  is  contested  by 
many.  Congress  seems  to  have  assumed 
the  negative,  though  among  the  members 
there  was  not  entire  harmony  as  to  the 
argument  by  which  the  conclusion  was 
reached.  It  is  contended,  by  most  of  those 
who  defend  the  Porto-Rican  bill,  that  the 
Constitution  expends  itself  wholly  upon 
that  part  of  the  national  domain  that  has 
been  organized  into  States,  and  has  no  ref- 
erence to,  or  authority  in,  the  Territories, 
save  as  it  has  constituted  a  government 
to  rule  over  them. 

No  one  contends  that  every  provision 
of  the  Constitution  applies  to  the  Terri- 
tories. Some  of  them  explicitly  relate  to 
the  States  only.  The  contention  of  those 
who  opposed  the  Porto-Rican  legislation 
is  that  all  of  those  general  provisions  of 
0 


AHNEXED    TERBITOItY 


the  Constitution  which  impose  limitation 
upon  the  powers  of  the  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  judicial  departments  must  ap- 
ply to  all  regions  and  people  where  or 
upon  whom  those  powers  are  exercised. 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  those  who  deny 
most  broadly  that  the  Constitution  applies 
to  the  Territories  seem  practically  to  al- 
low that  much  of  it  does.  The  power  of 
appointment  and  pardon  in  the  Terri- 
tories, the  confirmation  of  Territorial  of- 
ficers, the  methods  of  passing  laws  to  gov- 
ern the  Territories,  the  keeping  and  dis- 
bursement of  Federal  taxes  derived  from 
the  Territories,  the  veto  power,  and  many 
other  things,  are  pursued  as  if  the  Con- 
stitution applied  to  the  cases. 

But,  in  theory,  it  is  claimed  by  these 
that  no  part  of  the  Constitution  a2)plies 
except  the  Thirteenth  Amendment,  which 
prohibits  slavery,  and  that  only  because 
the  prohibition  expressly  includes  "  any 
place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction."  This 
amendment  was  proposed  by  Congress  on 
Feb.  1,  1865 — the  day  on  which  Sherman's 
army  left  Savannah  on  its  northern 
march ;  and  the  words  "  any  place  sub- 
ject to  their  jurisdiction  "  were  probably 
added  because  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the 
legal  status  of  the  States  in  rebellion,  and 
not  because  of  any  doubt  as  to  whether 
Nebraska,  then  a  Territory,  was  a  part  of 
the  United  States. 

The  view  that  some  other  general  limita- 
tions of  the  Constitution  upon  the  powers 
of  Congress  must  relate  to  all  regions  and 
all  persons  was,  however,  adopted  by  some 
members  of  the  Senate  Committee  in  the 
report  upon  the  Porto-Rican  bill,  where  it 
is  said: 

"  Yet,  as  to  all  prohibitions  of  the  Con- 
stitution laid  upon  Congress  while  legis- 
lating, they  operate  for  the  benefit  of  all 
for  whom  Congress  may  legislate,  no  mat- 
ter where  they  may  be  situated,  and  with- 
out regard  to  whether  or  not  the  provisions 
of  the  Constitution  have  been  extended  to 
them;  but  this  is  so  because  the  Congress, 
in  all  that  it  does,  is  subject  to  and  gov- 
erned by  those  restraints  and  prohibitions. 
As,  for  instance,  Congress  shall  make  no 
law  respecting  an  establishment  of  relig- 
ion, or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  there- 
of; no  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted; 
no  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law 
shall  be  passed ;  neither  shall  the  validity 

17 


of  contracts  be  impaired,  nor  shall  prop- 
erty be  taken  without  due  process  of  law; 
nor  shall  the  freedom  of  speech  or  of  the 
press  be  abridged;  nor  shall  slavery  exist 
in  any  place  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States.  These  limitations 
are  placed  upon  the  exercise  of  the  legis- 
lative power  without  regard  to  the  place 
or  the  people  for  whom  the  legislation  in  a 
given  case  may  be  intended." 

That  is  to  say,  every  general  constitu- 
tional limitation  of  the  powers  of  Congress 
applies  to  the  Territories.  The  brief 
schedule  of  these  limitations  given  by  the 
committee  are  all  put  in  the  negative 
form,  "Congress  shall  not";  but  surely 
it  was  not  meant  that  there  may  not  be 
quite  as  effective  a  limitation  by  the  use 
of  the  affirmative  form.  If  a  power  is 
given  to  be  used  in  one  way  only,  all 
other  uses  of  it  are  negatived  by  necessary 
implication.  When  it  is  said,  "  All  duties, 
imposts,  and  excises  shall  be  uniform 
throughout  the  United  States,"  is  not  that 
the  equivalent  of  "  No  duty  or  excise  that 
is  not  uniform  shall  be  levied  in  the 
Ignited  States"?  And  is  not  the  first  form 
quite  as  effective  a  limitation  of  the  legis- 
lative power  over  the  subject  of  indirect 
taxation  as  that  contained  in  the  fourth 
clause  of  the  section  is  upon  the  power 
to  lay  direct  taxes? 

In  the  latter  the  negative  form  is  used, 
thus : 

"  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall 
be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census 
of  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be 
taken." 

This  discrimination  between  express  and 
implied  limitations,  benevolently  attempt- 
ed to  save  for  the  people  of  the  Terri- 
tories the  bill  of  rights  provision  of  the 
Constitution,  will  not,  I  think,  endure 
discussion. 

There  are  only  three  views  that  may  be 
offered,  with  some  show  of  consistency  in 
themselves. 

First.  That  Congress,  the  executive,  and 
the  judiciary  are  all  created  by  the  Con- 
stitution as  governing  agencies  of  the 
nation  called  the  United  States ;  that  their 
powers  are  defined  by  the  Constitution 
and  run  throughout  the  nation;  that  all 
the  limitations  of  their  powers  attach  to 
every  region  and  to  all  civilized  people 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  United  States, 
1 


ANNEXED    TERRITORY 


unless  their  inapplicability  appears  from 
the  Constitution  itself;  that  every  guaran- 
tee of  liberty,  including  that  most  essen- 
tial one,  uniform  taxation,  is  to  be  allowed 
to  every  free  civilized  man  and  woman 
who  owes  allegiance  to  the  United  States; 
that  the  use  of  the  term  "  throughout  the 
United  States "  does  not  limit  the  scope 
of  any  constitutional  provision  of  the 
States  that  would  otherwise  be  applicable 
to  the  Territories  as  well;  but  that  these 
words  include  the  widest  sweep  of  the  na- 
tion's sovereignty,  and  so  the  widest  limit 
of  congressional  action. 

Secondly.  That  the  term  "The  United 
States  "  defines  an  inner  circle  of  the  na- 
tional sovereignty  composed  of  the  States 
alone;  that, whenever  these  words  are  used 
in  the  Constitution,  they  must  be  taken 
to  have  reference  only  to  the  region  and  to 
the  people  within  this  inner  circle;  but 
that,  when  these  words  of  limitation  are 
omitted,  the  constitutional  provision  must, 
unless  otherwise  limited,  be  taken  to  in- 
clude all  lands  and  people  in  the  outer 
circle  of  the  national  sovereignty. 

Thirdly.  That  the  Constitution  has  rela- 
tion only  to  the  States  and  their  people; 
that  all  constitutional  limitations  of  the 
powers  of  Congress  and  the  executive  are 
to  be  taken  to  apply  only  to  the  States  and 
their  citizens;  that  the  power  to  acquire 
territory  is  neither  derived  from  the  Con- 
stitution nor  limited  by  it,  but  is  an  in- 
herent power  of  national  life ;  that  the 
government  we  exercise  in  the  Territories 
is  not  a  constitutional  government,  but  an 
absolute  government,  and  that  all  or  any 
of  the  things  prohibited  by  the  Constitu- 
tion as  to  the  States,  in  the  interest  of 
liberty,  justice,  and  equality,  may  be  done 
in  the  Territories;  that,  as  to  the  Terri- 
tories, we  are  under  no  restraints  save 
such  as  our  own  interests  or  our  benevo- 
lence may  impose. 

I  say  "  benevolence  "  ;  but  must  not  that 
quality  be  submerged  before  this  view  of 
the  Constitution  is  promulgated?  It  seems 
to  have  had  its  origin  in  a  supposed  com- 
mercial necessity,  and  we  may  fairly  con- 
clude that  other  recurring  necessities  Avill 
guide  its  exercise.  Is  it  too  much  to  say 
that  this  view  of  the  Constitution  is 
shocking  ? 

Within  the  States,  it  is  agreed  that 
the  powers  of  the  several  departments  of 

17 


the  national  government  are  severely  re- 
strained. We  read  that  Congress  shall  have 
power,  and  again  that  Congress  shall  not 
have  power.  But  neither  these  grants  nor 
these  inhibitions  have,  it  is  said,  any  rela- 
tion to  the  Territories.  Against  the  laws 
enacted  by  the  Congress,  or  the  acts  done 
by  the  executive,  there  is  no  appeal,  on  be- 
half of  the  people  of  the  Territories,  to  any 
written  constitution,  or  bill  of  rights,  or 
charter  of  liberty.  We  offer  them  only 
this  highly  consolatory  thought:  a  nation 
of  free  Americans  can  be  trusted  to  deal 
benevolently  with  you. 

How  obstinately  wrong  we  were  in  our 
old  answer  to  the  Southern  slave-holder ! 
It  is  not  a  question  of  kind  or  unkind 
treatment,  but  of  human  rights ;  not  of  the 
good  or  bad  use  of  power,  but  of  the 
power,  we  said.  And  so  our  fathers  said, 
in  answer  to  the  claim  of  absolute  power 
made  on  behalf  of  the  British  Parliament. 
As  to  the  States,  the  legislative  power  of 
Congress  is  "all  legislative  powers  herein 
granted."  (Art.  1,  sec.  1.)  As  to  the 
Territories,  it  is  said  to  be  all  legislative 
I^ower — all  that  any  parliament  ever  had 
or  ever  claimed  to  have,  and  as  much 
more  as  Ave  may  claim — for  there  can  be 
no  excess  of  pretension  where  power  is  ab- 
solute. No  law  relating  to  the  Territories, 
passed  by  Congress,  can,  it  is  said,  be  de- 
clared by  the  Supreme  Court  to  be  in- 
operative, though  every  section  of  it 
should  contravene  a  provision  of  the  Con- 
stitution. 

An  outline  of  a  possible  law  may  aid 
us  to  see  more  clearly  what  is  involved: 

Sec.  1.  Suspends  permanently  the  writ 
of  habeas  corpus  in  Porto  Rico. 

Sec.  2.  Declares  an  attainder  against  all 
Porto  Eicans  who  have  displayed  the 
Spanish  flag  since  the  treaty  of  peace. 

Sec.  3.  Grants  to  the  native  mayors  of 
Ponce  and  San  Juan  the  titles  of  Lord 
Dukes  of  Porto  Rico,  with  appropriate 
crests. 

Sec.  4.  Any  Porto  Rican  who  shall  speak 
disrespectfully  of  the  Congress  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  treason.  One  witness 
shall  be  siifficient  to  prove  the  offence,  and 
on  conviction  the  offender  shall  have  his 
tongue  cut  out;  and  the  conviction  shall 
work  corruption  of  blood. 

Sec.  5.  The  Presbyterian  Church  shall  be 
the  established  Church  of  the  island,  and 


ANNEXED    TERRITORY 


no  one  shall  be  permitted  to  worship  God 
after  any  other  form. 

Sec.  6.  All  proposed  publications  shall 
be  submitted  to  a  censor,  and  shall  be 
printed  only  after  he  has  ap^jroved  the 
same.  Public  meetings  for  the  discussion 
of  public  affairs  are  prohibited,  and  no 
petitions  shall  be  presented  to  the  govern- 
ment. 

Sec.  7.  No  inhabitant  of  Porto  Eico 
shall  keep  or  bear  arms. 

See.  8.  The  soldiers  of  the  island  garri- 
son shall  be  quartered  in  the  houses  of  the 
people. 

Sec.  9.  The  commanding  officer  of  the 
United  States  forces  in  the  island  shall 
have  the  right,  without  any  warrant,  to 
search  the  person,  house,  papers,  and  ef- 
fects of  any  one  suspected  by  him. 

Sec.  10.  Any  person  in  Porto  Rico,  in 
civil  life,  may  be  put  iipon  trial  for  capital 
or  other  infamous  crimes  uj^on  the  infor- 
mation of  the  public  prosecutor,  without 
the  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand 
jury;  may  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  for 
the  same  offence;  may  be  compelled  to  be 
a  witness  against  himself,  and  may  be 
deprived  of  Mfe,  liberty,  or  property  with- 
out due  process  of  law,  and  his  property 
may  be  taken  for  public  uses  without  com- 
pensation. 

Sec.  II.  Criminal  trials  may,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  presiding  judge,  be  held  in 
seci'et,  without  a  jury,  in  a  district  pre- 
scribed by  law  after  the  commission  of 
the  offence,  and  the  accused  shall,  or  not, 
be  advised  before  arraignment  of  the  nat- 
ure or  cause  of  the  accusation,  and  shall, 
or  not,  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him,  and  have  compulsory  process 
to  secure  his  own  witnesses,  as  the  presid- 
ing judge  may  in  his  discretion  order. 

Sec.  12.  There  shall  be  no  right  in  any 
suit  at  common  law  to  demand  a  jury. 

Sec.  13.  A  direct  tax  is  imposed  upon 
Porto  Rico  for  Federal  uses  without  regard 
to  its  relative  population ;  the  tariff  rates 
at  San  Juan  are  fixed  at  50  per  cent., 
and  those  at  Ponce  at  15  per  cent,  of 
those  levied  at  New  York. 

New  Mexico,  or  Arizona,  or  Oklahoma 
might  be  substituted  for  Porto  Rico  in  the 
bill ;  for,  I  think,  those  who  affirm  that  the 
Constitution  has  no  relation  to  Porto  Rico 
do  so  upon  grounds  that  equally  apply 
to  all  other  Territories. 

1 


Now,  no  one  supposes  that  Congress  will 
ever  assemble  in  a  law  such  shocking  pro- 
visions. But,  for  themselves,  our  fathers 
were  not  content  with  an  assurance  of 
these  great  rights  that  rested  wholly  upon 
the  sense  of  justice  and  benevolence  of  the 
Congress.  The  man  whose  protection 
from  wrong  rests  wholly  upon  the  benevo- 
lence of  another  man  or  of  a  congress,  is  a 
slave — a  man  without  rights.  Our  fathers 
took  security  of  the  governing  departments 
they  organized ;  and  that,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  choice  of  all  public 
officers  rested  with  the  people.  When  a 
man  strictly  limits  the  powers  of  an  agent 
of  his  own  choice,  and  exacts  a  bond  from 
him,  to  secure  his  faithfulness,  he  does 
not  occupy  strong  ground  when  he  insists 
that  another  person,  who  had  no  part  in 
the  selection,  shall  give  the  agent  full 
powers  without  a  bond. 

If  there  is  anything  that  is  character- 
istic in  American  constitutions.  State  and 
national,  it  is  the  plan  of  limiting  the 
powers  of  all  public  officers  and  agencies. 
"You  shall  do  this;  you  may  do  this;  you 
shall  not  do  this  " — is  the  form  that  the 
schedule  of  powers  always  takes.  This 
grew  out  of  our  experience  as  English 
colonies.  A  government  of  unlimited 
legislative  or  executive  powers  is  an  un- 
American  government.  And,  for  one,  I  do 
not  like  to  believe  that  the  framers  of  the 
national  Constitution  and  of  our  first 
State  constitutions  were  careful  only  for 
their  own  liberties. 

This  is  the  more  improbable  when  we 
remember  that  the  territory  then  most 
likely  to  be  acquired  would  naturally  be 
peopled  by  their  sons.  They  cherished 
very  broad  views  as  to  the  rights  of  men. 
Their  philosophy  of  liberty  derived  it  from 
God.  Liberty  was  a  Divine  gift  to  be 
claimed  for  ourselves  only  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  allowing  it  to  "  all  men."  They 
would  write  the  law  of  liberty  truly,  and 
suffer  for  a  time  the  just  reproach  of  a  de- 
parture from  its  precepts  that  could  not  be 
presently  amended. 

It  is  a  brave  thing  to  proclaim  a  law 
that  condemns  your  own  practices.  You 
assume  the  fault  and  strive  to  attain. 
The  fathers  left  to  a  baser  generation  the 
attempt  to  limit  God's  law  of  liberty  to 
white  men.  It  is  not  a  right  use  of  the 
fault  of  slavery  to  say  that,  because  of  it, 
73 


ANNEXED    TERRITORY 


our  fathers  did  not  mean  "  all  men."  It 
was  one  thing  to  tolerate  an  existing  con- 
dition that  the  law  of  liberty  condemned, 
in  order  to  accomplish  the  union  of  the 
States,  and  it  is  quite  another  thing  to 
create  a  condition  contrary  to  liberty  for 
a.  commercial  profit. 

In  a  recent  discussion  of  these  questions, 
sent  me  by  the  author,  I  find  these  con- 
solatory reflections:  "And  yet  the  inalien- 
able rights  of  the  Filipinos,  even  if  not 
guaranteed  by  the  Constitution,  are  amply 
secured  by  the  fundamental,  imioritten 
laws  of  our  civilization."  Does  this  mean 
that  the  specific  guarantees  of  individual 
liberty  found  in  our  Constitution  have  be- 
come a  part  of  "  our  civilization,"  and 
that  they  apply  in  Porto  Rico  and  the 
Philippines  in  such  a  sense  that,  if  there 
is  any  denial  of  them  by  Congress  or  the 
executive,  the  courts  can  enforce  them 
and  nullify  the  law  that  infringes  them? 
If  that  is  meant,  then  as  to  all  such  rights 
this  discussion  is  tweedledum  and  tweedle- 
dee — the  Constitution  does  not  apply,  but 
all  these  provisions  of  it  are  in  full  force, 
notwithstanding. 

Perhaps,  however,  it  should  be  asked 
further,  whether  the  rule  of  the  uniform- 
ity of  taxation  is  a  part  of  the  "  law 
of  our  civilization " ;  for,  without  it,  all 
property  rights  are  unprotected.  The  man 
whose  property  may  be  taxed  arbitrarily, 
without  regard  to  uniformity  within  the 
tax  district,  and  without  any  limitation 
as  to  the  purposes  for  which  taxes  may  be 
levied,  does  not  own  anything;  he  is  a 
tenant  at  will. 

But  if  these  supposed  "  laws  of  our  civ- 
ilization "  are  not  enforcible  by  the  courts, 
and  rest  wholly  for  their  sanction  upon  the 
consciences  of  presidents  and  congresses, 
then  there  is  a  very  wide  difference.  The 
one  is  ownership,  the  other  is  charity.  The 
one  is  freedom,  the  other  slavery^however 
just  and  kind  the  master  may  be. 

The  instructions  of  the  President  to  the 
Taft  Philippine  Commission  seem  to  allow 
that  any  civil  government  under  the  au- 
thority of  the  United  States  that  does 
not  offer  to  the  people  affected  by  it  the 
guarantees  of  liberty  contained  in  the  Bill 
of  Rights  sections  of  the  Constitution  is 
abhorrent.     Speaking  of  these,  he  said: 

"  Until  Congress  shall  take  action,  I  di- 
rected   that,     upon    every    division     and 

17 


branch  of  the  government  of  the  Philip- 
pines, must  be  imposed  these  inviolable 
rules : 

"  '  That  no  person  shall  be  deprived  of 
life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due  proc- 
ess of  law;  that  private  property  shall 
not  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just 
compensation ;  that  in  all  criminal  prose- 
cutions the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right 
to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  to  be  in- 
formed of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accu- 
sation, to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses 
against  him,  to  have  compulsory  process 
for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and 
to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his 
defence ;  that  excessive  bail  shall  not  be  re- 
quired, nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishment  inflicted ; 
that  no  person  shall  be  put  twice  in  jeop- 
ardy for  the  same  offence,  or  be  compelled 
in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself;  that  the  right  to  be  se- 
cure against  unreasonable  searches  and 
seizur,es  shall  not  be  violated ;  that  neither 
slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  shall 
exist  except  as  a  punishment  for  crime; 
that  no  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto 
law  shall  be  passed;  that  no  law  shall  be 
passed  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech 
or  of  the  press,  or  of  the  rights  of  the 
people  to  peaceably  assemble  and  petition 
the  government  for  a  redress  of  griev- 
ances; that  no  law  shall  be  made  respect- 
ing the  establishment  of  religion,  or  pro- 
hibiting the  free  exercise  thereof,  and  that 
the  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  relig- 
ious profession  and  worship  without  dis- 
crimination or  preference  shall  forever  be 
allowed.'  " 

The  benevolent  disposition  of  the  Presi- 
dent is  well  illustrated  in  these  instruc- 
tions. He  conferred  freely — "  until  Con- 
gress shall  take  action  " — upon  the  Fili- 
pinos, who  accepted  the  sovereignty  of  the 
United  States  and  submitted  themselves 
to  the  government  established  by  the  Com- 
mission, privileges  that  our  fathers  only 
secured  after  eight  years  of  desperate  war. 
There  is  this,  however,  to  be  noted,  that 
our  fathers  were  not  content  to  hold  these 
priceless  gifts  under  a  revocable  license. 
They  accounted  that  to  hold  these  things 
upon  the  tenure  of  another  man's  benevo- 
lence was  not  to  hold  them  at  all.  Their 
battle  was  for  rights,  not  privileges — for  a 
Constitution,  not  a  letter  of  instructions. 


ANNEXED    TERRITORY 


The  President's  instructions  apparently 
proceed  upon  the  theory  that  the  Filipinos, 
after  civil  government  has  superseded  the 
military  control,  are  not  endowed  under 
our  Constitution,  or  otherwise,  with  any 
of  the  rights  scheduled  by  him;  that,  if  he 
does  nothing,  is  silent,  some  or  all  of  the 
things  prohibited  in  his  schedule  may  be 
lawfully  done  upon,  and  all  the  things 
allowed  may  be  denied  to,  a  people  who 
owe  allegiance  to  that  free  constitutional 
government  we  call  the  United  States  of 
America. 

It  is  clear  that  those  Porto  Ricans  who 
have  not,  under  the  treaty,  declared  a 
purpose  to  remain  Spanish  subjects,  have 
become  American  citizens  or  American 
subjects.  Have  you  ever  read  one  of  our 
commercial  treaties  with  Great  Britain  or 
Germany,  or  any  other  of  the  kingdoms 
of  the  world?  These  treaties  provide  for 
trade  intercourse,  and  define  and  guaran- 
tee the  rights  of  the  people  of  the  respec- 
tive nations  when  domiciled  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  other.  The  descriptive  terms  run 
like  this:  "The  subjects  of  her  Britannic 
Majesty "  on  the  one  part,  and  "  the  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  "  on  the  other. 
Now,  if  the  commercial  privileges  guaran- 
teed by  these  treaties  do  not,  in  their 
present  form,  include  the  Porto  Ricans 
who  strewed  flowers  before  our  troops 
when  they  entered  the  island,  we  ought 
at  once  to  propose  to  our  "  Great  and 
Good  Friends,"  the  kings  and  queens  of 
the  earth,  a  modification  of  our  conven- 
tions in  their  behalf. 

Who  will  claim  the  distinction  of  pro- 
posing that  the  words  "  and  subjects  "  be 
introduced  after  the  word  "  citizens "  ? 
There  will  be  no  objection  on  the  part  of 
the  king,  you  may  be  sure;  the  modifica- 
tion will  be  allowed  smilingly. 

We  have  never  before  found  it  necessary 
to  treat  the  free  civilized  inhabitants  of 
the  Territories  otherwise  than  as  citizens 
of  the  United  States. 

It  is  true,  as  Mr.  Justice  Miller  said, 
that  the  exclusive  sovereignty  over  the 
Territories  is  in  the  national  government; 
but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  nation  pos- 
sesses the  power  to  govern  the  Territories 
independently  of  the  Constitution.  The 
Constitution  gives  to  Congress  the  right 
to  exercise  "  exclusive  legislation  "  in  the 
District  of  Columbia ;  but  "  exclusive  "  is 

17 


not  a  synonyme  of  "  absolute."  When  the 
Constitution  says  that  "  treason  against 
the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in 
levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering 
to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and 
comfort,"  there  is  a  limitation  of  the 
legislative  power;  and  it  necessarily  ex- 
tends to  every  venue  where  the  crime  of 
treason  against  the  United  States  may  be 
laid,  and  to  every  person  upon  whom  its 
penalties  may  be  imposed. 

This  constitutional  provision  defining 
the  crime  of  treason  and  prescribing  the 
necessary  proofs  is  a  Bill  of  Rights  pro- 
vision. In  England,  under  Edward  II., 
"  there  was,"  it  was  said,  "  no  man  who 
knew  how  to  behave  himself,  to  do,  speak 
or  say,  for  doubt  of  the  pains  of  such 
treasons."  The  famous  statute  of  Edward 
III.,  defining  treasons,  James  Wilson  de- 
clares, "  may  well  be  styled  the  legal  Gib- 
raltar of  England."  (Wilson's  Works 
[Andrews]  vol.  ii.,  p.  413.) 

Mr.  Madison,  speaking  of  this  section  of 
the  Constitution,  says  in  the  Federalist: 

"  But  as  new-fangled  and  artificial  trea- 
sons have  been  the  great  engines  by  which 
violent  factions,  the  natural  offspring  of 
free  government,  have  usually  wreaked 
their  malignity  on  each  other,  the  conven- 
tion have  with  great  judgment  opposed  a 
barrier  to  this  peculiar  danger,  by  insert- 
ing a  constitutional  definition  of  the 
crime,"  etc. 

Mr.  Madison  believed  that  there  was  a 
real  danger  that  statutes  of  treason  might 
be  oppressively  used  by  Congress.  What 
have  we  been  doing,  or  what  have  we  a 
purpose  to  do,  that  Ave  find  it  necessary 
to  limit  the  safeguards  of  liberty  found  in 
our  Constitution,  to  the  people  of  the 
States?  Is  it  that  we  now  propose  to 
acquire  territory  for  colonization,  and  not, 
as  heretofore,  for  full  incorporation?  Is 
it  that  we  propose  to  have  crown  colonies, 
and  must  have  crown  law?  Is  it  that  we 
mean  to  be  a  world  power,  and  must  be 
free  from  the  restraints  of  a  Bill  of 
Rights?  We  shall  owe  deliverance  a  sec- 
ond time  to  these  principles  of  human 
liberty,  if  they  are  now  the  means  of 
delivering  us  from  un  -  American  proj- 
ects. 

The  particular  provision  of  the  Consti- 
tution upon  which  Congress  seems  to  have 
balked,  in  the  Porto  Rican  legislation,  was 


ANNEXED     TERRITORY 


a  revenue  clause — viz.,  the  first  paragraph 
of  sec.  8  of  art.  1,  which  reads: 

"  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay 
and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts,  and  ex- 
cises, to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the 
common  defence  and  general  welfare  of 
the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout 
the  United  States." 

There  was  only  one  door  of  escape  from 
allowing  the  application  of  this  clause  to 
Porto  Rico.  It  was  to  deny  that  the 
Territories  are  part  of  the  United  States. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  descriptive 
term  "  The  United  States  "  is  twice  used 
in  the  one  sentence — once  in  the  clause 
defining  the  purposes  for  which  only  du- 
ties and  imposts  may  be  levied,  and  once 
in  the  clause  requiring  uniformity  in 
the  use  of  the  power.  Is  there  any  canon 
of  construction  that  authorizes  us  to  give 
to  the  words  "  The  United  States "  one 
meaning  in  the  first  use  of  them  and  an- 
other in  the  second?  If  in  the  second  use 
the  Territories  are  excluded,  must  they  not 
also  be  excluded  in  the  first?  If  the  rule 
of  uniformity  does  not  apply  to  the  Ter- 
ritories, how  can  the  power  to  tax  be  used 
in  the  United  States,  to  pay  the  debts  and 
provide  for  the  defence  and  general  wel- 
fare of  the  Territories?  Can  duties  be 
levied  in  New  York  and  other  ports  of  the 
States,  to  be  expended  for  local  purposes 
in  Porto  Rico,  if  the  island  is  not  a  part  of 
the  United  States? 

Are  the  debts  that  may  be  contracted 
by  what  the  law  calls  the  body  politic  of 
"  The  People  of  Porto  Rico  "  for  local  pur- 
poses, part  of  the  debt  of  the  United 
States — notwithstanding  that  the  island 
is  no  part  of  the  United  States  and  the 
people  are  not  citizens  of  the  United 
States?  But  some  one  will  say  that  the 
island  is  one  of  our  outlying  defences,  and 
that  fortifications  and  naval  stations  and 
public  highways  there  are  necessary  to  the 
"  common  defence."  Well,  is  it  also  true 
that  education  and  poor  relief,  and  fire 
and  police  and  health  protection,  and  all 
other  agencies  of  local  order  and  better- 
ment in  Porto  Rico,  are  included  in  the 
words  "  the  general  welfare  of  the  United 
States"?  It  would  seem  that  a  region 
of  which  it  can  be  said  that  its  general 
welfare  is  the  general  welfare  of  the 
United    States,    must    be    a    part    of    the 


United  States,  and  its  people  citizens  of 
the  United  States. 

For  the  first  time  Congress  has  laid 
tariff  duties  upon  goods  passing  from  a 
Territory  into  the  States.  The  necessity 
for  this  radical  departure  from  the  estab- 
lished practice  of  the  government  seems 
to  have  been  to  find  a  safe  basis  for  the 
holding  and  governing  of  regions,  the  free 
introduction  of  whose  products  might  af- 
fect the  home  industries  unfavorably,  and 
the  admission  of  whose  people  to  citizen- 
ship might  imply  future  Statehood — or  at 
least  the  right  of  migration  and  settlement 
in  the  States  of  an  undesirable  population. 
That  the  diversity  of  tongues  in  the  Phil- 
ippines, and  the  utter  lack  of  the  Ameri- 
can likeness  in  everything  there,  presented 
strong  reasons  against  the  acquisition  of 
the  islands,  I  freely  admit. 

It  must  also  be  conceded  that  when,  as 
we  are  told.  Providence  laid  upon  us  the 
heavy  duty  of  taking  over  and  govern- 
ing these  islands,  it  was  very  natural  that 
we  should  seek  to  find  a  way  of  governing 
them  that  would  save  us  from  some  of  the 
unpleasant  consequences  which  a  discharge 
of  the  duty  in  the  old  way  involved.  But 
do  we  not  incur  a  greater  loss  and  peril 
from  that  new  doctrine,  that  our  Congress 
and  executive  have  powers  not  derived 
from  the  Constitution,  and  are  subject 
to  no  restraint  or  limitations  in  the  Ter- 
ritories, save  such  as  they  may  impose 
upon  themselves? 

Are  the  civil  rights  of  the  dwellers  on 
the  mainland  well  secured  against  the  in- 
sidious under-wear  of  greed  and  ambition, 
while  we  deny  to  the  island  dwellers,  who 
are  held  to  a  strict  allegiance,  the  only 
sure  defence  that  civil  rights  can  have — ■ 
the  guarantees  of  constitutional  law? 
Burke  saAV  in  the  absolute  powers  claimed 
for  Parliament,  in  the  American  colonies, 
danger  to  the  liberties  of  Parliament  it- 
self.    As  so  often  quoted,  he  said: 

"  For  Ave  are  convinced,  beyond  a  doubt, 
that  a  system  of  dependence  which  leaves 
no  security  to  the  people  for  any  part  of 
their  freedom  in  their  own  hands,  cannot 
be  established  in  any  inferior  member  of 
the  British  Empire  Avithout  consequently 
destroying  the  freedom  of  that  very  body 
in  faA^or  of  whose  boundless  pretensions 
such  a  scheme  is  adopted.  We  know  and 
feel  that  arbitrary  power  over  distant  re- 


176 


AlSTNEXED     TERmTOEY 


glons  is  not  within  the  competence,  nor 
to  be  exercised  agreeably  to  the  forms  or 
consistently  with  the  spirit,  of  great  popu- 
lar assemblies." 

Are  we,  in  this  day  of  commercial  car- 
nival, incapable  of  being  touched  by  such 
considerations,  either  in  our  fears  or  in 
our  sense  of  justice?  Is  it  not  likely  to 
be  true  that  the  moral  tone  of  the  repub- 
lic— our  estimation  of  constitutional  lib- 
erty— will  be  lessened  by  the  creation  of  a 
body  of  civilized  people  over  whom  our 
flag  waves  as  an  emblem  of  power  only? 
The  flag  cannot  stand  for  the  benevolent 
policies  of  an  administration.  It  stands 
for  more  permanent  things — for  things 
that  changing  administrations  have  no 
power  to  change.  Is  it  not  in  the  nature 
of  a  mockery  to  raise  the  flag  in  Porto 
Rico  and  bid  its  hopeful  people  hail  it  as 
an  emblem  of  emancipation,  while  the 
governor  we  have  sent  them  reads  a  proc- 
lamation, from  the  foot  of  the  staff,  an- 
nouncing the  absolute  power  of  Congress 
over  them? 

How  would  the  pioneers  of  the  West 
have  regarded  a  declaration  that  they 
were  not  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or 
a  duty  laid  upon  the  furs  then  sent  to  the 
States,  or  upon  the  salt  and  gunpowder 
sent  from  the  States  in  exchange,  even  if 
a  preference  of  eighty-five  per  cent,  had 
been  given  them  over  the  people  of  Canada? 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  such  interpre- 
tation of  the  Constitution,  or  of  the  rights 
of  the  people  of  a  Territory,  will  ever  be 
ofl'ered  to  men  of  American  descent. 

If  the  Constitution,  so  far  as  it  is  ap- 
plicable, attaches  itself,  whether  Congress 
will  or  no,  to  all  territory  taken  over  as  a 
part  of  the  permanent  territory  of  the 
United  States,  it  is  there  to  stay  as  funda- 
mental law.  But  if  it  is  not  so,  an  act  of 
Congress  declaring  that  the  Constitution 
is  "  extended "  is  not  fundamental  law, 
but  statute  law,  and  may  be  repealed;  and 
is  repealed  by  implication,  ?3?-o  ian/o,  when- 
ever Congress  passes  a  law  in  conflict  with 
the  provisions  of  the  "  extended  "  Consti- 
tution. If  the  Constitution  as  such,  as 
fundamental  law,  is  extended  over  new  ter- 
ritory, it  must  be  the  result  of  an  act 
done — an  act  the  efl'ect  of  which  is  in  it- 
self, not  in  any  accompanying  declara- 
tion. 

If  the  act  of  annexation  does  not  carry 


the  Constitution  into  a  Territory,  I  can 
think  of  nothing  that  will,  save  the  act  of 
admitting  the  Territory  as  a  State. 

The  situation  of  the  Porto  Rican  peo- 
ple is  scarcely  less  mortifying  to  us  than 
to  them;  they  owe  allegiance  but  have 
no  citizenship.  Have  we  not  spoiled  our 
career  as  a  delivering  nation?  And  for 
what?  A  gentleman  connected  with  the 
beet-sugar  industry,  seeing  my  objections 
to  the  constitutionality  of  the  law,  and 
having  a  friendly  purpose  to  help  me  over 
them,  wrote  to  say  that  the  duty  was  ab- 
solutely needed  to  protect  the  beet-sugar 
industry.  While  appreciating  his  friendli- 
ness, I  felt  compelled  to  say  to  him  that 
there  was  a  time  for  considering  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  a  commer- 
cial sort  involved  in  taking  over  Porto 
Rico,  but  that  that  time  had  passed,  and 
to  intimate  to  him  that  the  needs  of  the 
beet-sugar  industry  seemed  to  me  to  be  ir- 
relevant in  a  constitutional  discussion. 

The  wise  man  did  not  say  there  was 
a  future  time  for  everything;  he  al- 
lowed that  the  time  for  dancing  might  be 
altogether  behind  us,  and  a  less  pleasant 
exercise  before  us.  We  are  hardly  likely 
to  acquire  any  territory  that  will  not  come 
at  some  cost. 

That  we  give  back  to  Porto  Rico  all  of 
the  revenue  derived  from  the  customs  we 
levy  does  not  seem  to  me  to  soften  our 
dealings  with  her  people.  Our  fathers 
were  not  mollifled  by  the  suggestion  that 
the  tea  and  stamp  taxes  would  be  ex- 
pended wholly  for  the  beneflt  of  the  colo- 
nies. It  is  to  say:  "We  do  not  need  this 
money;  it  is  only  levied  to  show  that  your 
country  is  no  part  of  the  United  States, 
and  that  you  are  not  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  save  at  our  pleasure."  When  trib- 
ute is  levied  and  immediately  returned  as 
a  benefaction,  its  only  purpose  is  to  de- 
clare and  maintain  a  state  of  vassalage. 

But  I  am  not  sure  that  the  beet-sugar 
objection  is  not  more  tenable  than  another, 
and  probably  more  controlling  considera- 
tion, which  ran  in  this  wise:  "We  see  no 
serious  commercial  disadvantages,  and  no 
threat  of  disorder,  in  accepting  Porto  Rico 
to  be  a  part  of  the  United  States — in  that 
ease  it  seems  to  be  our  duty:  but  we  have 
acquired  other  islands  in  the  Orient,  of 
large  area,  populated  by  a  turbulent  and 
rebellious   people;    and,   if   we   do   by  the 


177 


ANNEXED     TERRITORY 


Porto  Ricans  what  our  sense  of  justice 
and  of  their  friendliness  prompts  us  to  do, 
some  illogical  person  will  say  that  we 
must  deal  in  the  same  way  with  the  Phil- 
ippines. And  some  other  person  will  say 
that  the  free  intercourse  was  not  given 
by  the  law  but  by  the  Constitution." 

I  will  not  give  a  license  to  a  friend  to 
cut  a  tree  upon  my  land  to  feed  his  winter 
fire,  because  my  enemy  may  find  in  the 
license  a  support  for  his  claim  that  the 
wood  is  a  common! 

If  we  have  confidence  that  the  Constitu- 
tion does  not  apply  to  the  Territories, 
surely  we  ought  to  use  our  absolute  power 
there  with  a  view  to  the  circumstances  at- 
tending each  call  for  its  exercise.  Not  to 
do  this  shows  a  misgiving  as  to  the  power. 

The  questions  raised  by  the  Porto  Rican 
legislation  have  been  discussed  chiefly 
from  the  stand  -  point  of  the  people 
of  the  Territories;  but  there  is  another 
view.  If,  in  its  tariff  legislation  relative 
to  merchandise  imported  into  the  Terri- 
tories and  to  merchandise  passed  from  the 
Territories  into  the  States,  Congress  is 
not  subject  to  the  law  of  uniformity  pre- 
scribed by  the  Constitution,  it  would  seem 
to  follow  that  it  is  within  the  power  of 
Congress  to  allow  the  admission  to  Porto 
Rico  of  all  raw  materials  coming  from 
other  countries  free  of  duty,  and  to  admit 
to  all  ports  of  the  "  United  States  proper," 
free  of  duty,  the  products  manufactured 
from  these  raw  materials.  As  the  people 
of  the  "  United  States  proper  "  choose  the 
Congressmen,  there  may  be  no  great  alarm 
felt  over  this  possibility;  but  it  is  worth 
while  to  note  that  a  construction  of  the 
Constitution  adopted  to  save  us  from  a 
competition  with  the  Territories  on  equal 
grounds  is  capable  of  being  turned  against 
us  and  to  their  advantage. 

The  courts  may  not  refuse  to  give  to  the 
■  explicit  words  of  a  law  their  natural 
meaning,  by  reason  of  the  ill  consequences 
that  may  follow;  but  they  may  well  take 
account  of  consequences  in  construing 
doubtful  phrases,  and  resolve  the  doubts 
so  as  to  save  the  purpose  of  the  law- 
makers, where,  as  in  the  case  of  the  consti- 
tutional provision  we  are  considering,  that 
purpose  is  well  known.  They  will  not 
construe  a  doubtful  phrase  so  as  to  allow 
the  very  thing  that  the  law  was  intended 
to  prevent. 


These  constitutional  questions  will  soon 
be  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court.  If  the 
absolute  power  of  Congress  is  affirmed,  we 
shall  probably  use  the  power  with  dis- 
crimination by  "  extending  "  the  Consti- 
tution to  Porto  Rico,  and  by  giving  to  its 
people  a  full  territorial  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  such  protection  in  their  civil 
rights  as  an  act  of  Congress  can  give.  If 
the  court  shall  hold  that  the  Constitution, 
in  the  parts  not  in  themselves  inapplicable, 
covers  all  territory  made  a  permanent  part 
of  our  domain,  from  the  moment  of  annex- 
ation and  as  a  necessary  part  of  the 
United  States,  then  we  will  conform  our 
legislation,  with  deep  regret  that  we  as- 
sumed a  construction  contrary  to  liberty, 
and  with  some  serious  embarrassments 
that  might  have  been  avoided. 

There  has  been  with  many  a  mistaken 
apprehension  that,  if  the  Constitution,  of 
its  own  force,  extends  to  Porto  Rico  and 
the  Philippines,  and  gives  American  citi- 
zenship to  their  free  civilized  people,  they 
become  endowed  with  full  political  rights ; 
that  their  consent  is  necessary  to  the  va- 
lidity and  rightfulness  of  all  civil  adminis- 
trations. But  no  such  deduction  follows. 
The  power  of  Congress  to  legislate  for  the 
Territories  is  full.  That  is,  there  is  no 
legislative  power  elsewhere  than  in  Con- 
gress, but  it  is  not  absolute.  The  conten- 
tion is  that  all  the  powers  of  Congress  are 
derived  from  the  Constitution — including 
the  power  to  legislate  for  the  Territories — 
and  that  such  legislation  must  necessarily, 
always  and  everywhere,  be  subject  to  the 
limitations  of  the  Constitution. 

When  this  rule  is  observed,  the  consent 
of  the  people  of  the  Territories  is  not  nec- 
essary to  the  validity  of  the  legislation. 
The  new  Territory  having  become  a  part 
of  the  national  domain,  the  people  dwell- 
ing therein  have  no  reserved  legal  right 
to  sever  that  relation,  or  to  set  up  therein 
a  hostile  government.  The  question 
whether  the  United  States  can  take  over 
or  continue  to  hold  and  govern  a  Territory 
whose  people  are  hostile,  is  not  a  question 
of  constitutional  or  international  law,  but 
of  conscience  and  historical  consistency. 

Some  one  must  determine  when  and  how 
far  the  people  of  a  Territory,  part  of  our 
national  domain,  can  be  entrusted  with 
governing  powers  of  a  local  nature,  and 
when    the    broader    powers    of    statehood 


178 


ANNEXED     TERRITORY 


shall  be  conferred.  We  have  no  right  to 
judge  the  capacity  for  self-government 
of  the  people  of  another  nation,  or  to  make 
an  alleged  lack  of  that  faculty  an  excuse 
for  aggression;  but  we  must  judge  of  this 
matter  for  our  Territories.  The  interests 
to  be  affected  by  the  decision  are  not  all 
local;  many  of  them  are  national. 

These  questions  are  to  be  judged  liberal- 
ly and  with  strong  leanings  to  the  side  of 
popular  liberty,  but  we  cannot  give  over 
the  decision  to  the  people  who  may  at  any 
particular  time  be  settled  in  a  Territory. 
We  have,  for  the  most  part,  in  our  history 
given  promptly  to  the  people  of  the  Terri- 
tories a  large  measure  of  local  government, 
and  have,  when  the  admission  of  a  State 
was  proposed,  thought  only  of  boundaries 
and  population.  But  this  was  because  our 
Territories  have  been  contiguous  and 
chiefly  populated  from  the  States. 

We  are  not  only  at  liberty,  however,  but 
under  a  duty,  to  take  account  also  of  the 
quality  and  disposition  of  the  people,  and 
we  have  in  one  or  two  instances  done  so. 
The  written  Constitution  prescribes  no 
rule  for  these  cases.  The  question  whether 
the  United  States  shall  hold  conquered 
territory,  or  territory  acquired  by  cession, 
without  the  consent  of  the  people  to  be 
affected,  is  quite  apart  from  the  question 
whether,  having  acquired  and  incorporated 
such  territory,  we  can  govern  it  otherwise 
than  under  the  limitations  of  the  Consti- 
tution. 

The  Constitution  may  be  aided  in  things 
doubtful  by  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. It  may  be  assumed  that  the  frame 
of  civil  government  adopted  was  intend- 
ed to  harmonize  with  the  Declaration.  It 
is  the  preamble  of  the  Constitution.  It 
goes  before  the  enacting  clause  and  de- 
clares the  purpose  of  the  law;  but  the  pur- 
pose so  expressed  is  not  the  law  unless  it 
finds  renewed  expression  after  the  enacting 
clause.  We  shall  be  plainly  recreant  to 
the  spirit  and  purpose  of  the  Constitu- 
tion if  we  arbitrarily  deny  to  the  people 
of  a  Territory  as  large  a  measure  of  popu- 
lar government  as  their  good  disposition 
and  intelligence  will  warrant.  Neces- 
sarily, the  judgment  of  this  question,  how- 
ever, is  with  Congress.  The  Constitution 
prescribes  no  rule — could  not  do  so — and 
the  courts  cannot  review  the  discretion  of 
Congress. 

17 


But  we  are  now  having  it  dinned  into 
our  ears  that  expansion  is  the  law  of  life, 
and  that  expansion  is  not  practicable  if 
the  Constitution  is  to  go  with  the  flag. 
Lord  Salisbury,  some  years  ago,  stated 
this  supposed  law  of  national  life.  In  a 
recent  address,  Mr.  James  Bryee  says,  by 
way  of  comment: 

"  He  thinks  it  like  a  bicycle,  which  must 
fall  when  it  comes  to  a  stand-still.  It  is 
an  awkward  result  of  this  doctrine  that 
when  there  is  no  more  room  for  expan- 
sion— and  a  time  must  come,  perhaps 
soon,  when  there  will  be  no  more  room^ 
the  Empire  will  begin  to  decline." 

If  Great  Britain,  with  her  accepted 
methods  of  territorial  growth,  finds  the 
problem  of  growth  by  expansion  increas- 
ingly hard,  it  will  be  harder  for  us,  for  we 
are  fettered  by  our  traditions  as  to  popu- 
lar rights,  at  least — if  not  by  our  Consti- 
tution. 

But  expansion  is  not  necessarily  of  a 
healthy  sort;  it  may  be  dropsical.  If 
judgment  is  passed  now,  the  attempted 
conquest  of  the  Boer  republics  has  not 
strengthened  Great  Britain.  She  has  not 
gained  esteem.  She  has  not  increased  her 
loyal  population.  She  has  created  a  need 
for  more  outlying  garrisons — already  too 
numerous.  She  has  strained  her  military 
and  financial  resources,  and  has  had  a 
revelation  of  the  need  of  larger  armies  and 
stronger  coast  defences  at  home.  The  re- 
cent appeal  of  Lord  Salisbury  at  the  Lord 
Mayor's  banquet  for  more  complete  island 
defences  is  most  significant.  Did  the  South 
African  w^ar  furnish  a  truer  measure  of 
the  Empire's  land  strength  than  the  famil- 
iar campaigning  against  half-savage  peo- 
ples had  done?  The  old  coach,  with  its 
power  to  stand  as  well  as  to  move,  may, 
after  all,  be  a  safer  carriage,  for  the  hopes 
and  interests  of  a  great  people,  than  the 
bicycle. 

Some  one  will  say,  increasing  years  and 
retirement  and  introspection  have  broken 
your  touch  with  practical  affairs  and  left 
you  out  of  sympathy  with  the  glowing 
prospects  of  territorial  expansion  that  now 
opens  before  us;  that  it  has  always  been 
so;  the  Louisiana  and  the  Alaskan  pur- 
chases were  opposed  by  some  fearful  souls. 
But  I  have  been  making  no  argument 
against  expansion.  The  recent  acquisi- 
tions from  Spain  must  present  widely  dif- 
9 


ANTHON— ANTIETAM 

ferent  conditions  fi-om  all  previous  acqui-  duced  about  fifty  volumes,  consisting  chief- 

sitions  of  territory,   since   it  seems   to  be  ly  «of  the  Latin  classics  and  aids  to  clas- 

admitted  that  they  cannot  be  allowed  to  sical  study.     All  of  his  works  were  repub- 

become  a  part  of  the  United  States  without  lished  in  England.     His  larger  works  are 

a  loss  that  overbalances  the  gain ;  that  we  a  Classical  Dictionary  and  a  Dictionary  of 

can  only  safely  acquire  them  upon  the  con-  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.     When  he 

dition  that  we  can  govern  them  without  was   made   rector   of   the   grammar-school 

any  constitutional  restraint.  he  conferred  on  the  public  schools  of  his 

One  who  has  retired  from  the   service,  native  city  six  free  scholarships.     He  died 

but  not  from  the  love  of  his  country,  must  in  New  York,  July  29,  1867. 

be  pardoned  if  he  finds  himself  unable  to  Anthony,    Henry    Bowen,    statesman; 

rejoice    in    the   acquisition    of    lands    and  born   in   Coventry,   R.   I.,   April    1,    1815; 

forests  and   mines   anA  commerce,   at  the  graduated  at  Brown  University  in   1833; 

cost  of  the  abandonment  of  the  old  Ameri-  editor   of   the    Providence   Journal,    1838- 

can   idea   that   a   government   of   absolute  63;     elected    governor    of     Rhode     Island 

powers  is  an  intolerable  thing,  and,  under  in   1849  and  in   1850;   United  States  Sen- 

the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  an  ator   from  Rhode  Island,   1859-84;    thrice 

impossible   thing.     The  view   of   the   Con-  elected  president  pro   tern,  of  the  Senate, 

stitution  I  have  suggested  will  not  limit  He  died  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Sept.  2,  1884. 

the  power  of  territorial  expansion;  but  it  Anthony,  Susan  Brownell,  American 

will    lead    us    to    limit    the    use    of    that  reformer ;    born    in    South    Adams,    Mass., 

power  to  regions  that  may  safely  become  Feb.  15,  1820.     She  was  of  Quaker  parent- 

a  part  of  the  United  States,  and  to  peoples  age,    and    received    her    education    at    a 

whose  American  citizenship  may  be  allow-  Friends'  school  in  Philadelphia.   From  1835 

ed.     It   has   been   said    that   the   flash    of  to   1850   she  taught  school  in  New  York. 

Dewey's  guns  in  Manila  Bay  revealed  to  In    1847   she   began   her   efforts   in   behalf 

the    American    people    a    new    mission.     1  of    the    temperance    movement;     in     1852 

like  rather  to  think  of  them  as  revealing  she   assisted    in   organizing   the   Woman's 

the  same  old  mission  that  we  read  in  the  New  York  State  Temperance  Society.     In 

flash     of     Washington's     guns     at    York-  1854-55    she   held   meetings    in    behalf   of 

town.  female  suffrage.     She  was  a  leader  in  the 

God    forbid    that    the   day    should    ever  anti  -  shxvery     movement,     and     an     early 

come   when,    in    the   American   mind,    the  advocate    of    the    coeducation    of    women, 

thought   of  man   as   a   "  consumer "   shall  Greatly    through    her    influence,    the   New 

submerge    the    old    American    thought    of  York  legislature,  in   1860,  passed  the  act 

man  as  a  creature  of  God,  endowed  with  giving   married   women   the   possession  of 

"  inalienable  rights."  their    earnings    and    the   guardianship    of 

Anthon,     Charles,    scholar    and    edu-  their  children.     In  1868,  with  Mrs.  E.  C. 

cator;   born  in  New  York,  Nov.   19,   1797.  Stanton  and  Parker  Pillsbury,  she  began 

His  father,  a  surgeon-general  in  the  Brit-  tlie    publication    of    the    Revolutionist,    a 

ish  army,  settled  in  New  York  soon  after  paper  devoted  to  the  emancipation  of  wom- 

the  Revolution.     Charles  graduated  at  Co-  en.     In   1872  she  cast  test  ballots  at  the 

lumbia  College  in   1815,  was  admitted  to  State  and  congressional  elections  in  Roch- 

the  bar,  and  in  1820  was  made  professor  ester,   N.   Y.,   and  was  indicted  and  fined 

of    languages    in    his    alma    mater.     Pro-  for  illegal  voting,  but  the  fine  w^as  never 

fessor   Anthon   was   the   author   of   many  exacted. 

books    connected    with    classical    studies.  Antietam,   Battle  of.     After  the  sur- 

He  was  made  the  head  of  the  classical  de-  render  of  Harper's  Ferry,  Sept.   15,  1862, 

partment   of   the    college    as    successor    of  Lee  felt  himself  in  a  perilous  position,  for 

Professor  Moore  in  1835,  having  served  as  General    Franklin    had    entered    Pleasant 

rector  of  the  grammar-school  of  the  college  Valley  that  very  morning  and  threatened 

for    five    years.     Professor     Anthon    was  the  severance  of  his  army.     Lee   at   once 

very  methodical  in  his  habits.     He  retired  took   measures   to    concentrate   his    forces, 

at  ten  o'clock  and  rose  at  four,  and  per-  He  withdrew  his  troops  from  South  Moun- 

formed  much  of  his  appointed  day's  work  tain   and    took    position    in   the    Antietam 

before  breakfast.       By  industry   he   pro-  valley,  near  Sharpsburg,  Md.     Jackson,  by 

180 


ANTIETAM 


swift  marches,  had  recrossed  the  Potomac 
and  joined  Lee  on  Antietam  Creek.  When 
the  Confederates  left  South  Mountain,  Mc- 
Clellan's  troops  followed  them.  Lee's 
plans  were  thwarted,  and  he  found  himself 
compelled  to  fight.  MeClellan  Avas  very 
cautious,  for  he  believed  the  Confederates 
were  on  his  front  in  overwhelming  num- 
bers. It  was  ascertained  that  Lee's  army 
did  not  number  moi'e  than  60,000.  McClel- 
lan's  effective  force  was  87,000.  McClel- 
lan's  army  was  well  in  hand  ( Sept. 
10),  and  Lee's  was  well  posted  on  the 
heights  near  Sharpsburg,  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  Antietam  Creek,  a  sluggish 
stream  with  few  fords,  spanned  by  four 
stone  bridges.  On  the  right  of  the 
National  line  were  the  corps  of  Hook- 
er and  Sumner.  In  the  advance,  and 
near  the  Antietam,  General  Richardson's 
division  of  Sumner's  corps  was  posted. 
On  a  line  with  this  was  Sykes's  (reg- 
ular) division  of  Porter's  corps.  Farther 
down  the  stream  was  Burnside's  corps.  In 
front  of  Sumner  and  Hooker  were  bat- 
teries of  24-pounder  Parrott  guns.  Frank- 
lin's' corps  and  Couch's  division  were  far- 
ther down  the  valley,  and  the  divisions  of 
Morrell  and  Humphrey,  of  Porter's  corps, 
were  approaching  from  Frederick.  A  de- 
tachment of  the  signal  corps",  under  Major 
Myer,  was  on  a  spur  of  South  ]\Ioimtain. 

As  MeClellan  prudently  hesitated  to  at- 
tack, the  Confederates  put  him  on  the  de- 
fensive by  opening  an  artillery  fire  upon 
the  Nationals  at  daA\Ti  (Sept.  16,  1862). 
He  was  ready  for  response  in  the  course  of 
the  afternoon,  when  Hooker  crossed  the 
Antietam  with  a  part  of  his  corps,  com- 
manded by  Generals  Ricketts,  Meade,  and 
Doubleday.  Hooker  at  once  attacked  the 
Confederate  left,  commanded  by  "  Stone- 
wall Jackson,"  who  was  soon  reinforced 
by  General  Hood.  Sumner  was  directed 
to  send  over  Mansfield's  corps  during  the 
night,  and  to  hold  his  own  in  readiness 
to  pass  over  the  next  morning.  Hooker's 
first  movement  was  successful.  He  drove 
back  the  Confederates,  and  his  army  rest- 
ed on  their  arms  that  night  on  the  ground 
they  had  won.  Mansfield's  corps  crossed 
in  the  evening,  and  at  daA\Ti  (Sept.  17)  the 
contest  was  renewed  by  Hooker.  It  was 
obstinate  and  severe.  The  National  bat- 
teries on  the  east  side  of  the  creek  greatly 
assisted  in  driving  the  Confederates  aAvay, 


with  heavy  loss,  beyond  a  line  of  woods. 
It  was  at  this  time,  when  Hooker  ad- 
vanced, that  Jackson  was  reinforced.  The 
Confederates  swarnjed  out  of  the  works 
and  fell  heavily  upon  Meade,  when  Hooker 
called  upon  Doubleday  for  help.  A  bri- 
gade under  General  Hartsuff  pressed  for- 
ward against  a  heavy  storm  of  missiles, 
and  its  leader  was  severely  wounded. 
Meanwhile  Mansfield's  corps  had  been  or- 
dered up,  and  before  it  became  engaged 
the  veteran  leader  was  mortally  wounded. 
The  command  then  devolved  on  General 
Williams,  who  left  his  division  in  the  care 
of  General  Crawford,  and  the  latter  seized 
a  piece  of  woods  near  by.  Hooker  had 
lost  heavily;  Doubleday's  guns  had  si- 
lenced a  Confederate  battery;  Ricketts  was 
struggling  against  constantly  increasing 
numbers  on  his  front;  and  the  National 
line  began  to  waver,  when  Hooker,  in  the 
van,  was  Avounded  and  taken  from  the 
field.  Sumner  sent  Sedgwick  to  the  sup- 
port of  Crawford,  and  Gordon  and  Rich- 
ardson and  French  bore  down  upon  the 
Confederates  more  to  the  left. 

The  Nationals  now  held  position  at  the 
Dunker  Church,  and  seemed  about  to  grasp 
the  palm  of  victory  (for  Jackson  and  Hood 
were  falling  back),  Avhen  fresh  Confeder- 
ate troops,  under  McLaws  and  Walker, 
supported  by  Early,  came  up.  They  pene-' 
trated  the  National  line  and  drove  it  back, 
when  the  imflinching  Doubleday  gaA'e  them 
such  a  storm  of  artillery  that  they,  in 
turn,  fell  back  to  their  original  position. 
SedgAvick,  twice  AA'ounded,  Avas  carried 
from  the  field,  and  the  command  of  his 
diA'ision  deA'oh^ed  on  Gen.  0.  0.  HoAvard. 
Generals  CraAvford  and  Dana  Avere  also 
AA'ounded.  Franklin  Avas  sent  oA^er  to  as- 
sist the  hard-pressed  Nationals.  Forming 
on  HoAvard's  left,  he  sent  Slocum  Avith  his 
division  toAvards  the  centre.  At  the  same 
time  General  Smith  Avas  ordered  to  retake 
the  ground  on  which  there  had  been  so 
much  fighting,  and  it  was  done  within 
fifteen  minutes.  The  Confederates  Avere 
driA'en  far  back.  MeanAvhile  the  divisions 
of  French  and  Richardson  had  been  busy. 
The  former  received  orders  from  Sumner 
to  press  on  and  make  a  diversion  in  favor 
of  the  right.  Eichardson's  division,  com- 
posed of  the  brigades  of  Meagher,  Cald- 
Avell,  and  Brooks  (who  had  crossed  the 
Antietam  at  ten  o'clock),  gained  a  good 


181 


ANTIETAM— ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS 


position.  The  Confederates,  reinforced  bj' 
fresh  troops,  fought  desperately.  Finally, 
Richardson  was  mortally  wounded,  and 
Gen.  W.  S.  Hancock  succeeded  him  in 
command,  when  a  charge  was  made  that 
drove  the  Confederates  in  great  confusion. 
Night  soon  closed  the  action  on  the  Na- 
tional right  and  centre.  General  Meagher 
had  been  wounded  and  carried  from  the 
field,  when  the  command  of  his  troops  de- 
volved on  Colonel  Burke.  During  the 
fierce  strifes  of  the  day 
Porter's  corps,  with  artil- 
lery and  Pleasonton's  cav- 
alry, had  remained  on  the 
east  side  of  the  stream,  as 
a  reserve,  until  late  in  the 
afternoon,  when  McClellan 
sent  over  some  brigades. 

On  the  morning  of  the 
17th  the  left,  under  Burn- 
side,  engaged  in  a  desper- 
ate struggle  for  the  pos- 
session of  a  bridge  just  be- 
low Sharpsburg.  That 
commander  had  been,  or- 
dered to  cross  it  and  at- 
tack the  Confederates.  It 
was  a  difficult  task,  and 
Burnside,  exposed  to  a  _^^  _ 
raking  fire  from  the  Con-  "^ —  ^ 

federate  batteries  and  an 
enfilading  fire  from  sharp- 
shooters, was  several  times 
repulsed.  Finally,  at  a  little  past  noon, 
two  regiments  charged  across  the  bridge 
and  drove  its  defenders  away.  The  divi- 
sions of  Sturgis,  Wilcox,  and  Rodman,  and 
Scammon's  brigade,  with  four  batteries, 
passed  the  bridge  and  drove  the  Confeder- 
ates almost  to  Sharpsburg.  A.  P.  Hill, 
with  fresh  troops,  fell  upon  Burnside's 
left,  mortally  wounding  General  Rodman, 
and  driving  the  Nationals  nearly  back 
to  the  bridge.  Gen.  O'B.  Branch,  of  North 
Carolina,  was  also  killed  in  this  encounter. 
The  Confederates  were  checked  by  Nation- 
al artillery  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
stream,  and,  reserves  advancing  under 
Sturgis,  there  was  no  further  attempt 
to  retake  "  the  Burnside  Bridge,"  as  it  was 
called.  Hill  came  up  just  in  time  to  save 
Lee's  army  from  destruction. 

Darkness  ended  the  memorable  struggle 
known  as  the  Battle  of  Antietam.  The 
losses  were  very  severe.     McClellan  report- 


ed his  losses  at  12,460  men,  of  whom  2,010 
were  killed.  He  estimated  Lee's  loss  as 
much  greater.  The  losses  fell  heavily 
upon  certain  brigades.  That  of  Duryee 
retired  from  the  field  with  not  more  than 
twenty  men  and  four  colors.  Of  the  bri- 
gades of  Lawton  and  Hays,  on  the  Con- 
federate side,  more  than  one-half  were 
lost.  On  the  morning  of  the  18th  both 
parties  seemed  more  willing  to  rest  than 
to    fight;    and    that    night    Lee    and    his 


^BIJ  NMlIt    BIIDGI,"   ANTII  TAM   CKEKK. 


shattered  army  stole  away  in  the  darkness, 
recrossed  the  Potomac  at  Williamsport, 
and  planted  eight  batteries  on  the  high 
Virginia  bank  that  menaced  pursuers. 
There  had  been  a  very  tardy  pursuit.  At 
dark  on  the  evening  of  the  19th,  Porter, 
who  was  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
ordered  Griffin  to  cross  the  stream  with 
tAvo  brigades  and  carry  Lee's  batteries. 
He  captured  four  of  the  guns.  On  the 
next  morning  (Sept.  20)  a  part  of  Por- 
ter's division  made  a  reconnoissance  in 
force  on  the  Virginia  side,  and  were  as- 
sailed by  Hill  in  ambush,  who  drove  them 
across  the  Potomac  and  captured  200  of 
the  Nationals.  I\Iaryland  Heights  and 
Harper's  Ferry  were  retaken  by  the  Union 
troops. 

Anti-Expansionists,  an  old  phrase  in 
American  political  history  which  was  res- 
urrected during  the  Presidential  cam- 
paign of  1900,  and  applied  to  those  who 


182 


ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS 


were  opposed  to  the  extension  of  American 
territory  which  had  been  brought  about 
during  the  first  administration  of  Presi- 
dent McKinley,  principally  as  a  result  of 
the  war  with  Spain  in  1898.  The  adminis- 
tration was  charged  not  only  by  its  Demo- 
cratic opponents,  but  by  many  able  men 
in  the  Republican  party,  with  expansionist 
or  imperialist  tendencies  considered  for- 
eign to  the  national  policy  of  the  country. 
While  those  who  opposed  the  territorial 
expansion  which  had  been  accomplished, 
and  also  was  pending,  in  the  matter  of  the 
future  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  were  not 
sufficiently  strong  to  organize  an  indepen- 
dent political  party,  the  large  number  of 
them  within  and  without  the  Republican 
party  created  a  sharp  complication  in  the 
Presidential  campaign.  The  position  of 
the  two  great  parties  on  this  issue  is 
shown  in  the  following  extracts  from  the 
platforms  adopted  at  their  respective  na- 
tional conventions. 

In  the  Republican  platform  the  Philip- 
pine problem  was  treated  as  follows: 

"  In  accepting  by  the  treaty  of  Paris 
the  just  responsibility  of  our  victories  in 
the  Spanish  War,  the  President  and  the 
Senate  won  the  undoubted  approval  of  the 
American  people.  No  other  course  was 
possible  than  to  destroy  Spain's  sover- 
eignty throughout  the  Western  Indies  and 
in  the  Philippine  Islands.  That  course 
created  our  responsibility  before  the 
world,  and  with  the  unorganized  popula- 
tion whom  our  intervention  had  freed  from 
Spain,  to  provide  for  the  maintenance  of 
law  and  order,  and  for  the  establishment 
of  good  government  and  for  the  perform- 
ance of  international  obligations.  Our  au- 
thority could  not  be  less  than  our  responsi- 
bility, and  wherever  sovereign  rights  were 
extended,  it  became  the  high  duty  of  the 
government  to  maintain  its  authority,  to 
put  down  armed  insurrection,  and  to  con- 
fer the  blessings  of  liberty  and  civilization 
upon  all  the  rescued  peoples.  The  largest 
measure  of  self-government  consistent 
with  their  welfare  and  our  duties  shall  be 
secured  to  them  by  law." 

The  Democratic  platform  contained  two 
declarations  on  the  subject,  the  first  favor- 
ing a  qualified  expansion  as  follows : 

"  We  are  not  opposed  to  territorial  ex- . 
pansion  when  it  takes  in  desirable  terri- 
tory which  can  be  erected  into  States  in 


the  Union,  and  whose  people  are  willing 
and  fit  to  become  American  citizens.  We 
favor  expansion  by  every  peaceful  and  le- 
gitimate means.  But  we  are  unalterably 
opposed  to  the  seizing  or  purchasing  of 
distant  islands,  to  be  governed  outside  the 
Constitution,  and  whose  people  can  never 
become  citizens.  We  are  in  favor  of  ex- 
tending the  Republic's  influence  among  the 
nations,  but  believe  that  influence  should 
be  extended,  not  by  force  and  violence,  but 
through  the  persuasive  power  of  a  high 
and  honorable  example.  The  importance 
of  other  questions  now  pending  before  the 
American  people  is  in  nowise  diminished, 
and  the  Democratic  party  takes  no  back- 
ward step  from  its  position  on  them,  but 
the  burning  issue  of  imperialism  growing 
out  of  the  Spanish  War  involves  the  very 
existence  of  the  republic,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  our  free  institutions.  We  regard 
it  as  the  paramount  issue  of  the  cam- 
paign." 

In  the  matter  of  the  Philippine  problem, 
the  i^latform  made  the  following  declara- 
tion: 

"  We  condemn  and  denounce  the  Philip- 
pine policy  of  the  present  administration. 
It  has  involved  the  republic  in  unneces- 
sary war,  sacrificed  the  lives  of  many  of 
our  noblest  sons,  and  placed  the  United 
States,  previously  known  and  applauded 
throughout  the  world  as  the  champion 
of  freedom,  in  the  false  and  un-American 
position  of  crushing  with  military  force 
the  eff'orts  of  our  former  allies  to  achieve 
liberty  and  self-government.  The  Filipi- 
nos cannot  be  citizens  without  endangering 
our  civilization;  they  cannot  be  subjects 
without  imperilling  our  form  of  govern- 
ment, and  as  we  are  not  willing  to  sur- 
render our  civilization  or  to  convert  the 
republic  into  an  empire,  we  favor  an  im- 
mediate declaration  of  the  nation's  pur- 
pose to  give  to  the  Filipinos,  first,  a  stable 
form  of  government;  secondly,  indepen- 
dence; and  third,  protection  from  outside 
interference,  such  as  has  been  given  for 
nearly  a  century  to  the  republics  of  Cen- 
tral and  South  America.  The  greedy  com- 
mercialism which  dictated  the  Philippine 
policy  of  the  Republican  administration 
attempts  to  justify  it  with  the  plea  that  it 
will  pay,  but  even  this  sordid  and  un- 
worthy plea  fails  when  brought  to  the 
test  of  facts.     The  war  of  criminal  aggres- 


183 


ANTI-FEDERAL    PARTY— ANTI-MASONIC   PARTY 


sion  against  the  Filipinos,  entailing  an 
annual  expense  of  many  millions,  has  al- 
ready cost  more  than  any  possible  jn'ofit 
that  could  accrue  from  the  entire  Philip- 
pine trade  for  years  to  come.  Further- 
more, when  trade  is  extended  at  the  ex- 
pense of  liberty,  the  price  is  always  too 
high."  See  also  Acquisition  of  Terri- 
tory; Anjs^exed  Territory,  Status  of; 
Atkinson,  Edward;  Bryan,  William 
Jennings  ;  Imperialism. 

Anti-Federal  Party.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  for  independence  the  mass  of  the 
population  was  agricultural  and  demo- 
cratic, and  devoted  to  the  advancement  of 
their  separate  commonwealths,  the  legislat- 
ures of  which,  under  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation (see  Confederation,  Articles 
of),  had  seized  upon  the  powers  which  the 
King  had  abandoned,  and  which  the  na- 
tional popular  will  was  not  yet  sufficiently 
educated  to  assume.  In  the  years  from 
1780  to  1787,  in  spite  of  lawlessness  and 
bad  government,  great  development  had 
taken  place  in  the  United  States.  The 
commercial  and  creditor  classes,  and  the 
Southern  property  owners,  who  had  learn- 
ed their  weaknesses  and  their  needs,  united 
for  the  control  of  the  convention,  in  1787, 
under  the  leadership  of  Hamilton,  and  a 
few  other  of  the  advanced  thinkers,  and 
formed  the  nucleus  of  what  was  soon  to  be 
called  the  Federal  party.  As  the  old  gov- 
ernment had  been  strictly  federal,  or 
league,  in  its  nature,  it  would  seem  nat- 
ural that  its  supporters  should  be  called 
federalist,  and  Gerry,  of  Massachusetts, 
and  a  few  others  made  some  effort  to  secure 
this  party  title,  and  give  their  opponents 
that  of  anti-federalists  or  nationalists. 
But  the  object  of  the  Constitution  was  to 
secure  a  strong  federal  government;  and 
all  who  were  opposed  to  this  new  feature 
of  American  polities  at  once  accepted 
the  name  of  Anti-Federalists,  and  opposed 
the  ratification  of  the  Constitution,  inside 
and  outside  of  the  conventions.  In  Rhode 
Island  and  North  Carolina  this  opposition 
was  for  a  time  successful,  but  in  all  the 
other  States  it  was  overcome,  though  in 
Pennsylvania  there  were  strong  protests 
of  unfair  treatment  on  the  part  of  the 
Federalists.  Many  prominent  men,  such 
as  Edmund  Randolph,  Robert  R.  Living- 
ston, Madison,  and  Jefferson, while  opposed 
h^  nature  to  a  strong  federal  government. 


saw  in  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution 
the  only  salvation  for  the  young  Repub- 
lic, and  voted  with  the  Federalists  in  this 
contest ;  but,  after  the  Constitution  had 
been  adopted,  it  was  natural  that  these 
men  should  aim  at  a  construction  of  its 
terms  which  should  not  give  the  new  gov- 
ernment extensive  power.  These  tempo- 
rary Federalists,  in  about  1791-93,  united 
with  the  old  Anti-Federalists,  and  the 
party  that  had  absolutely  opposed  the 
Constitution,  through  fear  of  a  strong 
central  government,  now  became,  through 
the  same  fear,  the  champions  of  the  exact 
and  literal  language  of  the  Constitution, 
and  the  opponents  of  every  attemjjt  to  ex- 
tend its  meaning  by  ingenious  interpre- 
tations of  its  terms.  The  former  party 
name  was  no  longer  applicable,  and  in 
1792,  through  the  influence  of  Jefferson, 
it  began  to  be  called  a  "  Republican " 
party,  in  opposition  to  the  "  Monarchical  " 
Federalists.  It  soon  adopted  this  name, 
in  1793,  which  was  afterwards  lengthened 
into  the  Democrat,  c  -  Republican  j^arty. 
See  Democratic  Party. 

Anti-Masonic  Party.  In  1826  William 
Morgan,  a  citizen  of  western  New  York, 
announced  his  intention  to  publish  a  book 
in  which  the  secrets  of  freemasonry  were 
to  be  disclosed.  It  was  printed  at  Bata- 
via,  N.  Y.  On  Sept.  11  Morgan  was 
seized  at  Batavia,  upon  a  criminal  charge, 
by  a  company  of  men  who  came  from 
Canandaigua.  He  was  taken  to  that  place, 
tried  and  acquitted  on  the  criminal  charge, 
but  was  immediately  arrested  on  a  civil 
process  for  a  trifling  debt.  Fle  was  cast 
into  jail  there,  and  the  next  night  was  dis- 
charged by  those  who  procured  his  arrest, 
taken  from  prison  at  nine  o'clock  at  night, 
and  at  the  door  was  seized  and  thrust  into 
a  carriage  in  waiting,  which  was  driven 
rapidly  towards  Rochester.  He  was  taken 
by  relays  of  horses,  by  the  agency  of  several 
individuals,  to  Fort  Niagara,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Niagara  River,  and  deposited  in  the 
powder  magazine  there.  It  was  kno\^Ti 
that  the  freemasons  had  made  violent  at- 
tempts to  suppress  Morgan's  announced 
book,  and  this  outrage  was  charged  upon 
the  fraternity.  A  committee  was  appoint- 
ed, at  a  public  meeting  held  at  Batavia, 
to  endeavor  to  ferret  out  the  perpetrators 
of  the  outrage.  They  found  evidences  of 
the  existence  of  what  they  believed  to  be 


184 


ANTI-MISSION    BAPTISTS— ANTIQUITIES 


STONE   IDOL  AT   COPAN,   13   FEKT   IN   HEIGHT. 


an  extended  conspiracy,  with  many  agents 
and  powerful  motives.  Similar  meetings 
Avere  held  elsewhere.  Public  excitement 
became  very  great  and  wide-spread;  and  a 
strong  feeling  soon  pervaded  the  public 
mind  that  the  masonic  institution  was  re- 
sponsible for  the  crime.  The  profound 
mystery  in  which  the  affair  was  involved 
gave  wings  to  a  thousand  absurd  rumors. 
Mutual  criminations  and  recriminations 
became  very  violent,  and  entered  into  all 
the  religious,  social,  and  political  rela- 
tions. 

A  very  strong  anti-masonic  party  was 
soon  created,  at  first  only  social  in  its 
character,  but  soon  it  became  political. 
This  feature  of  the  party  first  appeared  at 
town-meetings  in  the  spring  of  1827,  where 
it  was  resolved  that  no  mason  was  worthy 
to  receive  the  votes  of  freemen.  A  polit- 
ical party  for  the  exclusion  of  masons  from 
public  offices  was  soon  spread  over  the 
State  of  New  York  and  into  several  other 
States,  and  ran  its  course  for  several 
years.  In  1832  a  National  Anti-Masonic 
Convention  was  held  at  Philadelphia,  in 
which  several  States  were  represented,  and 
William  Wirt,  of  Virginia,  was  nominated 
for  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
States.  Although  the  party  polled  a  con- 
siderable vote,  it  soon  afterwards  disap- 
peared. The  fate  of  Morgan  after  he 
reached  the  magazine  at  Fort  Niagara  was 
never  positively  revealed. 

Anti  -  Mission  Baptists,  variously 
known  as  Primitive.  Old  School,  and  Reg- 
ular Baptists;  called  Anti-Mission  Bap- 
tists because  of  their  opposition,  begun 
about  1840,  to  the  establishment  of  Sun- 
day-schools, missions,  colleges,  or  theolog- 
ical schools.  They  hold  that  these  institu- 
tions make  the  salvation  of  men  dependent 
upon  human  effort  rather  than  upon 
Divine  grace.  In  1899  they  reported  2,130 
ministers,  3,530  churches,  and  126,000 
members. 

Anti-Poverty  Society.  See  Geokge, 
Henry;   Single  Tax. 

Antii^uities,  American.  A  greater 
portion  of  objects  which  constitute  Ameri- 
can antiquities  consist  of  the  architectural 
and  other  remains  of  the  handiwork  of  the 
aborigines  who  inhabited  the  continent  be- 
fore any  of  the  present  races  appeared 
here  and  subjugated  or  displaced  them; 
also  the  ruins  occasioned  by  the  Spanish 
185 


ANTI-REJSTT    PARTY— APACHE    INDIANS 


conquest.  These  are  chiefly,  in  Central 
and  South  America,  ruined  temples,  and, 
in  North  America,  rude  eartliworks,  now 
overgrown  with  venerable  forest  trees 
which  attest  their  antiquity.  In  connec- 
tion with  those  in  the  more  southern  re- 
gions, there  are  remains  of  elaborate  carv- 
ings and  ornamental  potteiy.  There  are 
many  features  in  common  between  the 
temples  and  other  works  of  art  in  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  Peru.  The  explora- 
tions of  Stephens  and  Catherwood  ( 1840- 
43)  revealed  to  the  world  vast  remains  of 
cities  in  Central  America,  which  were 
doubtless  inhabited  at  the  period  of  the 
conquest,  350  years  ago.  There  they  found 
carved  monoliths  and  the  remains  of  high- 
ly ornamented  temples.  The  monoliths  at 
Copan  some  antiquaries  are  disposed  to 
rank,  as  to  use,  with  those  ruder  ones  at 
Stonehenge,  in  England,  and  older  ones  in 
Arabia.  The  remains  of  Aztec  art  in 
Mexico  attest  the  existence  of  a  high  de- 
gree of  civilization  there  at  the  period  of 
their  structure.  So,  also,  the  ruins  of  the 
Temple  of  the  Sun,  at  Cuzco,  in  Peru,  tell 
of  great  advancement  in  the  arts  under 
the  empire  of  the  Incas.  These  remains 
occupy  a  living  place  on  the  borders  of  the 
historic  period,  but  the  mounds  in  North 
America,  showing  much  mathematical 
skill  in  their  construction  and  ingenuity 
in  their  contents,  have  hitherto  eluded  the 
keen  skill  of  antiquaries,  who  have  sought 
in  vain  among  prehistoric  mysteries  for  a 
clew  to  the  origin  of  the  people  who  made 
them.  See  Hui  Shen  ;  Mound-Builders. 
Anti-Rent  Party.  The  greater  part  of 
Columbia,  Rensselaer,  Greene,  Delaware, 
and  Albany  counties  in  the  State  of  New 
York  belonged  to  manors,  the  grants  of 
which  had  been  made  to  "  patroons "  by 
the  Dutch  West  India  Company,  and  re- 
newed by  James  II.,  the  principal  ones 
being  E,ensselaers^vyck  and  Livingston. 
Manor.  The  tenants  had  deeds  for  their 
farms,  but  paid  an  annual  rental  instead 
of  a  principal  sum.  Dissatisfaction  with 
this  state  of  affairs  had  begun  to  show  it- 
self as  early  as  1790,  and  when,  in  1839, 
Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  who  had  allowed 
much  of  his  rent  to  remain  in  arrears, 
died,  the  tenants  refused  to  pay  rents  to 
his  successor,  disguised  themselves  as 
■'  Injuns,"  and  for  ten  years  carried  on  a 
reign  of  terror  that  practically  suspended 


the  ojjeration  of  law  and  the  payment  of 
rent  in  the  entire  district.  The  attempt 
to  serve  process  by  military  aid,  the  so- 
called  Heldevberg  War,  was  unsuccessful. 
In  1847  and  1849  the  anti-renters  showed 
a  voting  strength  of  5,000,  adopting  a 
part  of  each  party  ticket.  In  1850  the 
legislature  directed  the  attorney-general 
to  bring  suit  against  Harmon  Livingston 
to  try  title.  The  suit  was  decided  in  Liv- 
ingston's favor,  November,  1850,  but  a 
comproinise  was  effected,  the  owners  sell- 
ing the  farms  at  fair  rates,  and  the  ten- 
ants paying  for  them.  Most  of  Rensse- 
laerswyck  was  sold,  and  of  Livingston 
Manor,  which  at  one  time  contained 
162,000  acres  of  choice  farms,  only  a  small 
portion  now  remains  in  the  possession  of 
the  family. 

Anti-Slavery  Party.  See  Free-soil 
Party;    Republican  Party. 

Anti-Slavery  Society,  American,  an 
organization  founded  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
in  1833,  by  delegates  from  several  State 
and  city  societies  in  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  States,  the  first  local  one  hav- 
ing been  established  in  Boston,  Jan.  16, 
1832,  under  the  leadership  of  William 
Lloyd  Garrison.  The  presidents  of  the 
national  societj^  were  Arthur  Tappan, 
Lindley  Coates,  William  Lloyd  Garri- 
son, and  Wendell  Phillips,  and  in  its 
membership  were  the  leading  abolitionists 
of  the  day.  The  members,  individually, 
were  subjected  for  many  years  to  mob 
violence,  and  the  feeling  in  the  South 
against  the  society  was  exceedingly  bitter. 
The  members  heroically  kept  together, 
in  spite  of  persecution  and  personal  as- 
sault, till  April  9,  1870,  when,  on  the 
adoption  of  the  Thirteenth  Amendment  to 
the  national  Constitution,  the  main  so- 
ciety was  disbanded.  See  Colonization 
Society,  American;  Liberia. 

Apache  Indians,  a  branch  of  the 
Athabascan  stock.  They  are  mostly  wan- 
derers, and  have  roamed  as  marauders 
over  portions  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona,  in  the  United  States,  and  several 
of  the  northern  provinces  of  ]\Iexico. 
Wanderers,  they  do  not  cultivate  the  soil, 
and  have  only  temporary  chiefs  to  lead 
them.  Civil  government  they  have  none. 
Divided  into  many  roving  bands,  they  re- 
sisted all  attempts  by  the  Spanish  to  civ- 
ilize and  Christianize  them,  but  constant- 


ISO 


APALACHE— Appomattox  couRT-Housfi 


ly  attacked  these  Europeans.  So  early  as  United  States  ships  Trenton  (flag-ship) 
1762,  it  was  estimated  that  the  Apaches  and  Vandalia,  and  the  German  men- 
had  desolated  and  depopulated  174  min-  of-war  Ebe7;  Adler,  and  Olgo,,  and  drove 
ing  towns,  stations,  and  missions  in  the  ashore  the  United  States  steamer  Nipsic. 
province  of  Sonora  alone.  For  fifty  years  The  Calliope  (British)  was  the  only  man- 
a  bold  chief — -Mangas  Colorado — led  pow-  of-war  in  the  harbor  that  succeeded  in 
erful  bands  to  war ;  and  since  the  annexa-  escaping  to  sea.  The  town  and  its  vicinity 
tion  of  their  territory  to  the  United  were  the  scene,  in  1899,  of  a  series  of  fatal 
States,  they  have  given  its  government  riots,  growing  out  of  the  claims  of  Ma- 
more  trouble  than  any  of  the  Western  taafa  and  Malietoa.  Tanus  to  the  king- 
Indians.  Colorado  was  killed  in  1863.  ship.  Several  American  and  British  naval 
Though  fierce  in  war,  they  never  scalp  or  officers  were  killed  or  wounded,  April  1, 
torture  their  enemies.  A  Great  Spirit  in  subduing  the  native  mob. 
is  the  central  figure  in  their  simple  sys-  Appleton,  Nathan  and  Samuel,  mer- 
tem  of  theology,  and  they  reverence  as  chants  and  philanthropists;  brothers; 
sacred  certain  animals,  especially  a  pure  horn  in  New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  in  1779  and 
white  bird.  In  1900  the  members  of  the  1766  respectively;  engaged  in  the  cotton 
tribe  in  the  United  States  were  classified  manufacturing  business,  as  partners;  were 
as  Coyotera,  Jicarilla,  Mescalero,  San  Car-  founders  of  the  city  of  Lowell,  Mass., 
los,  Tonto,  and  White  Mountain  Apaches,  which  grew  up  around  their  many  mills, 
and  were  located  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Both  were  widely  known  for  their  benevo- 
and  Oklahoma.     They  numbered  6,113.  lence.    Nathan  set  up  the  first  power  loom 

Apalache,  Apalacha,  Apalachi,  or  in  the  United  States,  in  his  Waltham  mill. 
Appalachee,  various  forms  of  the  name  Nathan  died  in  1861 ;  Samuel,  in  1853. 
of  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians  who  Appomattox  Court  -  House,  the  seat 
dwelt  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Mark's  River,  of  government  of  Appomattox  county,  Va., 
Florida,  with  branches  extending  north-  about  25  miles  east  of  Lynchburg;  famous 
ward  to  the  Appalachian  range.  They  as  the  scene  of  the  surrender  of  General 
were  known,  his- 
torically, as  far 
back  as  1526.  The 
settlements  of  the 
tribe  were  men- 
tioned in  a  peti- 
tion to  King 
Charles  II.,  of 
Spain,  in  1688,  and 
it  is  believed  that 
the  tribe  became 
broken  up  and 
scattered  about 
1702,  the  members 
becoming  absorbed 
in    other    tribes. 

Apia,  the  prin- 
cipal town  and 
commercial  port  of 
the  Samoan  Isl- 
ands, in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  situ- 
ated  on   the  north 


ji'lban's  house,  the  place  op  lee's  surrender. 


coast  of  the  island 

of  Upolu.  The  harbor  is  small,  but,  Lee  to  General  Grant.  The  Army  of 
ordinarily,  a  safe  one.  In  March,  1889,  Northern  Virginia  was  reduced  by  famine, 
the  island  and  harbor  were  swept  by  disease,  death,  wounds,  and  capture  to  a 
a    terrific   hurricane,    which    wrecked    the    feeble     few.       These     struggled     against 

1S7 


APPOMATTOX     COURT-HOUSE— APPROPRIATIONS    BY    CONGRESS 


enormous  odds  with  almost  unexampled 
fortitude,  but  were  compelled  to  yield  to 
overwhelming  numbers  and  strength.  On 
April  8,  a  portion  of  Sheridan's  cavalry, 
under  General  Custer,  supported  by  De- 
vine,  captured  four  Confederate  supply- 
trains  at  Appomattox  Station,  on  the 
Lynchburg  Railroad.  Lee's  vanguard  ap- 
proaching, were  pushed  back  to  Appomat- 
tox Court-House,  5  miles  northward — near 
which  was  Lee's  main  army — losing  twen- 
ty-five guns  and  many  wagons  and  prison- 
ers. Sheridan  hurried  forward  the  remain- 
der of  his  command,  and  on  that  evening 
he  stood  directly  across  Lee's  pathway  of 
retreat.  Lee's  last  avenue  of  escape  was 
closed,  and  on  the  following  day  he  met 
General  Grant  at  the  residence  of  Wilmer 
McLean,  at  Appomattox  Court-House,  to 
consummate  an  act  of  surrender.  The  two 
commanders  met,  with  courteous  recogni- 
tion, at  2  P.M.,  on  Palm  Sunday  (April 
9 ) .  Grant  was  accompanied  by  his  chief 
of  staff,  Colonel  Parker ;  Lee  was  attend- 
ed by  Colonel  Marshall,  his  adjutant-gen- 
eral. 

The  terms  of  surrender  were  discussed 
and  settled,  in  the  form  of  a  written 
proposition  by  Grant,  and  a  written  ac- 
ceptance by  Lee,  and  at  3.30  p.m.  they 
were    signed.     The    terms    prescribed    by 


the  suggestion  of  Lee,  agreed  to  allow 
such  cavalrymen  of  the  Confederate  army 
as  owned  their  own  horses  to  retain  them, 
as  they  would,  he  said,  need  them  for 
tilling  their  farms.  Lee  now  returned  to 
llichmond,  where  his  family  resided.  He 
had  started  on  that  campaign  with  6.5,000 
men,  and  he  returned  alone;  and  for  a 
month  afterwards  he  and  his  family  were 
kindly  furnished  with  daily  rations  from 
the  national  commissariat  at  Richmond. 
Lee  had  lost,  during  the  movements  of 
his  army  from  March  20,  to  April  9,  about 
14,000  men  killed  and  wounded,  and  25,- 
000  made  prisoners.  The  number  of  men 
paroled  was  about  26,000,  of  whom  not 
more  than  9,000  had  arms  in  their  hands. 
About  16,000  small-arms  were  surrendered, 
150  cannon,  71  colors,  about  1,100  wagons 
and  caissons,  and  4,000  horses  and  mules. 
iSee  IjEe,  Robert  Edward. 

Apportionment,  Congressional,  the 
popular  name  of  a  bill  enacted  by  Congress 
after  every  enumeration  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  republic  or  the  decennial  census, 
determining  the  total  number  of  members 
to  be  sent  to  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives from  each  State  of  the  Union.  The 
ratio  of  representation,  since  the  founda- 
tion of  the  government,  has  been  as  fol- 
lows: 


From  1789  to  1793  as  provided  bv  the  United  States  Constitution 30,000 

"  1793  "   1803  based  on  the' United   States  Census  of 1790  33,000 

"  1803  "   1813  "  "  •'  ';          1800  33.000 

"  1813  "   1823  "  "  "  ''          1810  3.5,000 

"  1823  "   1833  "  "  "  "           1820  40,000 

"  1833  "   1843  "  "  "  "           1830  47,700 

"  1843  "   18.53  "  "  "  "           1840  70,680 

"  1853  "   1863  "  "  "  "           1850  93,420 

"  1863  "   1873  "  "  "  "           1860  127,381 

"  1873  "1883  "  "  "  "           1870  131,425 

"  1883  '.'   1893  "  -"  "  "           1880  151,912 

"  1893  ••    1UU3  "  ■'  "  "           1890  173,901 

"  1903  "   1913  "  "  "  "          1900  193,175 


Grant  were  extraordinary,  under  the  cir-  Appropriations  by  Congress.  The 
cumstances,  in  their  leniency  and  mag-  Congress  of  the  United  States  makes  ap- 
nanimity,  and  Lee  w^as  much  touched  propriations  for  the  expenses  of  the  gov- 
by  them.  They  simply  required  Lee  and  ernment  for  each  fiscal  year  ending  June 
his  men  to  give  their  parole  of  honor  30.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  different 
that  they  would  not  take  up  arms  objects  for  which  the  appropriations  are 
against  the  government  of  the  United  made: 
States  until  regularly  exchanged;  gave 
to  the  officers  their  side-arms,  baggage, 
and  private  horses;  and  pledged  the  faith 
of  the  government  that  they  should  not 
be  punished  for  their  treason  and  re- 
bellion so  long  as  they  should  respect  that 
parole  and  be  obedient  to  law.     Grant,  at 


Deficiencies. 
Lerrislative,  executive, 

and  judicial. 
Sundry  civil. 
Army. 
Navy. 
Indian. 
River  and  harbor. 


Forts  and  fortiflcations. 
Military  Academy. 
Post-office  Department. 
Pensions. 

Consular  and  Diplomatic. 
Agricultural  Department. 
District  ol  Columbia. 
Miscellaneous. 


188 


^y<}. 


^rv^ 


AQUEDUCTS— AQXJIA    CREEK 

The  accompanying  table  will  show  that  called  out  the  militia  of  that  State,  ap- 
the  total  amount  of  appropriation  in-  pointing  no  fewer  than  twenty  places  as 
creases  with  each  Congress.  points  of  rendezvous,  one-fourth  of  which 


APPROPRIATIOxMS 

BY  CONGRESS,  1894 

-1901. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

Deficiende8 

Legislative,     Executive, 

$•21,220,495 

2I,866,.303 

27,550,158 

24,225,640 

22,104,061 

1,884,240 

14,166,163 

2,210,055 

432,556 

Indefinite. 

166,531,350 

1,557,445 

3,323,500 

5,413,224 

520,666 

$9,450,820 

21,343,977 

25,856,432 

23,592,885 

25,366,827 

10,754,733 

20,043,180 

2,427,004 

406,535 

Indefinite. 

151,681,570 

1,669,787 

3,226,915 

6,544,297 

623,858 

$3,519,981 

21,886,818 

35,096,045 

23,252,608 

29,416,077 

8,762,751 

11,452,115 

1,904,558 

464,262 

Indefinite. 

141,381,570 

1,574,459 

3,303,760 

5,745,443 

297,668 

$13,900,106 

21,519,751 

29,812,113 

23,278,403 

30,662,661 

7,390,497 

16,944,147 

7,377,888 

449,562 

Indefinite. 

141,328,580 

1,643,569 

3,256,632 

5,900,319 

423,304 

$8,594,447.64 

21,690,766.90 

34,344,970.47 

23,129,344.30 

33,003,234.19 

7,674,120.89 

19,266,412.91 

9,517,141.00 

479,572.83 

Indefinite. 

141,263,880.00 

1,695,308.76 

3,182,902.06 

6,186,991.06 

1,160,464.69 

$347,165,001.82 

21,625,846.65 

33,997,762.70 

23,193,392.00 

56,098,783.68 

7,673,864.90 

14,492,459.56 

9,377,494.00 

458,689.23 

Indefinite. 

141,233,830.00 

1,752,208.76 

3,509,202.00 

6,426,880.07 

6,044,898.26 

$46,882,724.75 

23,394,051.86 

39,.381,733.86 

80,430,204.06 

48,099,969.58 

7,504,775.81 

25,100,038.94 

4,909,902.00 

676,774.47 

Indefinite. 

145,233,830.00 

1,714,533.76 

3,726,022.00 

6,834,635.77 

28,721,663.41 

$13,767,008.76 

24,176,652.53 

49,594,309.70 

114,220,095.55 

61,140,916.67 

8,197,989.24 

16,176,605.75 

7,383,628.00 

674,306.67 

Indefinite. 

146,245,230.00 

1,771,168.76 

4,023,500.00 

7,677,369.31 

3,205,362.05 

Support  of  the  Army... 
>'aval  Service 

Rivers  and  Harbors 

Forts  and  Fortifications. 

Military  Academy 

PoBt-OtJice  Department 

Consular  and  Diplom... 
Agricultural  Department 

District  of  Columbia 

Miscellaneous 

$301,788,820 

$293,057,105 

$302,786,386 

$311,179,557.54 

$673,050,293.63 

$462,609,750.27 

$457,152,142.93 

Aqueducts.  Artificial  channels  or  con- 
duits for  conveying  water,  especially  for 
supplying  large  cities.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  constructed  enormous  works  of 
this  kind,  some  of  which  are  still  in  ex- 
istence after  continuous  use  of  over  2,000 
years.  The  best  preserved  Greek  aqueduct 
is  the  one  still  in  use  at  Syracuse.  The 
most  famous  Roman  aqueducts  were  the 
Aqua  Apia,  10  miles  in  length;  the  Aqua 
Martia,  60  miles;  the  Aqua  Julia,  15 
miles,  and  the  Aqua  Claudia,  4G  miles. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Claudia,  all 
these  were  constructed  before  the  birth  of 
Christ.  Among  the  most  important  aque- 
ducts in  the  United  States  are  the  fol- 
lowing: The  old  Croton,  New  York  City, 
tuilt  1837-42,  length,  8814  miles,  capacity, 
100  million  gallons  daily.  The  new  Cro- 
ton, built  1884-90,  length  SOy,  miles,  ca- 
pacity, 250  million  gallons  daily.  Wash- 
ington Aqueduct,  built  1852-59,  two  4- 
foot  pipes.  Boston,  from  Sudbury  River, 
built  1875-78,  length,  16  miles.  Balti- 
more, from  Gunpowder  River,  built  1875- 
81,  length,  7  miles.  The  Sutro  tunnel,  4 
miles  long,  constructed  to  drain  the  Com- 
stock  Lode,  Nevada,  at  a  depth  of  1,600 
feet.  It  was  chartered  February  4,  1865, 
and  completed  June  30,  1879.  Many  im- 
portant works  for  the  purpose  of  irriga- 
tion are  now  under  construction  in  the 
Western  States  of  the  Union. 

Aquia  Creek,  Engagement  at.  Alarm- 
ed by  the  gathering  of  troops  at  Wash- 
ington, Governor  Letcher,  of  Virginia,  by 
command  of  the  Confederate  government. 


were  west  of  the  mountains,  for  the  Con- 
federates were  threatened  by  Ohio  and  Indi- 
ana volunteers.  His  proclamation  was  is- 
sued May  3,  1861.  Batteries  were  erected 
on  the  Virginia  branch  of  the  Potomac,  be- 
low Washington,  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
structing the  navigation  of  that  stream 
and  preventing  supplies  reaching  Wash- 
ington that  way.  At  the  middle  of  May, 
Capt.  J.  H.  Ward,  a  veteran  officer  of 
the  navy,  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
flotilla  on  the  Potomac,  which  he  had 
organized,  composed  of  four  armed  pro- 
pellers. On  his  way  to  Washington 
from  Hampton  Roads,  he  had  captured 
two  schooners  filled  with  armed  Confed- 
erates. He  then  patrolled  that  river, 
reconnoitring  the  banks  in  search  of  bat- 
teries which  the  Virginians  had  con- 
structed. On  the  heights  at  Aquia  Creek 
(the  terminus  of  a  railway  from  Rich- 
mond), 55  miles  below  Washington,  he 
found  formidable  works,  and  attacked 
them.  May  31,  with  his  flag-ship,  Thomas 
Freehorn,  and  the  gunboats  Anacosta  and 
Resolute.  For  two  hours  a  sharp  conflict 
was  kept  up,  and  the  batteries  were  si- 
lenced. Ward's  ammunition  for  long 
range  was  exhausted,  and  on  the  slacking 
of  his  fire  the  batteries  opened  again. 
Unable  to  reply  at  that  distance,  Ward 
withdrew,  but  resumed  the  conflict  the  fol- 
lowing day,  in  company  with  the  Paionee, 
Capt.  S.  C.  Rowan.  The  struggle  last- 
ed more  than  five  hours.  Twice  the  bat- 
teries on  shore  were  silenced,  but  their 
fire  was  renewed  each  time.     The  Paionee 


189 


AQUIDAY— ARBITBATION 

was  badly  bruised,  but  no  person  on  board  the    Arkansas    and    Platte    rivers.      They 

of  her  nor  on  Ward's  flotilla  was  killed.  were   great   hunters,   and   fifty   years   ago 

Aquiday,    or    Aquetnet.      The    native  numbered   10,000   souls.     With  the  disap- 

name  of  Rhode  Island.  pearance  of  tl^e  buffalo  they  have  rapid- 

Arapahoe    Indians,    one    of    the    five  ly  decreased.     In   1900  one  branch,  num- 

tribes   constituting   the   Blackfeet   confed-  bering    1,011,    was    located    in    Oklahoma, 

eracy,    residing    near    the    headwaters    of  and  a  second,  numbering  829,  in  Wyoming. 


ARBITRATION 

Arbitration,  International.  In  1897  land  or  the  United  States  could  demand 
the  friends  of  arbitration  the  Avorld  over  a  review  of  the  award.  In  that  case  a 
were  exceedingly  depressed  over  a  defeat  tribunal  of  five  members  was  to  be  formed 
which  the  principle  sustained  at  the  hands  in  the  same  manner  as  the  smaller  one, 
of  the  United  States  Senate.  By  a  close  and  King  Oscar  was  still  to  be  referee, 
vote  on  April  13,  the  Senate  rejected  in  Boundary  qiiestions  were  to  be  submitted 
toto  a  measure  providing  for  the  arbitra-  to  a  tribunal  of  six  members,  and  the 
tion  of  all  disputes  that  may  arise  be-  award  must  be  unanimous.  In  case  this 
tween  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit-  could  not  be  secured,  the  countries  were 
ain.  This  general  arbitration  measure  to  agree  to  adopt  no  hostile  measures  un- 
arose  from  the  Venezuela  trouble.  On  til  the  mediation  of  two  or  more  friendly 
March  5,  1896,  Lord  Salisbury  submitted  powers  had  been  invoked.  The  treaty  was 
to  Secretary  Olney  a  suggested  treaty  in  to  remain  in  force  five  years.  The  failure 
regard  to  the  Venezuelan  matter.  On  of  the  treaty  does  not  mean  that  the 
April  11,  Secretary  Olney  proposed  a  few  United  States  is  averse  to  arbitration  as 
amendments  to  the  treaty,  and  also  sug-  a  means  of  settling  national  difficulties, 
gested  that  a  general  treaty  for  the  arbi-  This  country  has  always  been  foremost 
tration  of  all  difficulties  might  be  con-  in  that  line.  But  circumstances  were 
eluded  along  the  same  lines.  The  draft  of  against  the  measure  at  that  time.  At  the 
this  general  treaty  was  made  public  Jan.  very  moment  Great  Britain  was  negotiat- 
13,  1897,  and  at  once  the  project  became  ing  the  treaty  with  the  United  States,  her 
the  subject  of  debate  here  and  abroad.  In  war-ships  were  firing  upon  the  patriots  of 
England  the  proposed  treaty  was  cordially  Crete.  One  of  the  great  forces  in  the 
received  and  promptly  ratified  and  sent  United  States  in  favor  of  arbitration  is 
to  this  country.  In  the  United  States  there  the  International  Peace  Society,  originally 
was  a  great  conflict  of  ideas  concern-  formed  in  England.  Its  first  great  con- 
ing the  measure.  The  treaty  provided  vention  was  held  in  London  in  18.51.  The 
for  the  arbitration  of  all  matters  in  dif-  submission  of  the  Venezuelan  question  to 
ference  between  the  countries  which  could  arbitration  marked  the  eighteenth  question 
not  be  adjusted  by  diplomatic  correspond-  that  had  thus  been  disposed  of  by  the 
ence.  Matters  involving  pecuniary  claims  United  States  and  the  twenty-sixth  that 
to  the  maximum  extent  of  $500,000  were  England  had  thus  submitted.  See  Bering 
to  be  settled  by  a  board  of  three  arbi-  Sea  Arbitration  ;  Arbitration,  Tribunal 
trators,  composed  of  a  juror  of  repute  se-  of,  for  "Alabama  Claims";  "Vene- 
lected  one  by  each  country,  these  two  to  zuela  "  and  "  Cle\'eland,  Grovee"  for 
agree  upon  a  third.  If  the  two  arbitrators  Venezuela  Arbitration,  etc. 
failed  to  agree  upon  a  third,  he  was  to  Arbitration,  International  Court  of, 
be  selected  by  King  Oscar  of  Sweden.  In  a  court  for  the  arbitration  of  disputes 
respect  to  matters  involving  a  larger  sum,  between  nations,  provided  by  the  Uni- 
or  in  respect  to  territorial  claims,  the  versal  Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague  in 
m.atter  was  first  to  go  before  a  board  con-  1899,  and  made  operative  by  the  adhe- 
stituted  as  above  described,  and  if  the  sion  of  the  signatory  nations  and  the 
three  arbitrators  came  to  a  unanimous  appointment  by  them  of  members  of  the 
decision  their  report  was  to  be  final.    But    court. 

if  they  were  not  unanimous,  either  Eng-        The  Arbitration  Treaty  consists  of  six- 

190 


AUBITRATION 


ty-one  articles,  divided  into  four  titles: 
First,  On  the  Maintenance  of  General 
Peace,  consisting  of  one  declaratory  arti- 
cle; secondly.  On  Good  Offices  and  Media- 
tion; thirdly.  On  International  Commis- 
sions of  Inquiry;  fourthly.  On  Inter- 
national Arbitration. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the 
treaty : 

Article  1.  With  the  object  of  preventing, 
as  far  as  possible,  recourse  to  force  in  inter- 
national relations,  the  signatory  powers  agree 
to  use  all  endeavors  to  effect  by  pacific  means 
a  settlement  of  the  differences  which  may 
arise  among  them. 

Article  2.  The  signatory  powers  decide  that 
in  cases  of  serious  differences  or  conflict  they 
will,  before  appealing  to  arms,  have  recourse, 
so  far  as  circumstances  permit,  to  the  good 
offices  or  mediation  of  one  or  several  friendly 
powers. 

Article  3.  Independently  of  this,  the  sig- 
natory powers  deem  it  useful  that  several 
of  the  powers  not  committed  to  the  arbitra- 
tion scheme  shall,  on  their  own  initiative, 
offer,  as  far  as  circumstances  permit,  their 
good  offices  or  mediation  to  the  contending 
states.  The  right  of  offering  their  good 
offices  belongs  to  powers  not  connected  with 
the  conflict,  even  during  the  course  of  hos- 
tilities, which  act  can  never  be  regarded  as  an 
unfriendly  act. 

Article  4.  The  part  of  mediator  consists 
in  reconciling  conflicting  claims  and  appeas- 
ing resentment  which  may  have  arisen  be- 
tween  contending   states. 

Article  5.  The  functions  of  mediator  cease 
from  the  moment  it  may  be  stated  by  one  of 
the  contending  parties,  or  by  the  mediator 
himself,  that  the  compromise  or  basis  of  an 
amicable  understanding  proposed  by  him  has 
not  been  accepted. 

Article  6.  Good  offices  and  mediation  have 
the  exclusive  character  of  counsel,  and  are 
devoid  of  obligatory  force. 

Article  7.  The  acceptance  of  mediation 
unless  otherwise  stipulated,  may  have  the 
effect  of  interrupting  the  obligation  of  pre- 
paring for  war.  If  the  acceptance  super- 
venes after  the  opening  of  hostilities  it  shall 
not  interrupt,  unless  by  a  convention  of  a  con- 
trary tenor,  military  operations  that  may  be 
proceeding. 

Article  8.  The  signatory  powers  agree  in 
commending  the  application  of  special  media- 
tion in  the  event  of  threatened  interruption 
of  peace  between  members.  Contending  states 
may  each  choose  a  power  to  which  they  will 
intrust  the  mission  of  entering  into  a  negoti- 
ation with  a  power  chosen  by  the  other  side 
with  the  object  of  preventing  a  rupture  of  pa- 
cific relations,  or,  in  the  event  of  hostilities, 
of  restoring  peace. 

Articles  9  to  14  provide  for  the  institu- 
tion of  a'n  international  commission  of 
inquiry  for  the  verification  of  facts  in 
cases  of  minor  disputes  not  affecting  the 


vital  interest  or  honor  of  states,  but  im- 
possible of  settlement  by  ordinary  diplo- 
macy. The  report  of  an  inquiry  commis- 
sion will  not  force  an  arbitral  judgment, 
leaving  the  contending  parties  full  liberty 
to  either  conclude  an  amicable  arrange- 
ment on  the  basis  of  the  report  or  have 
recourse  ulteriorly  to  mediation  or  arbi- 
tration. 

Articles  15  to  19  set  forth  the  general 
object  of  and  benefits  it  is  hoped  to  derive 
from  the  arbitration  court,  and  declare 
that  signing  the  convention  implies  an  un- 
dertaking to  submit  in  good  faith  to  ar- 
bitral judgment.  The  summary  of  the 
proposed  treaty  continues: 

Article  20.  With  the  object  of  facilitating 
an  immediate  recourse  to  arbitration  for  in- 
ternational diffei-ences  not  regulated  by  dip- 
lomatic means  the  signatory  powers  undertake 
to  organize  in  the  following  manner  a  per- 
manent court  of  arbitration,  accessible  at  all 
times  and  exercising  its  functions,  unless  oth- 
erwise stipulated,  between  the  contending 
parties  in  conformity  with  the  rules  of  pro- 
cedure inserted  in  the  present  convention. 

Article  21.  This  court  is  to  have  compe- 
tency in  all  arbitration  cases,  unless  the  con- 
tending parties  come  to  an  understanding 
for  the  establishment  of  special  arbitration 
jurisdiction. 

Article  22.  An  international  bureau  estab- 
lished at  The  Hague  and  placed  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  permanent  secretary-general  will 
serve  as  the  office  of  the  court.  It  will  be 
the  intermediary  for  communications  concern- 
ing meetings.  The  court  is  to  have  the  cus- 
tody of  archives  and  the  management  of  all 
administrative  affairs. 

Article  23.  Each  of  the  signatory  powers 
shall  appoint  within  three  months  of  the 
ratification  of  the  present  article  not  more 
than  four  persons  of  recognized  competence 
in  questions  of  international  law,  enjoying  the 
highest  moral  consideration,  and  prepared  to 
accept  the  functions  of  arbitrator.  The  per- 
sons thus  nominated  will  be  entered  as  mem- 
bers of  the  court  on  a  list,  which  will  be  com- 
municated by  the  bureau  to  all  the  signatory 
powers.  Any  modification  of  the  list  will  be 
brought  by  the  bureau  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
signatory  powers.  Two  or  more  powers  may 
agree  together  regarding  the  nomination  of 
one  or  more  members,  and  the  same  person 
may  be  chosen  by  different  powers.  Members 
of  the  court  are  to  be  appointed  for  the  term 
of  six  years.  The  appointments  are  renew- 
able. In  case  of  the  death  or  resignation  of 
a  member  of  the  court,  the  vacancy  is  to  be 
filled  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  made 
for  the  original  nomination. 

Article  24.  The  signatory  powers  who  de- 
sire to  apply  to  the  court  for  a  settlement  of 
differences  shall  select  from  the  general  list 
a  number  of  arbitrators,  to  be  fixed  by  agree- 
ment. They  will  notify  the  bureau  of  their 
intention  of  applying  to  the  court,   and  give 


191 


ARBITRATION 


the  names  of  the  arbitrators  they  may 
have  selected.  In  the  absence  of  a  conven- 
tion to  the  contrary  an  arbitral  tribunal  is  to 
be  constituted  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of 
Article  1.  Arbitrators  thus  nominated  to  form 
an  arbitral  tribunal  for  a  matter  or  question 
Vi'ill  meet  on  the  date  fixed  by  the  contending 
parties. 

Article  25.  The  tribunal  will  usually  sit 
at  The  Hague,  but  may  sit  elsewhere  by  con- 
sent of  the  contending  parties. 

Article  26.  The  powers  not  signing  the 
convention  may  apply  to  the  court  under  the 
conditions  prescribed  by  the  present  conven- 
tion. 

Article  27.  The  signatory  powers  may 
consider  it  their  duty  to  call  attention  to  the 
existence  of  the  permanent  court  to  any  of 
their  friends  between  whom  a  conflict  is 
threatening,  which  must  always  be  regarded 
as  a  tender  of  good  offices. 

The  United  States  delegates  attaclied  to 
their  acceptance  of  Article  27  the  follow- 
ing declaration :  "  Nothing  contained  in 
this  convention  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
require  the  United  States  of  America  to 
depart  from  its  traditional  policy  of  not 
intruding  upon,  interfering  with,  or  en- 
tangling itself  in  the  political  questions 
or  internal  administration  of  any  foreign 
state;  nor  shall  anything  contained  in 
said  convention  be  so  construed  as  to  re- 
quire the  relinquishment  by  the  United 
States  of  America  of  its  traditional  atti- 
tude towards  purely  American  questions." 

Article  28.  A  permanent  council,  composed 
of  the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the  sig- 
natory powers  residing  at  The  Hague  and  the 
Netherlands  Foreign  Minister,  who  will  ex- 
ercise the  functions  of  president,  will  be  con- 
stituted at  The  Hague  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  ratification  of  the  present  act.  The 
council  will  be  charged  to  establish  and  or- 
ganize an  international  bureau,  which  will 
remain  under  its  direction  and  control.  The 
council  will  notify  the  powers  of  the  consti- 
tution of  the  court  and  arrange  its  installa- 
tion, draw  up  the  standing  orders  and  other 
necessary  regulations,  will  decide  questions 
likely  to  arise  in  regard  to  the  working  of 
the  tribunal,  have  absolute  powers  concern- 
ing the  appointment,  suspension,  or  dismissal 
of  functionaries  or  employees,  will  fix  the 
emoluments  and  salaries,  and  control  the  gen- 
eral expenditure.  The  presence  of  five  mem- 
bers at  duly  convened  meetings  will  consti- 
tute a  quorum.  Decisions  are  to  be  taken  by 
a  majority  of  the  votes.  The  council  will  ad- 
dress annually  to  the  signatory  powers  a  re- 
port of  the  labors  of  the  court,  the  working  of 
its  administrative  services,  and  of  its  expendi- 
ture. 

Article  29.  The  expenses  of  the  bureau  are 
to  be  borne  by  the  signatory  powers  in  the 
proportion  fixed  for  the  International  Bureau 
of  the  Universal  Postal  Union. 

Article    30.  The    powers    who    accept    arbi- 

19 


tration  will  sign  a  special  act,  clearly  defining 
the  object  of  the  dispute,  as  well  as  the  scope 
of  the  arbitrators.  The  powers'  act  confirms 
the  undertaking  of  the  parties  to  submit  in 
good  faith  to  the  arbitration  judgment. 

Article  31.  Arbitration  functions  may  be 
conferred  upon  a  single  arbitrator,  or  on  sev- 
eral arbitrators  designated  by  the  parties  at 
their  discretion,  or  chosen  from  among  the 
members  of  the  permanent  court  established 
by  the  present  act.  Unless  otherwise  decided, 
the  formation  of  the  arbitration  tribunal  is  to 
be  effected  as  follows :  Each  party  will  ap- 
point two  arbitrators,  who  will  choose  a  chief 
arbitrator.  In  case  of  a  division,  the  selection 
is  to  be  intrusted  to  a  third  power,  whom  the 
parties  will  designate.  If  an  agreement  is 
not  effected  in  this  manner,  each  party  is  to 
designate  a  different  power,  and  the  choice  of 
a  chief  arbitrator  is  to  devolve  upon  them. 

Article  32.  When  an  arbitrator  is  a  sover- 
eign, or  head  of  a  state,  the  arbitral  proce- 
dure depends  exclusively  on  his  august  deci- 
sion. 

Article  33.  Tlie  chief  arbitrator  is  presi- 
dent de  jure.  When  the  tribunal  does  not 
contain  a  chief  of  arbitration,  the  tribunal 
may  appoint  its  own  president.  He  may  be 
designated  by  the  contending  parties,  or, 
falling  this,   by  the  arbitration  tribunal. 

Articles  34  to  50  provide  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  councillors,  the  selection  of 
the  languages  to  be  employed,  and  the 
rules  of  procedure  in  the  court,  whose 
sittings  are  to  be  behind  closed  doors. 

Article  51  provides  that  a  judgment 
agreed  to  by  a  majority  vote  is  to  be 
set  forth  in  writing,  giving  the  full  rea- 
sons, and  is  to  be  signed  by  each  member, 
the  minority  recording  its  dissent  and 
signing  it.  Articles  52  and  53  direct  that 
the  decision  of  the  court  shall  be  read 
at  a  public  sitting  in  the  presence  of  the 
agents  or  counsel  of  the  contending  par- 
ties, who  shall  finally  decide  the  matter 
at  issue  and  close  the  arbitration  proceed- 
ings. 

The  concluding  clauses  relate  to  the  re- 
vision of  proceedings  in  the  case  of  the 
discovery  of  a  new  fact,  and  provide  that 
each  power  shall  bear  its  own  expenses 
and  agreed  share  of  the  cost  of  the  tri- 
bunal without  reference  to  the  penalties 
imposed.     See  Peace  Conference. 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  having 
ratified  the  arbitration  treaty,  President 
McKinley  appointed  the  American  mem- 
bers of  the  court  in  1900    (see  below). 

On    Feb.    1,    1901,    fifteen    nations,    em- 
bracing all   the  maritime  powers,  had  ap- 
pointed their  members.     The  official  roster 
then  was  as  follows: 
2 


ARBITIIATI0I3" 


AtJSTEIA-flUNGAET. 

His  Excellency  Count  Frederic  Schonborn, 
LL.D.,  president  of  the  Imperial  Royal 
Court  of  Administrative  Justice,  former 
Austrian  Minister  of  Justice,  member  of 
the  House  of  Lords  of  the  Austrian  Par- 
liament,  etc. 

His  Excellency  Mr.  D.  de  Szilagyi.  ex-Min- 
ister of  Justice,  member  of  the  House  of 
Deputies  of  the  Hungarian  Parliament. 

Count  Albert  Apponyi,  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Magnates  and  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  of  the  Hungarian  Parliament,  etc. 

Mr.  Henri  Lammasch,  LL.D.,  member  of  the 
House  of  Lords  of  the  Austrian  Parliament, 
etc. 

BELGIUM. 

His  Excellency  Mr.  Beernaert,  Minister  of 
State,  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Represen- 
tatives, etc. 

His  Excellency  Baron  Lambermont,  Minister 
of  State,  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Min- 
ister Plenipotentiary,  Secretary-General  of 
the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

The  Chevalier  Descamps,   Senator. 

Mr.  Rolin  Jacquemyus,  ex-Minister  of  the  In- 
terior. 

DENMABK. 

Prof.  11.  Matzen.  LL.D.,  Professor  of  the 
Copenhagen  University,  Counsellor  Extraor- 
dinary of  the  Supreme  Court,  President  of 
the  Landsthing. 

FEANCE. 

M.  Leon  Bourgeois,  Deputy,  ex-President  of 
the  Cabinet  Council,  ex-Minister  for  For- 
eign Affairs. 

M.  de   Laboulaye.   ex-Ambassador. 

Baron  Destournelles  de  Constant,  Minister 
Plenipotentiary,  Deputy. 

M.  Louis  Renault,  Minister  Plenipotentiary, 
Professor  in  the  Faculty  of  Law  at  Paris, 
Law  Office  of  the  Department  of  Foreign 
Affairs. 

GEEMANY. 

His  Excellency  Mr.  Bingner,  LL.D.,  Privy 
Councillor,  Senate  President  of  the  Impe- 
rial High  Court  at  Leipsic. 

Mr.  von  Frantzius,  Privy  Councillor,  Solicitor 
of  the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs  at 
Berlin. 

Mr.  von  Martitz,  LL.D.,  Associate  Justice  of 
the  Superior  Court  of  Administrative  Jus- 
tice in  Prussia,  Professor  of  Law  at  the 
Berlin  University. 

Mr.  von  Bar,  LL.D.,  Judicial  Privy  Coun- 
cillor, Professor  of  Law  at  the  Gottingen 
University. 

GREAT   BEITAIN. 

His  Excellency  the  Right  Honorable  Lord 
Pauncefote  of  Preston,  G.C.B.,  G.C.M.G., 
Privy  Councillor,  Ambassador  at  Washing- 
ton. 

The  Right  Honorable  Sir  Edward  Baldwin 
Malet,  ex-Ambassador. 

The  Right  Honorable  Sir  Edward  Fry,  mem- 
ber of  the  Privy  Council,   Q.C. 

Professor  John  Westlake,  LL.D.,  Q.C. 


ITALt. 

His  Excellency  Count  Constantin  Nigra,  Sen- 
ator of  the  Kingdom,  Ambassador  at  Vi- 
enna. 

His  Excellency  Commander  Jean  Baptiste  Pa- 
gano  Guarnaschelli,  Senator  of  the  King- 
dom, First  I'resident  of  the  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion at  Rome. 

His  Excellency  Count  Tornielli  Brusati  di 
Vergano,  Senator  of  the  Kingdom,  Ambas- 
sador to  Paris. 

Commander  Joseph  Zanardelli,  Attorney  at 
Law,  Deputy  to  the  National  Parliament. 


Mr.  I.  Motono,  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Min- 
ister Plenipotentiary  at  Brussels. 

Mr.  H.  Willard  Denison,  Law  Officer  of  the 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  at  Tokio. 

NETHEELANDS. 

Mr.  T.  M.  C.  Asser,  LL.D.,  member  of  the 
Council  of  State,  ex-Professor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Amsterdam. 

Mr.  F.  B.  Coninck  Liefsting,  LL.D.,  President 
of  the  Court  of  Cassation. 

Jonkheer  A.  F.  de  Savornin  Lohman,  LL.D., 
ex-Minister  of  the  Interior,  ex-Professor  of 
the  Free  University  of  Amsterdam,  member 
of  the  Lower  House  of  the  States-Gen- 
eral. 

Jonkheer  G.  L.  M.  H.  Ruis  de  Beerenbrouck, 
ex-Minister  of  Justice,  Commissioner  of  the 
Queen  in  the  Province  of  Limbourg. 

POETUGAL. 

Count  de  Macedo,  Peer  of  the  Realm,  ex- 
Minister  of  Marine  and  Colonies,  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary 
at  Madrid. 

RUIIANIA. 

Mr.  Theodore  Rosetti,  Senator,  ex-President 
of  the  High  Court  of  Cassation  and  Jus- 
tice. 

Mr.  Jean  Kalindero,  Administrator  of  the 
Crown  Domain,  ex-Judge  of  the  High  Court 
of  Cassation  and  Justice. 

Mr.  Eugene  Statsco,  ex-President  of  the  Sen- 
ate, ex-Minister  of  Justice  and  Foreign  Af- 
fairs. 

Mr.  Jean  N.  Lahovari,  Deputy,  ex-Envoy  Ex- 
traordinary and  Minister  Plenipotentiary, 
ex-Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 


Mr.  N.  v.  Mouravieff,  Minister  of  Justice,  Ac- 
tive Privy  Councillor,  Secretary  of  State 
of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor. 

Mr.  C.  P.  Pobedonostzeff,  Attorney-General  of 
the  Most  Holy  Synod,  Active  Privy  Coun- 
cillor. Secretary  of  State  of  His  Majesty 
the  Emperor. 

Mr.  E.V.  Frisch,  President  of  the  Department 
of  Legislation  of  the  Imperial  Council,  Ac- 
tive Privy  Councillor,  Secretary  of  State 
of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor. 

Mr.  de  Martens,  Privy  Councillor,  permanent 
member  of  the  Council  of  the  Ministry  of 
Foreign  Affairs. 


I. — N 


193 


ARBITBATION— ARBUTHNOT   AND   AMBRISTEE, 


dent  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  each  to 
appoint  an  arbiti-ator.  The  Emperor  ap- 
pointed Baron  d'ltazuba,  the  King  chose 
Count  Frederick  Sclopis,  and  the  President 
of  the  Swiss  Confederation  appointed 
James  Staempfli.  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis 
was  appointed  agent  of  the  United  States, 
and  Lord  Tenterden  that  of  Great  Britain. 
These  several  gentlemen  formed  the  "  Tri- 
bunal of  Arbitration."  They  assembled  at 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  Dec.  15,  1871,  when 
Count  Sclopis  was  chosen  to  preside.  After 
two  meetings  they  adjourned  to  the  mid- 
die  of  January,  1872.  A  final  meeting  was 
held  in  September  the  same  year,  and  on 
the  14th  of  that  month  they  announced 
their  decision  on  the  Alabama  claims. 
That  decision  was  a  decree  that  the  gov- 
ernment of  Great  Britain  should  pay  to 
the  government  of  the  United  States  the 
sum  of  $15,500,000  in  gold,  to  be  given  to 
citizens  of  the  United  States  in  payment 
s,  Attorney-General  of  the  of  losses  incurred  by  the  depredations  of 
the  Alabama  and  other  Anglo-Confederate 
cruisers.  That  amount  was  paid  into  the 
treasury  of  the  United  States  a  year  af- 
terwards. The  question  of  boundary  on 
the  Pacific  coast  was  referred  to  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  who  decided  in  favor 
of  the  claims  of  the  United  States  to 
the  possession  of  the  island  of  San  Juan. 

Arbor  Day,  a  day  set  apart  to  encour- 
age the  voluntary  planting  of  trees  by  the 
people;  inaugurated  by  jSTebraska  State 
Board  of  Agriculture,  in  1874,  who  so 
designated  the  second  Wednesday  in  April, 
and  recommended  that  all  public  school 
children  should  be  urged  to  observe  it  by 
setting  out  young  trees;  and  now  ob- 
served as  either  a  legal  holiday  or  a  school 
holiday  by  nearly  every  State  and  Ter- 
ritory in  the  country. 

Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  Case  of. 
Alexander  Arbuthnot,  a  Scotchman,  then 
nearly  seventy  years  of  age,  went  to  Flori- 
da from  New  Providence  in  his  ovm 
schooner  in   1817,  to  trade  with  the  Ind- 


SPAIN. 

His  Excellency  the  Duke  of  Tetuan,  ex-Min- 
ister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Senator  of  the 
Kingdom,   Grandee  of   Spain. 

Mr.  Bienvenido  Oliver,  Director-General  of 
the  Ministry  of  Justice,  ex-Delegate  of 
Spain  to  the  Conference  on  Private  Inter- 
national Law  at  The  Hague. 

Dr.  Manuel  Torres  Campos,  Professor  of  In- 
ternational Law  at  the  University  of 
Grenada,  associate  member  of  the  Institute 
of  International  Law. 

SWEDEN   AND   NORWAY. 

Mr.  S.  R.  D.  K.  d'Olivecrona,  member  of  the 
International  Law  Institute,  ex-Associate 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  King- 
dom of  Sweden,  Doctor  of  Laws  and  Let- 
ters at  Stockholm. 

Mr.  G.  Gram,  es-Minister  of  State  of  Norway, 
Governor  of  the  Province  of  Hamar,  Nor- 
way. 

UNITED    STATES. 

Mr.   Benjamin   Harrison,   ex-President  of  the 

United  States. 
Mr.   Melville   W.    Fuller,   Chief-Justice   of   the 

United  States. 
Mr.  John  W.  Gri 

United  States. 
Mr.     George     Gray,     United     States     Circuit 

Judge. 

First  Secretary  of  the  Court- 
sen. 

Second  Secretary  of  the  Court 
Roell. 


■J.   J.   Rochus- 
— Jonkheer  W. 


THE    ADMINISTRATIVE    COUNCIL. 

The  Administrative  Council  consists  of 
the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  the 
Netherlands  and  the  diplomatic  represen- 
tatives at  The  Hague  of  the  ratifying 
powers. 

Secretary-General— Mr.  R.  Melvil,  Baron  van 
Leyden,  Judge  of  the  District  Court  of 
Utrecht  and  a  member  of  the  First  Cham- 
ber of  the  States-General. 


Arbitration.  See  American  National 
Arbitration  Board. 

Arbitration,  Tribunal  of,  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  name  of  that  body  of  arbitrators 
appointed  under  the  treaty  negotiated  by 
the  Joint  High  Commission   (g.  v.)   prin- 


cipally to  settle  the  claims  of  the  United    ians.    Ambrister,  born  in  London  in  1785, 
States  against  Great  Britain,  growing  out    was   a  lieutenant   in  the  English   marine 


of  the  depredations  of  the  Confederate 
man-of-war  Alabama  (see  Alabama,  The). 
For  arbitrators,  the  United  States  ap- 
pointed Charles  Francis  Adams,  and  Great 
Britain  Sir  Alexander  Cockburn.  The  two 
governments  jointly  invited  the  Emperor 
of  Brazil,  the  King  of  Italy,  and  the  Presi- 


service,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo.  For  fighting  a  duel  with  a 
brother  officer  he  was  suspended  for  one 
year.  While  with  his  uncle,  the  governor 
of  New  Providence,  he  met  Arbuthnot, 
with  whom  he  visited  Florida.  Here  it 
was    alleged    they    became    implicated    in 


194 


AEBUTHNOT— ARCTIC    EXPLORATION 


Indian  difficulties  that  General  Jackson 
was  sent  to  quell  in  1818.  By  order  of 
General  Jackson,  Arbuthnot  and  Ambris- 
ter  were  seized  and  tried  by  a  military 
court,  convened  April  26,  1818,  at  Fort  St. 
Marks,  Fla.,  Gen.  Ed.  P.  Gaines,  presi- 
dent, for  inciting  the  Creek  Indians  to  war 
against  the  United  States.  Ambrister 
made  no  defence,  but  threw  himself  on  the 
mercy  of  the  court.  Arbuthnot  was  sen- 
tenced to  be  hanged.  Ambrister  was  first 
sentenced  to  be  shot,  but  his  sentence  was 
commuted  to  fifty  stripes  on  the  bare  back, 
and  confinement  at  hard  labor,  with  ball 
and  chain,  for  one  year.  General  Jack- 
son disapproved  the  commutation,  and 
ordered  the  original  sentence  in  both  cases 
to  be  carried  out,  which  was  done  April 
30,  1818.  This  arbitrary  act  of  Jackson 
created  great  excitement  at  the  time,  and 
the  attention  of  Congress  was  called  to  it. 
See  Jackson,  Andrew. 

Arbuthnot,  Marriott,  British  naval 
ofiicer;  born  about  1711;  became  a  post- 
captain  in  1747.  From  1775  to  1778  he 
was  naval  commissioner  resident  at  Hali- 


MARRIOTT    ARBUTHNOT. 


fax,  Nova  Scotia.  Having  been  raised  to 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral  in  1779,  he  ob- 
tained the  chief  command  on  the  American 
station,  and  was  blockaded  by  the  Count 
d'Estaing  in  the  harbor  of  New  York.  In 
the  spring  of  1780  he  co-operated  with 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  in  the  siege  of  Charles- 
ton, S.  C.  In  February,  1793,  he  became 
admiral  of  the  blue.  He  died  in  London, 
Jan.  31,  1794. 

Archdale,  John,  English  colonial  gov- 


ernor; born  in  Buckinghamshire  of  Quaker 
parents.  He  had  taken  great  interest  in 
colonial  schemes,  and  was  one  of  the  Caro- 
lina proprietors.  In  their  scheme  he  had 
been  a  great  helper.  His  eldest  sister, 
Mary,  had  married  Ferdinando  Gorges, 
grandson  of  Sir  Ferdinando,  who  was  gov- 
ernor of  Maine,  and  in  1659  published 
Ame7-ica  Painted  from  Life.  Archdale  had 
been  in  Maine  as  Gorges's  agent  in  1664, 
was  in  North  Carolina  in  1686,  and  was 
commissioner  for  Gorges  in  Maine  in 
1687-88.  On  his  arrival  in  South  Carolina 
as  governor,  in  1694,  Archdale  formed  a 
commission  of  sensible  and  moderate  men, 
to  whom  he  said,  at  their  first  meeting. 
"  I  believe  I  may  appeal  to  your  serious 
and  rational  observations  whether  I  have 
not  already  so  allayed  your  heats  as  that 
the  distinguishing  titles  thereof  are  so 
much  withered  away;  and  I  hope  this 
meeting  with  you  will  wholly  extinguish 
them,  so  that  a  solid  settlement  of  this 
hopeful  colony  may  ensue ;  and  by  so  do- 
ing, your  posterity  will  bless  God  for  so 
happy  a  conjunction."  He  told  them  why 
he  had  been  sent,  and  said,  "  And  now 
you  have  heard  of  the  proprietors'  inten- 
tions of  sending  me  hither,  I  doubt  not 
but  the  proprietors'  intentions  of  choosing 
you  were  much  of  the  same  nature;  I  ad- 
vise you,  therefore,  to  proceed  soberly  and 
mildly  in  this  weighty  concern;  and  I 
question  not  but  we  shall  answer  you  in 
all  things  that  are  reasonable  and  honor- 
able for  us  to  do.  And  now,  friends,  I 
have  given  you  the  reasons  of  my  calling 
you  so  soon,  which  was  the  consideration 
of  my  own  mortality  [he  was  then  nearly 
seventy  years  of  age],  and  that  such  a 
considerable  trust  might  not  expire  use- 
less to  you;  and  I  hope  the  God  of  peace 
will  prosper  your  counsels  herein."  Arch- 
dale was  one  of  the  proprietors  of  North 
Carolina,  and,  arriving  there  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1695,  had  a  very  successful  though 
brief  administration.  Elected  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1698,  he  would  only  affirm,  in- 
stead of  taking  the  required  oath,  and 
was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat  in  con- 
sequence. 

Arctic  Exploration.  During  almost 
four  hundred  years  efforts  have  been 
made  by  European  navigators  to  discover 
a  passage  for  vessels  through  the  Arctic 
seas  to  India,     The  stories  of  Marco  Polo 


195 


ARCTIC    EXPLORATION 


of  the  magnificent  countries  in  Eastern 
Asia  and  adjacent  islands — Cathay  and 
Zipangi,  China  and  Japan — stimulated 
desires  to  accomplish  such  a  passage.  The 
Cabots  (g.  V.)  went  in  the  direction  of 
the  pole,  northwestward,  at  or  near  the 
close  of  the   fifteenth   century,   and   pene- 


was  instructed  to  attempt  to  penetrate 
the  polar  sea  by  Bering  Strait.  He  went 
only  as  far  as  70°  45'.  In  1817  Captain 
Ross  and  Lieutenant  Parry  sailed  for  the 
polar  sea  from  England ;  and  the  same 
year  Captain  Buchan  and  Lieutenant  ( Sir 
John)   Franklin  went  in  an  easterly  direc- 


trated  as  far  north  as  67°  30',  or  half-way  tion  on  a  similar  errand,  namely,  to  reach 

up  to    (present)    Davis   Strait.     The  next  the  north  pole.     At  this  time  the  chief  ob- 

explorers  were  the  brothers  Cortereal,  who  ject   of   these   explorations   was   scientific, 

made    three    voyages    in    that    direction,  and  not  commercial.     Buchan  and  Frank- 

1500-02.     In   1553   Sir  Hugh   Willoughby  lin  went  by  way  of  Spitzbergen;  but  they 

set  out  to  find  a  northwest  passage  to  In-  only    penetrated    to    80°    34'.     Ross    and 


dia,  but  was  driven  back  from  Nova  Zem- 
bla,  and  perished  on  the  shore  of  Lapland. 
In  1576-78  Martin  Frobisher  made  three 
voyages  to  find  a  northwest  passage  into 


Parry  entered  Lancaster  Sound,  explored 
its  coasts,  and  Ross  returned  with  the 
impression  that  it  was  a  bay.  Parry  did 
not  agree  with  him   in  this  opinion,   and 


the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  discovered  the  en-  he  sailed  on  a  further  exploration  in  1819. 

trance  to  Hudson  Bay.     Between  1585  and  He  advanced  farther  in  that  direction  than 

1587  John  Davis  discovered  the  strait  that  any  mariner  before  him,  and  approached 

bears  his  name.     The  Dutch  made  strenu-  the  magnetic  pole,  finding  the  compass  of 

ous   efforts   to   discover   a   northeast   pas-  little   use.     On   Sept.   4,    1819,   Parry   an- 


sage.  William  Barentz  (g.  v.)  made 
three  voyages  in  that  direction  in  1594- 
96,  and  perished  on  his  third  voyage. 
Henry  Hudson   tried   to  round  the  north 


nounced  to  his  crew  that  they  were  en- 
titled to  $20,000  offered  by  Parliament  for 
reaching  so  westerly  a  point  in  that 
region,    for    they    had    passed    the    110th 


of  Europe  and  Asia  in  1607-08,  but  failed,  meridian.     There  they  were  frozen  in  for 

and,  pushing  for  the  lower  latitudes  of  the  about    a    year.      Parry    sailed    again    in 

American  coast,  discovered  the  river  that  1821. 

bears  his  name.     While  on  an  expedition  Meanwhile   an   overland   expedition,   led 

to  discover  a  northwest  passage,  he  found  by  Franklin,  had  gone  to  co-operate  with 

Hudson  Bay,  and  perished    (1610)    on  its  Parry.    They  were  absent  from  home  about 

bosom.     In    1616   Balfin   explored   the  bay  three  years,  travelled  over  5,000  miles,  and 

called  by  his  name,  and  entered  the  mouth  accomplished  nothing.     They  had  endured 


of  Lancaster  Sound.  After  that,  for  fifty 
years,  no  navigator  went  so  far  north  in 
that  direction. 

In  1720  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  sent 


great  suffering.  Parry,  also,  accomplished 
nothing,  and  returned  in  October,  1823. 
Other  English  expeditions  followed  in  the 
same   direction,   by   land   and   water.     Sir 


Captains  Knight  and  Barlow  to  search  for    John  Franklin  and  others  went  overland, 

and  Parry  by  sea,  on  a  joint  expedition, 
r.nd  Captain  Beechey  was  sent  around 
Cape  Horn  to  enter  Bering  Strait  and 
push  eastward  to  meet  Parry.  Franklin 
explored  the  North  American  coast,  but 
nothing  else  was  accomplished  by  these 
expeditions.  Mr.  Scoresby,  a  whaleman, 
and  his  son,  had  penetrated  to  81°  N. 
lat.  in  1806.  His  experience  led  him 
to  advise  an  expedition  with  boats  fixed 
on  sledges,  to  be  easily  dragged  on  the  ice. 
With  an  expedition  so  fitted  out.  Cap- 
tain Parry  sailed  for  the  polar  waters  in 


a  northwest  passage  to  India.  They  sailed 
with  a  ship  and  sloop,  and  were  never 
heard  of  afterwards.  In  1741  Vitus  Be- 
ring discovered  the  strait  that  bears  his 
name,  having  set  sail  from  a  port  in  Kam- 
tehatka.  In  that  region  Bering  perished. 
Russian  navigators  tried  in  vain  to  solve 
the  problem.  Between  1769  and  1772 
Samuel  Hearne  made  three  overland  jour- 
neys in  America  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The 
British  government  having,  in  1743,  of- 
fered $100,000  to  the  crew  who  should  ac- 
complish a  northwest  passage,  stimulated 


efforts  in  that  direction.  Captain  Phipps  1827.  This  expedition  was  a  failure.  Cap- 
(Lord  Mulgrave)  attempted  to  reach  the  tain  Ross  was  in  the  polar  waters  again 
north  pole  in  1773;  and  before  setting  out  from  May,  1829,  until  the  midsummer  of 
on  his  last  vovage   (1776),  Captain  Cook    1833.     The   party  had   been  given   up   ag 

196  '  ' 


ARCTIC    EXPLORATION 


lost.  Another  party  had  started  in  search 
of  Ross,  explored  the  north  coast  of  Amer- 
ica, and  discovered  Victoria  Land.  Other 
land  expeditions  followed;  and  one,  under 
Dr.  John  Rae,  completed  a  survey  of  the 
north  coast  of  the  American  continent  in 
the  spring  of  1847. 

Sir  John  Franklin  yet  believed  a  north- 
west passage  possible.  With  two  vessels 
— the  Erehus  and  Terror — each  fitted 
with  a  small  steam-engine  and  screw-pro- 
peller, he  sailed  from  England  May  19, 
1845.  They  were  seen  by  a  whale-ship,  in 
July,  about  to  enter  Lancaster  Sound,  and 
were  never  heard  of  afterwards.  The  Brit- 
ish government  despatched  three  expedi- 
tions in  search  of  them  in  1848.  One  of 
them  was  an  overland  expedition  under 
Sir  John  Richardson,  who  traversed  the 
northern  coast  of  America  800  miles,  in 
1848,  without  finding  Franklin.  The  sea 
expedition  was  equally  unfortunate.  Dr. 
Rae  failed  in  an  overland  search  in  1850. 
Three  more  expeditions  were  sent  out  by 
the  British  government  in  search  in  1850; 
and  from  Great  Britain  five  others  were 
fitted  out  by  private  means.  One  was  also 
sent  by  the  United  States  government, 
chiefly  at  the  cost  of  Henry  Grinnell,  a 
New  York  merchant.  It  was  commanded 
by  Lieutenant  De  Haven,  of  the  navy. 
There  were  two  ships,  the  Advance  and 
Rescue.  Dr.  E.  K.  Kane  was  surgeon 
and  naturalist  of  the  expedition.  It  was 
unsuccessful,  and  returned  in  1851.  Lady 
Franklin,  meanwhile,  had  been  sending 
out  expeditions  in  search  of  her  husbaiid, 
and  the  British  government  and  British 
navigators  made  imtiring  efforts  to  find 
the  lost  explorers,  but  in  vain.  Another 
American  expedition,  under  Dr.  Kane, 
made  an  unsuccessful  search. 

In  a  scientific  point  of  view,  Dr.  Kane's 
expedition  obtained  the  most  important 
results.  It  is  believed  that  he  saw  an 
open  polar  sea :  and  to  find  that  sea  other 
American  expeditions  sailed  under  Dr.  I. 
I.  Hayes,  a  member  of  Kane's  expedition, 
and  Capt.  Chas.  F.  Hall.  The  latter  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  in  1860,  and 
Dr.  Hayes  in  1861.  Hall  sailed  again  in 
1864,  and  returned  in  1869.  The  Germans 
and  Swedes  now  sent  expeditions  in  that 
direction.  In  1869  Dr.  Hayes  again  vis- 
ited the  polar  waters.  The  same  year,  and 
for  some  time  afterwards,  several  expedi- 

1 


tions  were  sent  out  from  the  continent  of 
Europe.  Finally,  by  the  help  of  Congress, 
Captain  Hall  was  enabled  to  sail,  with  a 
well-furnished  company,  in  the  ship 
Polaris,  for  the  polar  seas,  in  June,  1871. 
In  October  Hall  left  the  vessel,  and  start- 
ed northward  on  a  sledge  expedition.  On 
his  return  he  suddenly  sickened  and  died, 
and  the  Polaris  returned  without  accom- 
plishing much.  The  passage  from  the 
coast  of  western  Europe,  around  the  north 
of  that  continent  and  of  Asia,  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  was  first  accomplished  in 
the  summer  of  1879,  by  Professor  Nor- 
denskjold,  an  accomplished  Swedish  ex- 
])lorer,  in  the  steamship  Vega.  She  passed 
through  Bering  Strait  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  reached  Japan  in  the  first 
week  in  September.  Thus  the  great  prob- 
lem has  been  solved.  The  Jeannette, 
Lieutenant  De  Long,  an  American  explor- 
ing vessel,  was  lost  on  the  coast  of  Si- 
beria, in  1881. 

The  most  important  of  the  recent  expe- 
ditions into  Arctic  regions  by  Americans 
are  those  of  Lieut.  ( now  Brig.  -  Gen. ) 
Adolphus  W.  Greely  and  of  Lieut.  Rob- 
ert E.  Peary  (qq.  v.),  who  has  made  sev- 
eral voyages  into  northern  waters,  and  in 
1900  was  still  there.  Lieutenant  Greely 
was  sent  from  the  United  States  in  1881, 
by  the  government,  charged  with  estab- 
lishing a  series  of  stations  about  the  pole 
for  the  purpose  of  observation.  Lieuten- 
ants Lockwood  and  Brainard,  of  his  force, 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  station  on  a 
small  island  in  83°  24'  N.,  and  until  1896 
this  was  the  most  northern  point  ever 
reached  by  an  explorer.  Greely 's  vessel 
became  icebound,  and  for  two  years  the 
members  of  the  expedition  passed  a  miser- 
able existence.  Many  died.  The  survivors 
Avere  rescued  just  as  the  last  six  of  the 
expedition  were  dying  of  hunger,  by  Lieu- 
tenant Peary,  in  charge  of  two  government 
vessels,  sent  by  the  United  States  to  the 
relief  of  Greely  in  1882.  Lieutenant 
I'eary  made  other  voyages  to  the  Arctic 
watei-s  in  1895  and  1897.  Dr.  Fridtjof 
ISTansen,  of  Norway,  in  1896,  succeeded  in 
getting  within  200  miles  of  the  north  pole, 
and  returned  in  safety  with  all  of  his 
companions.  He  sailed  from  Christiania 
in  1893,  and  his  plan  difl'ered  much  from 
that  of  others.  He  thought  that  if  he 
could  get  his  vessel  caught  in  the  ice  the 
97 


ARECIBO— ARGUS 


Current  would  carry  him  to  the  pole.  He 
reached  lat.  86°  15'  N.  In  1896  a  Swed- 
ish explorer,  Major  Andree,  planned  to 
reach  the  pole  in  a  balloon,  but  after 
making  elaborate  plans  gave  up  the  vent- 
ure. On  July  12,  1897,  however,  he  em- 
barked again  on  his  enterprise,  all  con- 
ditions being  favorable  for  his  success; 
but  up  to  the  end  of  1900  nothing  reli- 
able had  been  heard  of  the  expedition, 
and  it  Avas  generally  believed  that  the 
bold  voyager  had  been  lost.  In  1899- 
1900  the  Duke  of  Abruzzi  reached  lat. 
86°   33'  N. 

Arecibo,  the  name  of  a  district  and  of 
its  port,  in  the  north  of '  the  island  of 
Forto  Rico.  The  district  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the 
east  by  the  District  of  Bayamon;  on  the 
south  by  those  of  Mayaguez  and  Ponce; 
and  on  the  west  by  that  of  Aguadilla. 
The  town  is  about  50  miles  west  of  San 
Juan;  has  a  population  of  between  6,000 
and  7,000;  and  its  harbor  is  so  full  of 
dangerous  reefs  that  goods  are  transferred 
from  shore  to  shipping  by  means  of  flat- 
boats  and  lighters.  The  town  has  a  plaza, 
surrounded  by  a  church  and  various  pub- 
lic buildings,  in  the  centre,  and  streets 
running  from  it  in  right  angles,  forming 
regular  squares.  The  buildings  are  con- 
structed of  wood  and  brick. 

Argall,  Sir  Samtiel,  English  advent- 
urer; born  in  Bristol,  England,  in  1572. 
He  was  in  Virginia  at  a  time  when  Pow- 
hatan was  particularly  hostile  to  the 
English  settlers.  He  and  his  nearest 
neighbors  would  not  allow  the  people  to 
carry  food  to  the  English  at  Jamestown, 
and  provisions  became  very  scarce.  Argall 
Avas  sent  with  a  vessel  on  a  foraging  ex- 
pedition up  the  York  River.  Being  near 
the  dwelling  of  Powhatan,  he  bribed  a. 
savage  by  a  gift  of  a  copper  kettle  to  en- 
tice Pocahontas  on  board  his  vessel,  where 
ho  detained  her  a  prisoner,  hoping  to  get 
a  large  quantity  of  corn  from  her  father 
as  a  ransom,  and  to  recover  some  arms 
and  implements  of  labor  Avhich  the  Ind- 
ians had  stolen.  Powhatan  rejected  Ar- 
gall's  proposal  for  a  ransom  with  scorn, 
and  Avould  not  hold  intercourse  Avith  the 
pirate;  but  he  sent  Avord  to  the  authori- 
ties at  Jamestown  that,  if  his  daughter 
should  be  released,  he  Avould  forget  the  in- 
jury  and   be   the   friend    of    the    English. 


They  would  not  trust  him,  and  the  maid- 
en was  taken  to  Jamestown  and  detained 
several  months,  always  treated  with  great 
respect  as  a  princess.  There  she  became 
the  object  of  a  young  Englishman's  affec- 
tions; and  the  crime  of  Argall  led  to 
peace  and  happiness.  The  next  year 
(1613)  Argall  went,  with  the  sanction  of 
the  governor  of  Virginia,  to  expel  the 
French  from  Acadia  as  intrviders  upon  the 
domain  of  the  North  and  South  Virginia 
Company.  He  stojjped  on  his  way  at 
Mount  Desert  Island,  and  broke  up  the 
Jesuit  settlement  there.  The  priests,  it  is 
said,  feeling  an  enmity  toAvards  the  au- 
thorities at  Port  Royal,  in  Acadia,  Avill- 
ingly  accompanied  Argall  as  pilots  thither 
in  order  to  be  revenged.  Argall  plundered 
the  settlement,  and  laid  the  village  in 
ashes,  driving  the  people  to  the  woods,  and 
breaking  up  the  colony.  In  1617  Argall 
became  deputy  governor  of  Virginia.  On 
going  to  Jamestown  he  found  it  fallen 
into  decay,  the  storehouse  used  as  a 
church;  the  market-place,  streets,  and 
other  spots  in  the  toAAOi  planted  with  to- 
bacco; the  people  dispersed  according  to 
every  man's  convenience  for  planting;  and 
the  number  of  the  settlers  there  reduced. 
Argall's  rxile  AA'as  so  despotic  that,  in  1619, 
he  was  recalled,  and  Sir  George  Yeardly 
was  put  in  his  place.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land with  much  wealth.  After  the  death 
of  Lord  Delaware,  Captain  Argall  took 
charge  of  his  estate,  and  Lady  DelaAvare 
charged  him  with  gross  fraud  and  pecula- 
tion.    He  died  in  1626. 

Argus,  Capture  of  the.  The  American 
brig  Argus,  Capt.  W.  H.  Allen,  bore  to 
France  William  H.  Crawford,  United 
States  minister  to  that  government.  She 
afterAvards  cruised  in  British  waters,  and 
by  the  celerity  of  her  movements  and  de- 
structive energy  she  spread  consternation 
throughout  commercial  England.  She  car- 
ried 32-pound  carronades  and  two  bow- 
guns  ;  and  her  commander,  who  had 
served  under  Decatur,  was  one  of  the  most 
gallant  men  of  the  naA^y.  He  roamed  the 
"  chops  of  the  Channel  "  successfully ;  and, 
sailing  around  Land's  End,  in  the  space  of 
thirty  days  he  captured  no  less  than 
twenty  valuable  British  merchantmen, 
Avith  cargoes  valued  at  $2,000,000.  Too 
far  aAvay  from  friendly  ports  into  which 
he  might  send  his  prizes,  he  burned  all  the 


198 


ARID    REGIONS— ARIZONA 


vessels.  Every  non-combatant  captive  he 
allowed  to  remove  his  private  property, 
and  for  this  generosity  he  was  thanked  by 
them.  The  British  government,  alarmed 
by  the  exploits  of  the  Argus,  sent  out  sev- 
eral cruisers  after  her.  Just  before  the 
dawn  of  Aug.  14,  1813,  the  British  brig 
Pelican,  18,  Capt.  J.  F.  Maples,  appeared; 
and  at  six  o'clock  the  Argus  wore  round 
and  delivered  a  broadside  upon  her  at  grape- 
shot  distance.  The  fire  was  immediately 
returned,  and  a  round  shot  carried  away 
Allen's  leg.  He  refused  to  be  taken  from 
the  deck;  but  soon  becoming  unconscious 
from  loss  of  blood,  he  was  taken  to  the 
cockpit,  and  died  the  next  day.  The  men 
of  the  Argus,  weakened  by  too  free  use  of 
captured  wine  the  night  before,  did  not 
fight  with  their  usual  vigor,  yet  they 
handled  the  vessel  admirably.  Lieut.  W. 
Howard  Allen  was  left  in  chief  command. 
Very  soon  the  Argus  became  so  badly  in- 
jured that  she  began  to  reel.  All  her 
braces  were  shot  away,  and  she  could  not 
be  kept  in  position.  The  Pelican  at 
length  crossed  her  stern,  and  raked  her 
dreadfully;  and  at  the  end  of  twenty-five 
minutes  from  the  beginning  of  the  action 
the  Argus  became  unmanageable.  Yet 
she  fought  on  feebly  twenty  minutes 
longer,  when  she  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render, the  Sea-Horse,  the  Pelican's  con- 
sort, having  hove  in  sight.  The  Argus 
lost,  in  killed  and  wounded,  twenty-three 
men;   the  Pelican  lost  seven  men. 

Arid   Regions.     See   Irrigation. 

Arista,  Mariano,  a  Mexican  military 
officer;  born  at  San  Luis  Potosi,  July  26, 
1802.  Eeceiving  a  military  education,  he 
served  in  the  Spanish  army  until  June, 
1821,  when  he  joined  the  Mexican  revolu- 
tionists. He  rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general;  and  in  June,  1833,  he 
was  made,  by  Santa  Ana  {q.  v.),  second 
in  command  of  the  Mexican  army.  Join- 
ing another  leader  in  an  unsuccessful  re- 
volt, he  was  expelled  from  Mexico,  and 
came  to  the  United  States.  In  1835  he 
returned,  and  was  restored  to  his  rank  in 
the  army,  and  made  Judge  of  the  Supreme 
Tribunal  of  War.  He  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  French  at  Vera  Cruz  (Dec.  5, 
1838),  but  was  soon  released  on  parole. 
In  1839  he  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
northern  division  of  the  army,  and  re- 
ceived the  "  Cross  of  Honor  "  for  defeating 


insurgents.  Though  only  a  military  com- 
mander, he  was  for  some  time  the  real 
ruler  of  Mexico  Avhen  Herrera  was  Presi- 
dent in  1844.  Commanding  at  the  battles 
of  Palo  Axto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma 
(q.  V.)  in  May,  1848,  he  was  appointed 
Minister  of  War  a  month  later.  Within 
two  years  he  suppressed  seventeen  revolts 
in  Mexico;  and  in  1850  he  was  elected 
President  of  his  native  country.  He  re- 
signed the  government  in  July,  1853. 
Banished  from  his  country  by  his  enemies, 
he  made  a  voyage  to  Europe;  and  died 
there  on  the  day  when  Santa  Ana,  who 
had  usurped  his  seat,  was  compelled  to 
fly  from  the  city  of  Mexico,  Aug.  7,  1855. 

Aristocracy,  in  a  political  sense,  a  gov- 
ernment exercised  by  the  best  citizens  in 
the  community,  which  in  olden  times 
meant  the  nobles.  The  word  in  time  cam^e 
to  be  applied  to  those  people  in  a  country 
who  were  superior  to  the  rest  of  the  com- 
munity in  any  marked  respect;  hence, 
there  were  the  aristocracies  of  rank,  of 
intellect,  of  knowledge,  and  of  high  moral 
feeling.  An  aristocrat  was  a  member  of 
such  a  governing  class  in  a  nation,  or  one 
of  especially  high  rank  who  was  not  con- 
nected with  actual  administration.  In 
the  United  States  there  is  no  recognition 
of  an  aristocracy  of  birth;  yet  in  the 
early  days  of  the  country  the  social  and 
official  lines  were  naturally  very  closely 
drawn,  and  for  a  time  the  public  men  of 
the  day  were  divided  into  the  classes  of 
aristocracy  and  democracy,  using  the  lat- 
ter word  in  the  sense  of  representing  all 
the  people.  The  word  oligarchy  was  also 
applied  to  the  aristocracy,  and  originally 
meant  both  a  form  of  government  in 
which  the  supreme  power  was  vested  in 
the  hands  of  a  small  exclusive  class,  and 
also  the  members  of  such  a  class.  In  lat- 
ter years  the  word  oligarchy  came  to  be 
applied  to  a  body  of  people  outside  of 
political  life  who  aspired  to  or  had  con- 
trol of  the  management  of  a  large  inter- 
est, such,  for  instance,  as  certain  leaders 
in  the  Congregational  Church  in  the  early 
history  of  Connecticut. 

Arizona,  a  Territory  in  the  extreme 
southwestern  portion  of  the  republic,  lying 
on  the  border  of  Mexico.  The  region  was 
early  kno^vn  to  Spanish  explorers.  As 
early  as  1526,  Don  Jose  de  Vasconcellos,  a 
follower  of  Cortez,  crossed  the  centre  of 


199 


ARIZONA— ARKANSAS 

this  Territory  towards  the  Great  Canon,  the  only  pure,  original  stock.     See  United 

and  the  region  was  afterwards  visited  by  States — Arizona,  in  vol.  ix. 

other    Spanish   explorers.     They   then,    as  „„,.„     „  „ 

,           ^          .            n             ,,           .            ,         ,               .  GOVERNORS    OF   THE    TERRITORY. 

we  do  now,  lound  on  the  river-banks  ruins  _,       ,^„ 

Term  of  Office. 

of    Cities    which    seemed    to    have    existed    R.   c.   McCormick 1867-69 

for  centuries.     These,  with  regular  fortifi-    A.  P.  K.  Safford 1870-77 

cations,  reservoirs,  and  canals,  show  that    "I^f^°   z,'   Hoyt. 1878 

,,  '  '         ■    1     , -^    ,   ,  Jobn    C.    Fremont 1879-82 

the  country  was  once  inhabited  by  an  en-  Frederick  Tuttle.  . .                                  188'^-8.5 

terprising    and    cultivated    people.     There    C.  Meyer  Zulick 1885-89 

are  found  walls  of  solid  masonry,  usually    Lewis  Wolfley 1889-91 

two  stories  in  height.    It  is  estimated  that  Na'tLn'o^Tlm-phy'.'.V.'.".'.':  ! ! ! .' ! ! .' !  :l892-94 

fully   100,000  people  must  have  inhabited    Lewis   C.    Hughes 1894-96 

the  valley  of  the  Gila  alone.     Arizona  was    Benj.  J.  Franklin 1896-97 

settled  by  Spanish  missionaries  from  Mex-    l^^^""^   ^j:   McCord 1897-99 

1  icoT       rpi  •     •  Nathan  O.  Murphy 1899  — 

ICO  as  early  as  1687.     ihese  missions  were 

principally  seated  on  the  Lower  Colorado  Arkansas,  one  of  the  Southwestern 
and  Gila  rivers.  The  Territory  formed  States;  discovered  by  De  Soto  in  1541,  who 
a  part  of  Mexico  until  its  purchase  by  the  crossed  the  Mississippi  near  the  site  of 
United  States  in  1850.  It  was  organized  Helena.  It  was  next  visited  by  Father 
into  a  Territory  by  act  of  Congress,  Feb.  Marquette  {q.  v.)  in  1073.  It  was  origi- 
24,  1863,  with  its  area  described  as  com-  nally  a  part  of  Louisiana,  purchased  from 
prising  all  the  "  United  States  lands  west  the  French  in  1803,  and  so  remained  un- 
of  longitude  109°  to  the  California  line."  til  1812,  when  it  formed  a  part  of  Mis- 
Since  then  the  northwest  corner  has  been  souri  Territory.  It  was  erected  into  a 
ceded  to  Nevada.  It  is  a  mountainous  Territory  in  1819,  with  its  present  name, 
region,  and  some  of  the  northern  portion  and  remained  under  a  territorial  govern- 
remains  unexplored.  Population  in  1890,  ment  until  1836,  Avhen  a  convention  at 
59,691;  in  1900,  122,212.  Little  Rock,  its  present  capital,  formed 
To  one  of  the  pioneer  explorers  of  the  a  State  constitution.  Its  first  territorial 
Arizona  region  the  Zuni  Indians  gave  the  legislature  met  at  Arkansas  Post  in  1820. 
following  account  of  their  origin  as  pre-  On  June  15,  1836,  Arkansas  was  admitted 
served  in  their  traditions.  Their  legend  into  the  Union  as  a  State, 
relates  that  in  the  beginning  a  race  of  In  1861  the  people  of  Arkansas  were  at- 
men  sprang  up  out  of  the  earth,  as  plants  tached  to  the  Union,  but,  unfortunately, 
arise  and  come  forth  in  the  spring.  This  the  governor  and  most  of  the  leading  poli- 
race  increased  until  they  spread  over  the  ticians  of  the  State  were  disloyal,  and  no 
whole  earth,  and,  after  continuing  through  effort  Avas  spared  by  them  to  obtain  the 
countless  ages,  passed  away.  The  earth  passage  of  an  ordinance  of  secession.  For 
then  remained  without  people  a  great  this  purpose  a  State  convention  of  dele- 
length  of  time,  until  at  length  the  sun  gates  assembled  at  the  capital  (Little 
had  compassion  on  the  earth,  and  sent  a  Rock)  on  March  4,  1861.  It  was  composed 
celestial  maiden  to  repeople  the  globe,  of  seventy-five  members,  of  whom  forty 
This  young  goddess  was  called  Arizonia,  were  such  stanch  Unionists  that  it  was 
the  name  signifying  "  Maiden  Queen."  evident  that  no  ordinance  of  secession 
This  Arizonia  dwelt  upon  the  earth  a  great  could  be  passed.  The  friends  of  seces- 
length  of  time  in  lonely  solitude,  until  at  sion  then  proposed  a  plan  that  seemed 
a  certain  time,  while  basking  in  the  sun-  fair.  A  self-constituted  committee  re- 
beams,  a  drop  of  dew  from  heaven  rested  ported  to  the  convention  an  ordinance  pro- 
upon  Arizonia,  who  in  due  time  blessed  the  viding  for  an  election  to  be  held  on  the 
world  with  twins,  a  son  and  a  daughter,  first  Monday  in  August,  at  which  the 
and  these  became  the  father  and  mother  legal  voters  of  the  State  should  decide,  by 
of  the  Zuni  Indians,  and  from  this  tribe  ballot,  for  "  secession  "  or  "  co-operation." 
arose  all  other  races  of  men,  the  black.  If  a  majority  should  appear  for  "  seces- 
white,  olive,  and  all  other  clay-colored  sion,"  that  fact  would  be  considered  in  the 
men  being  merely  apostate  offshoots  from  light  of  instructions  to  the  convention  to 
this   original   tribe,   and   the   Zunis  being  pass   an  ordinance  to   that  effect;    if  for 

200 


ARKANSAS 


"co-operation,"  then  measures  were  to  be  on   its    soil    (see    Pea    Ridge).      On    Oct. 

used,     in     conjunction    with     the    border  ?>0,  1863,  a  meeting  of  loyal  citizens,  rep- 
slave  States  "  yet  in  the  Union,"  for  the     resenting  about 

settlement    of    existing    difficulties.       The     twenty        coun-  ..^s'^^^^A^^^^Nv 

next  session  of  the  convention  was  fixed     ties,    was    held        j^^^^f^T"^"^^©^ 
for  Aug.   17.     The  proposition  seemed  so     at  Fort   Smith,     //<s'J^^^*'^^*A_f*^w\\i 
fair   that   it   was   adopted   by   unanimous    to     take    meas-    ff    /^"^'jSji:^^^ f^J^^^^ 
vote,  and  the  convention  adjourned,   sub-     ures    for    reor-    l^i ^^Q^^^n^^^    l^iJ 

ject  to  the  call  of  its  president,  who  was  ganizing       the    I     tw^^^^^_^&^/^^]\ 

known  as  a  Union  man.  State       govern-    \\c^WC  f  \f^^&^^/ /^ir 

Taking  advantage  of  the  excitement  in-  ment.    In  Janu-    ^^^m'  "^^^^^"^^^f 
cident  to  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter  and     ary  following,  a      ^^^j^^^=^^'**%^ 

the   President's   call   for   troops,   the   gov-  convention,  com-  ^^5j,^<>isPg^i^^ 

ernor    (Rector)    and   his    disloyal    associ-     posed  of   repre- 

ates   adopted   measures   for   arraying   Ar-  sentatives       o  f        state  seal  of  Arkansas. 

kansas   among  the   "  seceded   States."     In  forty-two   coun- 

violation  of  the  pledge  of  the  convention  ties,  assembled  at  Little  Rock,  and  framed 
that  the  whole  matter  should  be  deter-  a  loyal  constitution,  which  was  ratified 
mined  by  the  people  in  August,  the  gov-  by  the  people  in  March,  1864.  In 
ernor  induced  the  president  of  the  conven-  April  a  State  government  was  organized, 
tion  to  call  that  body  together  on  May  6.  Tn  1867  military  rule  was  established  in 
It  met  on  that  day.  Seventy  delegates  Arkansas,  which,  with  Mississippi,  con- 
were  present.  An  ordinance  of  secession,  stituted  a  military  district.  A  new  con- 
I)reviously  prepared,  was  presented  to  it  stitution  was  framed  by  a  convention  at 
at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  Little  Rock,  Jan.  7,  1868,  and  was  rati- 
hall  in  which  the  delegates  met  was  ^ed  by  a  small  majority  in  March.  On 
crowded  by  an  excited  multitude.  It  was  June  22  Congress  declared  Arkansas  en- 
moved  that  the  "  yeas  "  and  "  nays  "  on  titled  to  representation  in  that  body,  and 
the  question  should  be  taken  Avithout  de-  the  administration  of  the  government  was 
bate.  Though  the  motion  was  rejected  by  transferred  to  the  civil  authority.  Popula- 
a  considerable  majority,  the  president  de-  tion  in  1890,  1,12.5,385;  in  1900,  1,311,564. 
clared  it  carried.  Then  a  vote  on  the  or-  See  United  States — Arkansas,  in  vol.  ix. 
dinance  was  taken.  There  seemed  to  be  territorial  governors  of  Arkansas. 
a  majority  against  it;   but  the  president  Term  of  office. 

arose   and   earnestly   exhorted   the   Union-  James  Miller 1819  to  1825 

ists  to  change  their  votes,  which  they  did,  George  Izard 1825  "  1829 

„„  J.V,  „  -J        J  J-         -A-  ,1  Jobn  Pope    1829       1835 

as  they  perceived  a  determination  on  the  william  S.  Fulton 1835  "  1836 

part  of  the  crowd  of  spectators  to  compel 

them   to   do   so.     The   place    (the   hall   of  ^^^^^  governors  of  Arkansas. 

the  House  of  Representatives)   was  dense-  i^°?^.l  f^"  ^^^J^^^^ .^ff^  *?  |^!^ 

1  1    J       -.1     1  ,    ■  .  ,  Archibald  Yell 1840       1844 

]y   packed   with   human   beings.      As    each  Samuel  Adams  1844 

vote  was  given  there  was. a  solemn  still-  Thomas  S.  Drew 1844  "  1848 

ness,    and   one   Union   man   after    another  ^'^^^  ^-  Roane 1848  "  1852 

prefaced  his  vote  by  some   stirring  senti-  l'X\%Z7r: ! !  i !  ! ! ! ! !  i !  V^  "  ^86? 

ment   m   favor   of   the   South.     When  the  Harris  Flanagin  1862  "  1864 

result   was    announced — 69    for    the    ordi-  Isaac  Murphy 1864  "  1868 

nance,  to  1  against  it— there  was  tremen-  ^""^^^  ^'J^^^T  !^^?  \\  IT^l 

^„„      „u       •  mi.  J-  ,  Orzo  H.   Hadley 1871        1872 

dous    cheering.        The   negative   vote   was  Elisha  Baxter     1872  "  1874 

given    by    Isaac    Murphy,    Avho    was    the  Augustus  H.  Garland 1874  "  1876 

Union  governor  of  Arkansas  in  1864.  Wm.  R.   Miller 1877  "  1881 

Meanwhile    the    State    authorities    had  L's°^  h'"  B^erJ^"' !  ! !  ! ! !  1 ! ! ! ! !  I'ss  ^^85 

seized  the  national  property  in  the  State,  simon  P.  Hughes 1885  "  1889 

During    almost    the    whole    period    of    the  James  P.  Eagle 1889  "  1893 

war.  National  or  Confederate  troops  occu-  ^''°-    ^^-    Fishback 1893  "  1895 

TM'ori  +1,.^  C!+.,4-„  J  J!  j^i  J   1     ,1  James  P.  Clarke 1895   "  1897 

pied  the  State;  and  one  of  the  most  hotly  Daniel  W.  Jones 1897  "  1901 

contested  battles  of  the  war  was  fought  Jefferson  Davis 1901  "  

201 


ARKANSAS     POST— ARMISTEAD 


ARKANSAS. 


Name 


No.  of  Congress. 


UNITED  STATES  SENATORS  PROM  THE  STATE  OF    nevvous  system  that  he  sank  under  it  and 

died,  Jan."  30,  1793. 

Date.  Armenians,    a    Christian    people   occu- 

1836  to  1841    Pyi^g   the   high   plains   and   valleys   of   a 

country  east  of  Asia  Minor  and  northeast 

of    Syria,    estimated    as    numbering    from 


■William  S.  Fulton... 
Ambrose  H.  ISevier.. 

Chester  Ashley 

Soloa  Borland 

Will.  K.  Sebastian... 
Robert  W.  Johnston. 


24th  to  28th 
24th  "  30th 
28th  "  30th 
30th  "  33a 
30th  "  30th 
33(1     "  36lh 


1848 
1848 
1853 


Alexander  McDonald. . . 

Beuj   F.  Rice 

Powell  Claylon 

Stephen  W.  Dorsey 

Augustus  H.  Garljind.. 

James  I).  Walker 

James  K.Jones 

James  H.  Herry 


40th  to  42d 

40ih  "  43d 

42d  "  45th 

44th  "  46th 

45  th  "  49  th 

4(ith  "  49th 

49th  "  

49lh  "  


Arkansas  Post. 


1836 
1844 
1848    

1848  "  1861  3,000,000  to  5,000,000  people.  In  the 
1853  "  1861  spring  of  1894  the  Turks  claimed  that 
37th,  38th,  and  39th  Congresses  vacant.  the  Armenians  were  preparing  to  revolt 
1868  ^°  1873  ''^Sainst  the  Kurds,  and,  in  fact,  several 
1871  "  1877  conflicts  did  take  place  between  these 
1877  "'  1883  P*^°P^^-  Turkish  troops  w^ere  sent  to  aid 
18T9  "  1885  the  Kurds  and  suppress  the  Armenians, 
1885  II  — ■  and  then  began  a  long  list  of  massacres 
v/hich  aroused  the  whole  world.  On  Feb. 
See  HiNDMAN,  Fort.  20,  1896,  Clara  Barton  {q.  v.),  of  the 
Arkansas,  The,  a  Confederate  "  ram,"  Red  Cross  Society,  sailed  from  New 
employed  chiefly  on  the  Yazoo  River,  above  York  for  Armenia,  and  took  charge  of  the 
Vicksburg.  Farragut  sent  three  armored  relief  work  of  this  country.  While  the 
vessels  about  the  middle  of  July,  1862,  governments  seemed  powerless  to  aid  the 
to  attack  her.  Six  miles  up  the  stream  Armenians,  the  citizens  of  this  country 
they  found  and  assailed  her;  but  she  re-  made  generous  subscriptions  for  the  suf- 
pulsed  the  attack,  and  took  shelter  under  ferers.  Three  ship  -  loads  of  goods  were 
tlie  batteries  at  Vicksburg.  Another  at-  sent  from  this  country  and  over  $600,- 
tempt  to  capture  her  was  made  on  July  000  in  money.  The  inaction  of  the 
22  by  the  Essex  (Captain  Porter)  and  the  European  powers  during  these  outrages 
Queen  of  the  West.  Again  the  attempt  must  ahvays  be  regarded  wnth  amaze- 
was  unsuccessful.  After  the  repulse  of  ment.  As  to  the  total  number  of  Ar- 
the  Confederates  at  Baton  Rouge,  early  menians  butchered,  only  a  conjecture 
in  August,  Porter,  with  the  Essex  and  two  can  be  formed.  Not  until  the  beginning  of 
other  gunboats,  went  in  search  of  the  1807  did  the  massacre  cease.  The  total 
Arkansas,  and  found  her  5  miles  above  number  of  victims  is  generally  conceded 
that  city.  A  sharp  engagement  ensued,  to  have  been  over  50,000.  Out  of  3,300 
The  Arkansas  became  unmanageable,  when  Armenian  villages,  it  is  estimated  that 
her  crew  ran  her  against  the  river-bank,  2,500  were  destroyed.  Besides  the  people 
set  her  on  fire,  and  she  was  blown  up.  killed  in  massacres,  it  is  estimated  that 
Armand,  Charles  Teffin,  Marquis  de  the  ravages  committed  by  the  Turks 
LA  RouAEiE,  French  military  officer;  born  caused  75,000  Armenians  to  die  of  star- 
near  Rennes,  in  1756;  came  to  America  vation.  Jan.  27,  1896,  Congress  passed 
in  1777,  and  entered  the  Continental  army  concurrent  resolutions  calling  upon  the 
as  a  volunteer.  He  received  the  commis-  European  powers  to  stop  the  massacres, 
sion  of  colonel,  and  commanded  a  small  and  to  secure  the  Christians  the  rights 
corps,  to  which  was  attached  a  company  to  which  they  were  entitled.  The  Sultan 
of  cavalry  who  acted  as  the  police  of  of  Turkey,  under  great  pressure,  promised 
camps.  He  was  an  exceedingly  active  offi-  reforms.  A  vast  amount  of  mission  prop- 
eer,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  Wash-  erty  Avas  destroyed,  and  claims  for  in- 
ington.  In  February,  1780,  his  corps  was  demnity  were  presented  by  all  the  powers, 
incorporated  with  that  of  Pulaski,  who  few  of  which  have  been  paid.  That  of  the 
was  killed  at  Savannah  a  few  months  be-  United  States,  after  uncompromising  press- 
fore.  In  March,  1783,  his  services  through-  ure  on  the  part  of  its  ambassadors,  was 
out  the  war  from  1777  were  recognized,  settled  in  December,  1900,  by  the  placing 
and  he  was  created  a  brigadier-general,  of  the  order  for  a  war-sliip  in  this  country, 
Returning  to  France,  he  took  part  in  the  and  including  the  amount  of  the  indemnity 
Revolution  there,   and  was   for  a  time  a  in  the  contract  price. 

prisoner    in    the    Bastile.      The    execution  Armistead,     George,    military    officer; 

of  Louis  XVI.  gave  such  a  shock  to  his  born   in   New  Market,    Caroline   co.,   Va., 

202 


ABMISTEAD— ARMSTRONG 


Api'il  10,  1780;  entered  the  army  as  second  Maximilian  Godefroy,  in  memory  of  all 
lieutenant  in  1799.  In  1813  he  held  the  the  defenders  of  Baltimore, 
rank  of  major  in  the 
3d  Artillery,  and  was 
distinguished  at  the 
capture  of  Fort  George. 
His  gallant  defence  of 
Fort  McHenry  in  Sep- 
tember, 1814,  won  for 
him  immortal  honors. 
He  had  five  brothers  in 
the  military  service  in 
the  second  war  for  in- 
dependence —  three  in 
the  regular  army  and 
two  in  the  militia  ser- 
vice. Because  of  his 
bravery  in  defending 
Baltimore,  he  was  bre-  I 
vetted  a  lieutenant- 
colonel;  and  the  citi- 
zens presented  him 
with  an  elegant  silver 
service  in  the  form  of 
a  vase  fashioned  like 
a  bombshell,  with  gob- 
lets and  salver.  After  his  death  at 
Baltimore,  April  25,  1818,  a  fine  marble 
monument     was     erected     there     to     his 


GEOEGE    ARMISTEAD. 


memory,    and    the    grateful    citizens    also 
erected    a    large    monument,    designed    by 


THE    ARMISTEAD    VASE. 

Armistead,  Lewis  Addison,  military 
officer ;  born  in  Newbern,  N.  C,  Feb.  18, 
1817;  entered  the  United  States  army  as 
lieutenant  in  1839 ;  served  throughout  the 
Mexican  War;  resigned  in  1861  to  join 
the  Confederate  army.  He  was  mortally 
wounded  while  leading  his  brigade  in 
Pickett's  charge  at  Antietam,  and  died  in 
the  Federal  hospital,  July  3,  1863. 

Armour,  Philip  Danforth,  philan- 
thropist; born  in  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  May 
16,  1832;  received  a  public  school  educa- 
tion. In  1852-56  he  was  a  miner  in  Cali- 
fornia; in  1856-63  engaged  in  the  commis- 
sion business  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.  In  1892 
he  built  the  Armour  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy in  Chicago  at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000,  and 
in  the  same  year  endowed  it  with  $1,400,- 
000;  in  1898  he  increased  this  endowment 
by  $500,000;  and  in  1899  made  another 
addition  of  $750,000.  He  died  in  Chicago, 
Jan.  6,  1901. 

Armstrong,  John,  military  officer; 
born  in  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Nov.  25,  1758.  While 
a  student  at  Princeton,  in  1775,  he  became 
a  volunteer  in  Potter's  Pennsylvania  regi- 
ment, and  was  soon  afterwards  made  an 
aide-de-camp  to  General  Mercer.  He  was 
afterwards  placed  on  the  staff  of  General 
GateSi   and   remained   so   from   the   beo'in- 


203 


ARMSTRONG— ARMY 


ning  of  that  officer's  campaign  against 
Burgoyne  until  the  end  of  the  war,  hav- 
ing the  rank  of  major.  Holding  a  facile 
pen,  he  was  employed  to  write  the  famous 


JOHN   ARMSTRONG. 


Newhurgh  Addresses.  They  were  power- 
fully and  eloquently  written.  After  the 
war  he  was  successively  Secretary  of  State 
and  Adjutant-General  of  Pennsylvania; 
and  in  1784  he  conducted  operations 
against  the  settlers  in  the  Wyoming  Val- 
ley. The  Continental  Congress  in  1787 
appointed  him  one  of  the  judges  for  the 
Korthwestern  Territory,  but  he  declined.. 
Two  years  later  he  married  a  sister  of 
Chancellor  Livingston,  removed  to  New 
"iork,  purchased  a   farm  within   the  pre- 


cincts of  the  old  Livingston  Manor  on  the 
Hudson,  and  devoted  himself  to  agricult- 
ure. He  was  a  member  of  the  national 
Senate  from  1800  to  1804,  and  became 
United  States  minister  at  the  French  Court 
in  the  latter  year,  succeeding  his  brother- 
in-law.  Chancellor  Livingston.  He  was 
commissioned  a  brigadier-general  in  July, 
1812,  and  in  January,  181.3,  became  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  the  cabinet  of  President 
Madison.  His  lack  of  success  in  the  opera- 
tions against  Canada,  and  at  the  attack 
upon  and  capture  of  Washington  in  1814, 
made  him  so  unpopular  that  he  resigned 
and  retired  to  private  life.  He  died  at 
Eed  Hook,  N.  Y.,  April  1,  1843.  General 
Armstrong  wrote  Notes  on  the  War  of 
1812,  and  Lives  of  Generals  Montgomery 
and  Wayne  for  Sparks's  American  Biog- 
raphy; also  a  Review  of  Wilkinson's 
Memoirs,  and  treatises  on  agriculture  and 
gardening. 

Armstrong,  Samuel  Chapman,  founder 
of  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Industrial  In- 
stitute; born  in  Wailuku,  Hawaii,  in  1839. 
He  was  educated  in  Oahu  College,  Hono- 
lulu, and  Williams  College  (U.  S.),  where 
he  was  graduated  in  1862;  fought  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Civil  War,  and  afterwards 
became  interested  in  the  education  of  poor 
colored  people ;  and  founded  Hampton 
Institute  in  1868.  After  ten  years  of 
successful  administration,  the  government 
arranged  to  have  Indian  children  admitted 
in  1878,  and  since  that  time  the  school 
has  successfully  tauarht  members  of  both 
races.     He  died  in  1893. 


ARMY 


Army.  The  military  system  of  the 
United  States  is  based  upon  volunteer 
armies,  raised  as  occasion  may  require. 
A  small  standing  army  is  kept  up  for  the 
support  of  good  order  and  for  safety 
against  incursions  of  barbarians  on  the 
borders  of  expanding  settlements;  and  a 
well-regulated  militia,  under  the  control 
of  the  respective  States,  forms  an  ample 
body  of  citizen  soldiery.  The  first  act  for 
the  enrolment  in  the  militia  of  all  able- 
bodied  white  men  of  eighteen  and  under 
forty  -  five  years  of  age  was  passed  by 
Congress  in  1792.  This  act  provided 
that  in  the  organization  there  should  be 


infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery.  An  act 
was  passed  early  in  1795  which  empow- 
ered the  President,  in  case  of  invasion,  or 
imminent  danger  thereof,  to  call  forth 
the  militia  of  the  State  or  States  most 
convenient  to  the  place  of  danger.  He 
A^as  also  empowered,  in  case  of  insurrec- 
tion, or  when  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  should  be  opposed  by  a  combina- 
tion too  powerful  to  be  suppressed  by  the 
ordinary  course  of  judicial  proceedings, 
to  call  out  the  militia.  The  Civil  War 
gave  full  examples  of  the  working  of  our 
military  system.  Wlien  combinations  in 
the  slave  States  became  too  powerful  for 
04 


ARMY 


the  civil  authorities  to  oppose,  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  called  for  75,000 
militia  (designating  the  number  required 
from  each  State)  to  suppress  them.  As 
soon  as  the  various  regiments  from  the 
States  vrere  mustered  into  the  service  of 
the  United  States  they  were  no  longer 
under  the  control  of  their  respective  State 
governments,  but  of  that  of  the  national 
government,  and  were  assigned  to  brigades, 
divisions,  corps,  and  armies,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  the  service.  They 
were  then  entirely  supported  by  the  na- 
tional government.  All  their  general  and 
staff  officers  were  commissioned  by  the 
President,  and  no  officers,  after  having 
been  mustered  into  the  service  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  could  be  dismissed  by  the  State 
authorities.  During  the  Civil  War,  from 
first  to  last,  2,690,401  men.  including  re- 
inforcements, were  enrolled,  equipped,  and 
organized  into  armies.  The  regular  army 
during  that  war  was  raised  to  some- 
thing over  50,000  men,  but  was  reduced, 
at  its  close,  to  30,000  men.  The  standing 
army  in  1890  numbered  25,220  men, 
and  was  mainly  used  in  garrisoning  the 
permanent  fortifications,  protecting  the 
routes  of  commerce  across  the  conti- 
nent, and  preserving  order  among  the 
Indian  tribes  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River. 

The  Army  in  1901. — The  organization 
of  the  regular  army  on  the  permanent 
peace  basis  of  one  soldier  to  each  1,000 
of  population,  under  the  act  of  Congress 
of  Feb.  2,  1901,  was  announced  in  the 
general   order  of  May   13,   1901: 

Cavalry,  15  regiments  (12  troops  of  85 
men),  with  band,  etc.;  total,  15,840. 

Artillery,  126  companies  of  109  men 
each;  30  batteries  of  160  men  each;  with 
bands,  etc.;   total,  18,862. 

Infantry,  30  regiments  (12  companies 
of  104  men),  with  bands,  etc.;  total,  38,- 
520. 

Engineers,  3  battalions  (4  companies  of 
104  men),  with  bands,  etc.:  total,  1,282. 

Staff  department,  signal  corps,  etc., 
2,783. 

Total  number  of  enlisted  men,  77,287. 

Under  the  act  of  March  4,  1899,  mili- 
tary divisions  and  departments  were  re- 
organized  as   follows: 


Headquarters  of  the  Army. — Commanrjpr, 
Lieut. -Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Division  of  the  Philippines. — Consisting 
of  tlie  Departments  of  Northern  Luzon, 
Southern  Luzon,  Visayas,  Mindanao,  and  Jolo, 
comprising  all  the  islands  ceded  to  the  United 
States  by  Spain  ;  headquarters,  Manila,  P.  I. 
Commander,    Maj.-Gen.   Arthur   MacArthur. 

Department  of  Northern  Luzon. — In- 
cludes all  that  part  of  the  Island  of  Luzon 
north  of  Laguna  de  Bay  and  the  province  of 
Laguna,  the  same  being  the  provinces  of 
Abra,  Bontoc,  Benguet,  Bataan,  Bulacan,  Ca- 
gayan,  Ilocos,  Infanta,  Morong,  Norte,  Ilocos 
Sur,  La  Isabela  de  lAizon,  Lepanto,  La  Union, 
Nueva  Vizcaya,  Nueva  Ecija,  all  that  portion 
of  Manila  north  of  the  Pasig  River,  Principe, 
Pangasinan,  Pampanga,  Tarlac,  and  Zam- 
bales,  and  all  the  islands  in  the  Philippine 
Archipelago  north  of  Manila  Bay  and  the 
provinces  above  named  :  headquarters,  Manila, 
I'.  I.     Commander,  Maj.-Gen.  Lloyd  Wheaton. 

Department  of  Southern  Luzon.— In- 
cludes the  Island  of  Samar  and  all  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  Island  of  Luzon,  the  same 
including  the  following  provinces  :  Albay,  Ba- 
tangas,  Camarines  Norte,  Camarines  Sur,  Ca- 
vity, La  Laguna,  Manila  south  of  the  Pasig, 
and  Tayabas,  and  all  islands  of  the  Philip- 
pine Archipelago  which  lie  south  of  the  south 
line  of  tlie  Department  of  Northern  Luzon,  as 
above  described,  including  the  Island  of 
Polillo,  and  north  of  a  line  passing  southeast- 
wardly  through  the  West  Pass  of  Apo  to  the 
twelfth  parallel  of  north  latitude ;  thence 
easterly  along  said  parallel  to  124°  10'  east  of 
Greenwich,  but  including  the  entire  Island  of 
Masbate  :  thence  northerly  through  San  Ber- 
nardino Straits  :  headquarters,  Manila,  P.  I. 
Commander,  Maj.-Gen.  John  C.  Bates. 

Department  op  the  Visatas. — -Includes 
all  islands  (except  Island  of  Samar)  south  of 
the  southern  line  of  the  Department  of  South- 
ern Luzon  and  east  of  long.  121°  45'  east  of 
Greenwich  and  north  of  the  ninth  parallel  of 
latitude,  excepting  the  Island  of  Mindanao  and 
all  islands  east  of  the  Straits  of  Surigao ; 
headquarters,  Iloilo,  P.  I.  Commander,  Brig.- 
Gen.  Robert  P.  Hughes. 

Department  of  Mindanao  and  Jolo. — In- 
cludes all  the  remaining  islands  of  the  Philip- 
pine Archipelago  ;  headquarters,  Zamboanga, 
P.  I.  Commander,  Brig.-Gen.  William  A.  Kobbe. 

Department  of  Alaska. — Territory  of 
Alaska  :  headquarters.  Fort  St.  Michael,  Alas- 
ka. Commander,  Brig.-Gen.  George  M.  Ran- 
dall 

Department  of  California. — States  of 
California  and  Nevada,  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
and  their  dependencies ;  headquarters,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.  Commander,  Maj.-Gen.  Will- 
iam R.  Shaffer. 

Department  of  the  Colorado. — States  of 
Wyoming  (except  so  much  thereof  as  is  em- 
braced in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park), 
Colorado,  and  Utah,  and  the  Territories  of 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  ;  headquarters,  Den- 
ver, Col.  Commander,  Brig.-Gen.  Henry  C. 
Merriam. 

Department  op  the  Columbia. — States  of 
Washington,  Oregon,  Idaho  (except  so  much 
of  the  latter  as  is  embraced  in  the  Yellow- 
stone National  Park)  ;  headquarters,  Van- 
couver Barracks,  Wash,    Commander,  — , 


205 


ARMY 


Department  of   Cuba. — Consisting  of  the    Col.  Adna  R.  Chaffee,  8th  Cavalry,  U.  S.  A. 


provinces   of   the   Island  of   Cuba  ;    headquar- 
ters,  Havana,   Cuba.     Commander,   Bri 
Leonard  Wood. 

Department  of  Dakota. — States  of  Minne- 
sota, North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Montana, 
and  so  much  of  Wyoming  and  Idaho  as  is 
embraced  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  ; 
headquarters,  St.  Paul,  Minn.  Commander, 
Brig. -Gen.  James  F.  Wade 


(Major-General,  U.  S.  V.). 
Gen.    Brig.-Gen.     Arthur     MacArthur, 
(Major-General,  U.  S.  V.). 


U. 


A. 


TO    BE    BRIGADIER-GENERALS. 

Col.    John    C.    Bates,    2d    Infantry,    U.    S. 

(Major-General  U.  S.  V.). 
Col.   Lloyd   Wheaton,   7th   Infantry,   U.   S. 

(Major-General,  U.  S.  V.). 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  EAST.— New  England  Col.  Gec^rge  W.  payis^_  23d  Infantry  (Brig- 
States,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylva- 
nia, Delaware,  Maryland,  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, West  Virginia,  Virginia,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  and  District  Col.  Samuel  S.  Sumner,  6th  Cavalry,  U.  S.  A. 
of  Porto  Rico,  embracins  Porto  Rico  and  ad-    Capt.     Leonard     Wood,     Assistant     Surgeon, 


adier-General,  U.  S.  V.). 
Col.    Theodore    Schwan,    Assistant    Adjutant- 
General,      U.     S.    A.      ( Brigadier  -  General, 
U.  S.  v.). 


of  Porto  Rico,  embracing  Porto  Rico  and  ad- 
jacent islands  ;  headquarters.  Governor's  Isl- 
and, N.  Y.  Commander,  Maj.-Gen.  John  R. 
Brooke. 

Department  of  the  Lakes. — States  of 
Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee ;  headquarters, 
Chicago,  111.  Commander,  Maj.-Gen.  Elwell 
S.  Otis. 

Department  of  the  Missouri. — States  of 


U.  S.  A.  (Major-General,  U.  S.  V.). 
Col.   Robert   H.   Hall,   4th   Infantry,   U.   S.  A. 

(Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  V.). 
Col.     Robert     P.     Hughes,     Inspector-General, 

U.  S.  A.  (Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  V.). 
Col.  George  M.  Randall,  8th  Infantry,  U.  S.  A. 

(Brigadier-General,    U.    S.    V.). 
Maj.  William  A.  Kobbe,  3d  Artillery,  U.  S.  A. 

(Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  V.). 


Iowa,    Nebraska,    Missouri,    Kansas,    and    Ar-    Brig.-Gen.  Frederick  D.  Grant,  U.  S.  V. 
kansas,  the   Indian  Territory,   and  the  Terri-    Capt.  J.  Franklin  Bell,   <th  Cavalry,  U.  S.  A 


tory     of     Oklahoma ;     headquarters,     Omaha, 
Neb.     Commander,  Brig.-Gen.  Fitzhugh  Lee. 
Department   of    Texas. — State   of   Texas  ; 


(Brigadier-General,  U.  S.  V.). 


Continental  Army. — On  the  morning 
headquarters,  San  Antonio,  Tex.  Command-  after  the  affair  at  Lexington  and  Gon- 
er, Col.  Chambers  McKibbin,  12th  Infantry.        „^„^    /  a,.,.;i   on    t7'7c\     ii      -vr  i         xj. 

•'        cord   (April  20,  1/75),  the  Massachusetts 

An  act  of  Congress  of  June  6,  1900,  re-  Committee  of  Safety  sent  a  circular  letter 
organized  the  regular  army  and  re-estab-  to  all  the  towns  in  the  province,  saying: 
lished  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general  by  "  We  conjure  you,  by  all  that  is  dear,  by 
the  following  provision :  "  That  the  senior  all  that  is  sacred ;  we  beg  and  entreat  you, 
major-general  of  the  line  commanding  the  as  you  will  answer  it  to  your  country,  to 
army  shall  have  the  rank,  pay,  and  allow-  your  consciences,  and,  above  all,  to  God 
ances  of  a  lieutenant-general."  In  his  himself,  that  you  will  hasten  and  arrange, 
annual  message  to  Congress,  Dec.  3,  1900,  by  all  possible  means,  the  enlistment  of 
President  McKinley  urged  a  provision  for  men  to  form  the  army,  and  send  them 
increasing  the  army  in  order  to  maintain  forward  to  headquarters  at  Cambridge 
its  strength  after  June  30,  1901,  when  it  with  that  expedition  which  the  vast  im- 
would  be  reduced  according  to  the  act  portance  and  instant  urgency  of  the  affair 
of  March  4,  1899.  He  detailed  the  employ-  demands."  This  call  was  answered  by 
ment  of  the  various  branches  of  the  army,  many  people  before  it  reached  them.  It 
and  asked  for  authority  to  increase  tliQ  arose  spontaneously  out  of  the  depths  of 
total  force  to  100,000  men,  as  was  pro-  their  own  patriotic  hearts.  The  field,  the 
vided  in  the  temporary  act  of  1899.  A  workshop,  the  counter,  the  desk,  and  even 
bill  to  carry  out  the  President's  reeom-  the  pulpit,  yielded  their  tenants,  who  hur- 
mendation  was  introduced  in  Congress;  ried  towards  Boston.  Many  did  not  wait 
was  adopted  by  the  Senate,  where  it  origi-  to  change  their  clothes.  They  took  with 
nated,  Jan.  18,  1901 ;  and  the  House  adopt-  them  neither  money  nor  food,  intent  only 
ed  the  conference  report  on  the  bill  Jan.  upon  having  their  firelocks  in  order.  The 
25,  following.  Under  this  bill  the  Presi-  v/omeii  on  the  way  opened  wide  their  doors 
dent,  on  Peb.  5,  sent  to  the  Senate  the  fol-  and  hearts  for  the  refreshment  and  en- 
lowing    nominations    for    the    reorganized    couragement   of   the   patriotic   volunteers, 

and  very  soon  all  New  England  was  rep- 
resented at  Cambridge  in  a  motley  host  of 
full  20.000  men.  On  the  afternoon  of  the 
20th  (April)  Gen.  Artemas  Ward  as- 
sumed the  chief  command  of  the  gathering 
206 


army : 

TO    BE    lieutenant-general. 

Maj.-Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles. 

TO    BE    major-generals. 

Brig.-Gen.  Samuel  B.  M.  Young,  U.  S.  A. 


AUMY 


volunteers.  The  Provincial  Congress 
labored  night  and  day  to  provide  for  their 
organization  and  support.  The  second 
Continental  Congress  convened  at  Phila- 
delphia (May  10),  and  on  June  7,  in  a 
resolution  for  a  general  fast,  had  spoken 
for  the  first  time  of  "  the  twelve  united 
colonies."  Gen.  Artemas  Ward,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, the  senior  in  command  of  the 
l^rovincial  militia,  assumed  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  volunteers  who  gathered  near 
Boston  after  the  skirmishes  at  Lexington 
and  Concord.  He  was  good,  but  aged,  and 
not  possessed  of  sufficient  military  ability 
or  personal  activity  to  make  an  energetic 
commander  of  a  large  army.  The  Provin- 
cial Congress  of  Massachusetts  appre- 
hended the  melting-away  of  the  army 
gathered  at  Cambridge  unless  a  more  effi- 
cient leader  might  be  found,  and,  to  avoid 
giving  offence,  they  asked  the  Continental 
Congress  to  assume  the  regulation  and  di- 
rection of  that  army.  Joseph  Warren,  in 
a  private  letter  to  Samuel  Adams,  wrote 
that  the  request  was  to  be  interpreted  as 
a  desire  for  the  appointment  of  a  new 
chief  commander  of  all  the  troops  that 
might  be  raised.  Just  then  the  news  ar- 
rived of  the  approach  of  reinforcements 
for  Gage,  under  Generals  Clinton,  Howe, 
and  Burgoyne,  and  Congress  felt  the  im- 
portance of  acting  promptly.  At  the  sug- 
gestion of  John  Adams,  the  army  was 
adopted  as  a  continental  one;  and,  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  New  England  delegation, 
Thomas  Johnson,  of  Maryland,  nominated 
George  Washington,  of  Virginia,  for  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  armies  of  the  in- 
choate republic.  He  was  elected  ( Jime  15, 
1775)  by  unanimous  vote,  and  on  the 
following  morning  John  Hancock,  presi- 
dent of  Congress,  officially  announced  to 
Washington  his  appointment.  The  Vir- 
ginia colonel  arose  and,  in  a  brief  and 
modest  speech,  formally  accepted  the 
office.  After  expressing  doubts  of  his 
ability  to  perform  the  duties  satisfac- 
torily, he  said,  "  As  to  pay,  sir,  I  beg 
leave  to  assure  the  Congress  that,  as  no 
pecuniary  consideration  could  have  tempt- 
ed me  to  accept  the  arduous  employment  at 
the  expense  of  my  domestic  ease  and  hap- 
piness, I  do  not  wish  to  make  any  profit 
from  it.  I  will  keep  an  exact  account  of 
my  expenses.  Those,  I  doubt  not,  they 
will  discharge,  and  that  is  all  I  desire." 


Washington  was  then  a  little  past  forty- 
three  years  of  age.  He  left  Philadelphia 
for  Cambridge  a  week  later,  where  he  ar- 
rived on  July  2 ;  and  at  about  nine  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  the  3d,  standing  in  the 
shade  of  an  elm-treo  in  Cambridge,  he 
formally  assumed  the  command  of  the 
army,  then  numbering  about  16,000  men, 
all  New-Englanders.  The  following  were 
appointed  his  assistants:  Artemas  Ward, 
Charles  Lee,  Philip  Schuyler,  and  Israel 
Putnam,  major-generals;  and  Seth  Pome- 
roy,  Richard  Montgomery,  David  Wooster, 
\\'illiam  Heath,  Joseph  Spencer,  John 
Thomas,  John  Sullivan,  and  Nathaniel 
Greene,  brigadier-generals.  Horatio  Gates 
was  appointed  as  adjutant-general.  The 
pay  of  a  major-general  was  fixed  at  $166 
a  month;  of  a  brigadier-general,  $125;  of 
the  adjutant-general,  $125;  commissary- 
general  of  stores  and  provisions,  $80; 
quartermaster-general,  $80;  deputy  quar- 
termaster-general, $40;  paymaster-general, 
$100;  deputy  paymaster-general,  $50; 
chief  -  engineer,  $60;  assistant  engineer, 
$20;  aide-de-camp,  $33;  secretary  to  the 
general,  $66;  secretary  to  a  major-general, 
$33;  commissary  of  musters,  $40.  Wash- 
ington found  an  undisciplined  force,  and 
immediately  took  measures  to  bring  order 
out  of  confusion.  Congress  had  provided 
for  one  adjutant-general,  one  quartermas- 
ter-general and  a  deputy,  one  commissary- 
general,  one  paymaster-general  and  a 
deputy,  one  chief-engineer  and  two  assist- 
ants of  the  grand  army,  and  an  engineer 
and  two  assistants  for  the  army  in  a 
separate  department;  three  aides-de-camp, 
a  secretary  to  the  general  and  to  the  ma- 
jor-generals, and  a  commissary  of  musters. 
Joseph  Trumbull,  son  of  the  governor  of 
Connecticut,  was  appointed  commissary- 
general;  Thomas  Mifflin,  quartermaster- 
general  ;  and  Joseph  Reed,  of  Philadelphia, 
was  chosen  by  Washington  to  the  impor- 
tant post  of  secretary  to  the  commander- 
in-chief. 

Soon  after  Washington  took  command 
of  the  army  the  legislature  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  the  governor  of  Connecticut 
applied  to  him  for  detachments  from  the 
army  for  the  protection  of  points  on  their 
respective  sea-coasts  exposed  to  predatory 
attacks  from  British  cruisers.  Wash- 
ington, in  a  letter  dated  July  31,  1775,  an- 
swered these  appeals  with  a  refusal,  after 


207 


ARMY 


giving  satisfactory  reasons  for  his  de- 
cision. He  pointed  out  the  danger  to  be 
apprehended  by  scattering  the  army  in  de- 
tachments. He  said  the  matter  had  been 
debated  in  Congress,  and  that  they  had 
come  to  the  wise  conclusion  that  each 
province  should  defend  itself  from  small 
and  particular  depredations.  It  was  then 
established  as  a  rule,  that  attacks  of  the 
enemy  at  isolated  points  along  the  coast 
'•  must  be  repelled  by  the  militia  in  the 
vicinity,"  except  when  the  Continental 
army  was  in  a  condition  to  make  detach- 
ments without  jeoparding  the  common 
cause. 

In  October,  1775,  a  committee  of  Con- 
gress visited  the  camp  at  Cambridge,  and, 
in  consultation  with  Washington  and 
committees  of  the  New  England  colonies, 
agreed  upon  a  plan  for  the  reorganization 
of  the  besieging  army.  It  was  to  consist 
of  twenty-six  regiments,  besides  riflemen 
and  artillery.  Massachusetts  was  to  fur- 
nish sixteen;  Connecticut,  five;  New 
Hampshire,  three;  and  Rhode  Island,  two 
— in  all  about  20,000  men;  the  officers  to 
be  selected  out  of  those  already  in  the 
service.  It  was  easier  to  plan  an  army 
than  to  create  one.  According  to  a  return 
submitted  to  Congress,  the  Continental 
army,  on  the  day  when  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  was  adopted,  consisted  of 
7,754  men  present  fit  for  duty,  including 
one  regiment  of  artillery.  Their  arms 
were  in  a  wretched  condition.  Of  nearly 
1,400  muskets,  the  firelocks  were  bad; 
more  than  800  had  none  at  all;  and  3,827 
— more  than  half  the  Avhole  number  of 
infantry — had  no  baj^onets.  Of  the  militia 
who  had  been  called  for,  only  800  had 
joined  the  camp.  With  this  force  Wash- 
ington was  expected  to  defend  an  extended 
line  of  territory  against  an  army  of 
about  30,000  men. 

During  the  encampment  at  Valley  Forge 
a  committee  of  Congress  spent  some  time 
with  Washington  in  arranging  a  plan  for 
the  reorganization  of  the  army.  By  it 
each  battalion  of  foot,  officers  included, 
was  to  consist  of  582  men,  arranged  in 
nine  companies ;  the  battalion  of  horse  and 
artillery  to  be  one-third  smaller.  This 
would  have  given  the  army  60,000  men; 
but,  in  reality,  it  never  counted  more  than 
half  that  number.  General  Greene  was 
appointed  'quartermaster  -  general ;     Jere- 


miah Wadsworth,  of  Connecticut,  com- 
missary-general; Colonel  Scammel,  of  New 
Hampshire,  adjutant-general;  and  Baron 
cle  Steuben,  a  Prussian  officer,  inspector- 
general.  To  allay  discontents  in  the  army 
because  of  the  great  arrearages  of  the 
soldiers'  pay,  auditors  were  appointed  to 
adjust  all  accounts;  and  each  soldier  who 
should  serve  until  the  end  of  the  war  was 
promised  a  gratuity  of  $80.  The  officers 
were  promised  half-pay  for  seven  years 
from  the  conclusion  of  peace. 

In  the  spring  of  1779,  on  the  report  of 
a  committee  of  Congress,  that  body  pro- 
ceeded to  a  new  organization  of  the  army. 
Four  regiments  of  cavalry  and  artillery, 
hitherto  independent  establishments  raised 
at  large,  were  now  credited  towards  the 
quota  of  the  States  in  which  they  had  been 
enlisted.  The  State  quotas  were  reduced 
to  eighty  battalions:  Massachusetts  to 
furnish  fifteen;  Virginia  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, eleven  each ;  Connecticut  and  Mary- 
land, eight  each;  the  two  Carolinas,  six 
each;  New  York,  five;  New  Hampshire 
and  New  Jersey,  three  each;  Rhode  Island, 
two;  and  DelaAvare  and  Georgia,  one  each. 
Congress  allowed  $200  bounty  for  each 
recruit,  and  the  States  made  large  addi- 
tional offers;  but  the  real  amount  was 
small,  for  at  that  time  the  Continental 
paper  money  had  greatly  depreciated.  It 
was  found  necessary  to  replenish  the  reg- 
iments by  drafts  from  the  militia.  The 
vhole  force  of  the  American  army,  ex- 
clusive of  a  few  troops  in  the  Southern  de- 
partment, consisted,  late  in  the  spring  of 
1779,  of  only  about  8.600  effective  men. 
At  that  time  the  British  had  11,000  at 
New  York  and  4,000  or  5,000  at  Newport, 
besides  a  considerable  force  in  the  South. 
In  1780  a  committee  of  Congress,  of  which 
General  Schuyler  was  chairman,  were 
long  in  camp,  maturing,  with  Washing- 
ton, a  plan  for  another  reorganization  of 
the  army.  Congress  agreed  to  the  plan. 
The  remains  of  sixteen  additional  battal- 
ions were  to  be  disbanded,  and  the  men 
distributed  to  the  State  lines.  The  army 
was  to  consist  of  fifty  regiments  of  foot, 
including  Hazen's,  four  regiments  of  ar- 
tillery, and  one  of  .artificers,  with  two 
partisan  corps  under  Annard  and  Lee. 
There  were  to  be  four  other  legionary 
corps,  two-thirds  horse  and  one-third  foot. 
All  new  enlistments  were  to  be  "  for  the 


208 


ARMY 

war."      The    officers    thrown    out   by    this  On    the    recommendation    of    Washington 

new   arrangement  were   to   be   entitled   to  orders  were  issued  for  granting  furloughs 

half-pay  for  life.     The  same  was  promised  or  discharges  at  the  discretion  of  the  com- 

to  all  officers  who  should  serve  to  the  end  mander-in-chief.      Greene    was    authorized 

of  the  war.     The  army,   as   so   arranged,  to    grant    furloughs    for    North    Carolina 

would  consist  of  36.000  men;    never  half  tioops;    and   the   lines   of   Maryland    and 

that  number  were  in   the  field.  Pennsylvania  serving  under  him  were  or- 

At  the  beginning  of  1781  the  sufferings  dered  to  march  for  their  respective  States. 

of   the   Continental   soldiers   for   want   of  Three   months'   pay   was   to   be   furnished 

food  and  clothing  was  almost  unbearable,  the   furloughed  soldiers.     They  were  also 

and    there    were    signs    of    a    prevailing  to  keep  their  arms  and  accoutrements  as 

mutinous   spirit.     Washington   knew   well  an  extra  allowance.  The  furloughs  amount- 

their  intense  suffering  and  equally  intense  ed  to   discharges.     Few  of  the   recipients 

patriotism,  and  deeply  commiserated  their  ever  returned,  and  so  a  great  portion  of 

condition.    He  knew  they  could  be  trusted  the  army  was  gradually  disbanded  before 

to   the   last   moment,   and   deprecated   the  the  definitive  treaty  was  concluded  in  Sep- 

conduct  of  those  who   suspected   a   muti-  tember.      A    remnant   of   the    Continental 

nous  spirit  in  the  whole  army,  and  mani-  army  remained  at  West  Point  under  Knox 

fested     their     distrust.      When     General  until    the    British    evacuated    New    York 

Heath,  with  his  suspicions  alert,  employed  (Nov.   25,   1783).     After  that  event  they 

spies   to  watch   for   and   report   mutinous  all  received  their  discharge, 

expressions,    Washington    wrote    to    him:  The    following    shows    the    number    of 

"To    seem    to    draw    into    question    the  troops    furnished   by   each    State   for   the 

fidelity   and   firmness   of   the   soldiers,   or  Continental  army: 
even  to  express  a  doubt  of  their  obedience, 

may    occasion    such    a    relaxation    of    dis-  Vr^^  Hampshu-e 12,947 

-    V-  ij        J-     ii,         •  •  4.  ))    mv  Massachusetts     67,907 

ciplme  as  would  not  otherwise  exist.      The  Rhode   Island                                  5  908 

condition  of  the  army  was  most  wretched.  Connecticut     31,939 

A  committee  of  Congress  reported  that  it  ^ew   York 17.781 

had  been  "  unpaid  for  five  months ;  that  it  Pennsylvania    .. . 25*678 

seldom  had  more  than  six  days'  provisions  Delaware . . .   "2^386 

in  advance,  and  was  on  several  occasions,  Maryland     13,912 

for  sundry  successive  days,  without  meat:  T^''?i°'^    '  ■,". ~^'5I^ 

-1     ,,,•'■,.     1    ,  /        4.  1,    J        -ii  North    Carolina 7,263 

that  the  medical  department  had  neither  South    Carolina 6  417 

sugar,    coffee,    tea,    chocolate,    wine,    nor  Georgia    2,679 

spirituous  liquors  of  any  kind ;   and  that  — — ~~ 

^  Total                                        ^31  771 

e\ery  department  of  the  army  was  with-  "     ' 

out  money,  and  had  not  even  the  shadow  The      Army     in      1808-15. — Jefferson's 

of  credit  left."     The  clothing  of  the  sol-  policy  had  always  been  to  keep  the  army 

diers  was  in  tatters,  and  distress  of  mind  and  navy  as  small  and  inexpensive  as  pos- 

and  body  prevailed  everywhere  in  the  ser-  sible.     The  army  was  reduced  to  a  mere 

vice.    No  wonder  that  some  of  the  soldiers,  frontier   guard   against   the   Indians.      In 

who  believed  that  their  term  of  service  had  1808    the   aspect   of   international    affairs 

expired,   mutinied,   and   marched   towards  was  such  as  to  demand  an  increase  of  the 

Philadelphia  to  demand  redress  from  the  military  strength  of  the  republic,  and  the 

Congress.  President  asked  Congress  to  augment  the 

It  was  expected  that  the  immediate  dis-  number  and  efficiency  of  the  regular  army. 

banding   of    the    army    would    follow   the  They    did    so,    though    the    measure    was 

proclamation  of  peace.    A  definitive  treaty  strongly  opposed  by  the  Federalists.   There 

had  not  yet  been  negotiated,  and  British  was   a  rising  war-spirit   in   the   land.     A 

troops  still  held  New  York  City.    It  would  bill    to    raise    seven    new    regiments    was 

not  be  safe,  under  such  circumstances,  to  passed  by  a  vote  in  the  House  of  ninety- 

actually  disband  the  army.     The  Congress  eight  to  sixteen.    Other  provisions  for  war 

therefore  decided  that  the  engagements  of  followed.      The    sum    of    $1,000,000    was 

men  enlisted  for  the  war  were  binding  till  placed   at   the   disposal    of   the   President 

the  treaty  of  peace  was  definitely  ratified,  for  the  erection  of  coast  and  harbor  de- 

I.— O  209 


ARMY 


fences.  Another  sum  of  $300,000  was  ap-  termaster-general  (April  3),  and  Alexan- 
propriated  for  the  purchase  of  arms,  and  der  Smyth,  of  Virginia,  was  made  in- 
$150,000  for  saltpetre  to  make  gunpowder,  spector-general  (March  30) — each  bearing 
The  President  was  also  authorized  to  call  the  commission  of  a  brigadier-general, 
upon  the  governors  of  the  several  States  Thomas  Gushing,  of  Massachusetts,  was 
to  form  an  army,  in  the  aggregate,  of  appointed  adjutant-general  with  the  rank 
100,000  militia,  to  be  immediately  organ-  of  brigadier-general.  James  Wilkinson,  of 
ized,  equipped,  and  "  held  in  readiness  to  Maryland,  the  senior  brigadier-general  in 
march  at  a  moment's  warning "  when  the  army,  was  sent  to  New  Orleans  to  re- 
called for  by  the  chief  magistrate — in  lieve  Wade  Hampton  (then  a  brigadier- 
ether  words,  100,000  minute-men.  The  general ),  who  was  a  meritorious  subaltern 
President  was  authorized  to  construct  ar-  officer  in  South  Carolina  during  the  Revo- 
senals  and  armories  at  his  discretion ;  and  lution.  Alexander  Macomb  of  the  en- 
$200,000  were  placed  at  his  disposal  for  gineers — one  of  the  first  graduates  of  the 
providing  equipments  for  the  whole  body  of  United  States  Military  Academy — was  pro- 
the  militia  of  the  republic.  About  $1,000,-  moted  to  colonel,  and  Winfield  Scott,  Ed- 
000  were  appropriated  to  pay  the  first  ward  Pendleton  Gaines,  and  Eleazer  W. 
year's  expenses  of  the  seven  new  regiments.  Eipley  were  commissioned  colonels. 
Altogether  the  government  appropriated  in  In  the  summer  of  1812,  Gen.  Joseph 
1808  about  $5,000,000  for  war  purposes.  Bloomfield  was  sent  to  Lake  Champlain 
Efforts  to  increase  the  navy  failed.  Men  with  several  regiments,  and  on  September 
were  needed  for  the  additional  188  gun-  1  he  had  gathered  at  Plattsburg  about 
boats,  the  construction  of  which  was  au-  8,000  men  —  regulars,  volunteers,  and 
thorized  in  December,  1807.  Nothing  was  militia — besides  small  advanced  parties  at 
done  until  January,  1809,  when  the  Presi-  Chazy  and  Champlain.  General  Dearborn 
dent  was  authorized  to  equip  three  frigates  took  direct  command  of  this  army  soon 
and  a  sloop-of-Avar.  afterwards,  and  about  the  middle  of  No- 
In  organizing  the  military  forces  for  vember  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
war  in  1812  the  following  appointments  to  invade  Canada.  No  other  special  mili- 
were  made:  Henry  Dearborn,  a  soldier  tary  movements  occurred  in  that  quarter 
of  the  Revolution,  collector  of  the  port  until  the  next  year.  Gen.  Wade  Hampton 
of  Boston,  late  Secretary  of  War,  and  then  succeeded  Bloomfield  in  command  on  Lake 
sixty  years  of  age,  was  appointed  (Febru-  Champlain,  and  in  the  summer  of  1813 
ary,  1812)  first  major-general,  or  acting  he  was  at  the  head  of  4,000  men,  with  his 
commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  in  the  headquarters  at  Burlington,  Vt.  This 
field,  having  the  Northern  Department  force  composed  the  right  wing  of  the 
under  his  immediate  control.  Thomas  Army  of  the  North,  of  which  General 
Pinekney,  of  South  Carolina,  also  a  soldier  Wilkinson  was  commander-in-chief.  There 
of  the  Revolution,  was  appointed  (March,  was  such  personal  enmity  between  these 
1812)  second  major-general,  and  placed  in  two  commanders  that  the  public  service 
command  of  the  Southern  Department,  was  greatly  injured  thereby.  The  Secre- 
Joseph  Bloomfield  (governor  of  New  Jer-  tary  of  War  (Armstrong)  was  preparing 
sey),  James  Winchester  (of  Tennessee),  to  invade  Canada  by  way  of  the  St.  Law- 
John  P.  Boyd  (of  Massachusetts),  and  rence,  and,  fearing  the  eff'ects  of  this  en- 
William  Hull  (then  governor  of  the  Ter-  mity,  transferred  the  headquarters  of  the 
ritory  of  Michigan)  were  commissioned  War  Department  to  Sackett's  Harbor,  at 
(April  8,  1812)  brigadier-generals.  The  the  east  end  of  Lake  Ontario,  that  he  might 
same  commission  was  given  (June)  to  promote  harmony  between  these  testy  old 
Thomas  Flournoy,  of  Georgia.  John  Arm-  generals.  In  arranging  for  the  expedition 
strong,  of  New  York,  was  also  commis-  down  the  St.  Lawrence,  Armstrong  direct- 
sioned  (July  4)  a  brigadier-general  to  ed  Hampton  to  penetrate  Canada  tow- 
fill  a  vacancy  caused  by  the  recent  death  ards  Montreal  by  way  of  the  Sorel  River, 
of  Gen.  Peter  Gansevoort.  This  was  soon  Instead  of  obeying  the  order,  Hampton 
followed  (July  8)  by  a  like  commission  marched  his  troops  to  the  Chateaugay 
for  John  Chandler,  of  Maine.  Morgan  River,  and  at  Chateaugay  Four  Corners 
Lewis,  of  New  York,  was  appointed  quar-  he  tarried  twenty-six  days  awaiting  orders. 

210 


ARMY 

Finally    lie   was    ordered    to    descend    the  fused  to  meet  Wilkinson  at  St.  Eegis,  as 

Chateaugay    and    meet    Wilkinson    at    its  the  latter  had  requested  after  the  battle 

mouth.      He   moved   forward   late    in    Oc-  at    Chrysler's   Field.      Wilkinson    directed 

tober,   when  he  was   confronted  by  Lieu-  Hampton    to    join    the    camp    at    French 

tenant-Colonel     De     Salaberry,    near    the  Mills.     This  order,  also,  he  disobeyed,  and 

junction   of   Outard   Creek   and   the   Cha-  retired   to   Plattsburg   with   his   army   of 

tcaugay,    where    Hampton    encamped    and  4,000  men. 

was  overtaken  by  his  artillery.  De  Sala-  Army  of  Occupation,  1845-46. — When 
berry  was  encamped  with  a  force  about  the  annexation  of  Texas  caused  warlike 
1,000  strong,  and  Sir  George  Prevost  and  preparations  in  Mexico,  Gen.  Zachary 
General  De  Watteville  were  within  bugle-  Taylor  was  ordered  to  proceed  to  a  point 
call.  Hampton  resolved  to  dislodge  De  near  the  frontier  between  the  two  coun- 
Salaberry,  and  sent  a  force  under  Col.  tries  to  defend  Texas  from  invasion.  Tay- 
Eobert  Purdy  on  the  evening  of  Oct.  25  to  lor  was  then  in  command  of  the  Depart- 
force  a  ford  and  fall  upon  the  British  rear,  ment  of  the  Southwest.  In  a  letter  of  in- 
Purdy  lost  his  way  in  a  hemlock  swamp,  structions  from  the  War  Department,  he 
Meanwhile  Hampton  put  3,500  of  his  was  told,  "  Texas  must  be  protected  from 
men  in  motion  under  Gen.  George  Izard,  hostile  invasion;  and  for  that  purpose 
who  moved  to  the  attack  at  two  o'clock  in  you  will,  of  course,  employ  to  the  utmost 
the  afternoon.  De  Salaberry  came  out  extent  all  the  means  you  possess  or  can 
with  a>  few  Canadians  and  Indians,  but  command."  He  at  once  repaired  to  New 
finding  overwhelming  numbers  in  front  of  Orleans  with  1,500  men  (July,  1845), 
him  he  fell  back  to  his  intrenched  camp,  where  he  embarked,  and  early  in  August 
Firing  was  now  heard  on  the  other  side  of  arrived  at  the  island  of  St.  Josephs  on 
the  river.  Purdy,  who  had  neglected  to  the  Texan  coast,  whence  he  sailed  for 
post  pickets,  had  been  surprised,  his  Corpus  Christi,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
troops  flying  to  the  river.  Several  of  his  Kueces,  where  he  established  his  head- 
officers  and  men  swam  across,  and  bore  quarters.  There  he  was  soon  afterwards 
alarming  news  of  a  heavy  force  approach-  reinforced  by  seven  companies  of  infan- 
ing.  Instead  of  such  a  force  approach-  try  under  Major  Brown  and  two  volunteer 
ing,  those  who  had  attacked  Purdy  had  companies  under  Major  Gaily.  With  these 
fled  at  the  first  fire ;  and  so  the  belligerents  forces  he  remained  at  Corpus  Christi  un- 
were  in  the  ridiculous  predicament  of  til  the  next  spring,  when  the  camp  at  that 
running  away  from  each  other.  De  Sala-  place  was  broken  up  (March  8,  1846),  and 
berry  now  tried  a  clever  trick.  He  posted  the  Army  of  Occupation  proceeded  to 
buglers  at  some  distance  from  each  other.  Point  Isabel,  nearer  the  Pio  Grande, 
and  when  some  concealed  provincial  mi-  When  approaching  Point  Isabel,  Taylor 
litia.  opened  fire  almost  upon  Hampton's  was  met  by  a  deputation  of  citizens, 
flanks,  the  buglers  sounded  a  charge,  and  presented  with  a  protest,  signed 
Hampton  was  alarmed,  for  the  position  by  the  Prefect  of  the  Northern  Dis- 
of  the  buglers  indicated  an  extensive  trict  of  the  Department  of  Tamau- 
British  line,  and  he  supposed  a  heavy  force  lipas,  against  the  presence  of  his  army, 
was  about  to  fall  upon  his  front  and  flank.  But  he  pressed  forward  to  Point  Isa- 
He  immediately  sounded  a.  retreat  and  bel,  whence,  with  a  larger  portion  of 
withdrew  to  his  old  quarters  at  Chateau-  his  army,  he  proceeded  to  the  Rio  Grande 
gay  Four  Corners,  annoyed  all  the  way  by  opposite  Matamoras,  arriving  there  on 
the  fire  of  Canadian  militia.  There  this  March  29.  There  he  began  the  erection 
inglorious  campaign  ended.  The  Ameri-  of  defensive  works;  and  so  the  Army  of 
cans  lost  in  the  affair  fifteen  killed  and  Occupation  in  Texas  assumed  a  hostile 
twenty-three  wounded.  The  British  lost  attitude  towards  the  Mexicans.  See 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  twenty-  Mexico,  War  with. 

five.     "  No   officer,"    said   a   distinguished  Army    in    the    Civil    War. — When    Mr. 

general  of  the  United  States  army,  "  who  Lincoln  entered  upon  the  duties  of  Presi- 

had  any  regard  for  his  reputation,  would  dent    (March   4,    1861)    the   total   regular 

voluntarily   acknowledge   himself   as   hav-  force   of   the   army  was    16,000   men,   and 

ing   been    engaged   in    it."      Hampton    re-  these    were    principally    in    the    Western 

211 


ARMY 


States  and  Territories,  guarding  the  fron- 
tier settlers  against  the  Indians.  The 
forts  and  arsenals  on  the  seaboard,  espe- 
cially within  the  slave  States,  were  so 
weakly  manned,  or  not  manned  at  all, 
that  they  became  an  easy  prey  to  the 
Confederates.  The  consequence  was  that 
they  were  seized,  and  when  the  new  ad- 
ministration came  into  power,  of  all  the 
fortifications  within  the  slave  States  only 
Fort  Monroe,  in  Virginia,  and  Forts  Jeffer- 
son, Taylor,  and  Pickens,  on  the  Gulf  coast, 
remained  in  possession  of  the  government. 
The  seized  forts  were  sixteen  in  number. 
They  had  cost  the  government  about 
$6,000,000,  and  had  an  aggregate  of  1,226 
guns.  All  the  arsenals  in  the  cotton-grow- 
ing States  had  been  seized.  Twiggs  had 
surrendered  a  portion  of  the  National 
army  in  Texas.  The  army  had  been  put  so 
far  out  of  reach,  and  the  forts  and  ar- 
senals in  the  North  had  been  so  stripped 
of  defenders,  by  Floyd,  Buchanan's  Secre- 
tary of  War,  that  the  government  was 
threatened  with  sudden  paralysis. 

On  the  day  after  the  battle  of  Bull  Run 
{q.  V.) ,  General  McClellan,  then  in  western 
Virginia,  was  summoned  to  Washington 
and  placed  in  charge  of  the  shattered  army 
there.  The  Departments  of  Washington 
and  of  Northeastern  Virginia  were  cre- 
ated and  placed  under  the  command  of 
McClellan.  The  Department  of  the  Shen- 
andoah was  also  created,  and  Gen.  N.  P. 
Banks  was  placed  in  command  of  it,  re- 
lieving Major-General  Patterson.  Mc- 
Clellan turned  over  the  command  of  the 
troops  in  western  Virginia  to  General 
Eosecrans,  and  on  July  27  he  entered  with 
zeal  upon  the  duty  of  reorganizing  the 
army  in  the  vicinity  of  the  national  capi- 
tal. He  brought  to  the  service  youth,  a 
spotless  moral  character,  robust  health, 
untiring  industry,  a  good  theoretical 
military  education,  the  prestige  of  recent 
success,  and  the  unlimited  confidence  of 
the  loyal  people.  Having  laid  a  broad 
moral  foundation  for  an  efficient  army  or- 
ganization, he  proceeded  with  skill  and 
vigor  to  mould  his  material  into  perfect 
symmetry.  So  energetically  was  this  done 
that  at  the  end  of  fifty  days  an  army  of  at 
least  100,000  men.  well  organized,  officered, 
equipped,  and  disciplined,  were  in  and 
around  Washington.  At  that  time  the 
entire   force    in   his    department    included 


152,000  soldiers.  By  March  1,  1862,  that 
number  was  so  increased  that  when,  at 
tiiat  time,  the  forces  were  put  in  motion, 
having  been  thoroughly  drilled  and  dis- 
ciplined, the  grand  total  of  the  army  was 
222,000,  of  which  number  about  30,000 
were  sick  or  absent.  It  was  called  the 
"  Grand  Army  of  the  Potomac." 

General  McClellan  left  Washington  for 
Fort  Monroe,  April  1,  1862,  with  the 
greater  part  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
leaving  for  the  defence  of  the  capital  and 
other  service  more  remote  75,000.  Very 
soon  there  were  120,000  men  at  Fort  Mon- 
roe, exclusive  of  the  forces  of  General 
Wool,  the  commander  there.  A  large  por- 
tion of  these  moved  up  the  Peninsula  in 
two  columns,  one,  under  Gen.  S.  P.  Heint- 
zelman,  marching  near  the  York  River; 
the  other,  under  General  Keyes,  near  the 
James  River.  A  comparatively  small  Con- 
federate force,  under  Gen.  J.  B.  Magruder, 
formed  a  fortified  line  across  the  Penin- 
sula in  the  pathway  of  the  Nationals.  The 
left  of  this  line  was  at  Yorktown,  and  the 
right  on  the  Warwick  River,  that  falls 
into  the  James.  In  front  of  this  line 
McClellan's  continually  augmenting  army 
remained  a  month,  engaged  in  the  tedious 
operations  of  a  regular  siege,  under  the 
direction  of  Gen.  Fitz-John  Porter,  skir- 
mishing frequently,  and,  on  one  occasion, 
making  a  reconnoissance  in  force  that  was 
disastrous  to  the  Nationals.  On  May  3, 
Magruder,  who  had  resorted  to  all  sorts 
of  tricks  to  deceive  and  mislead  the  Na- 
tionals, wrote  to  Cooper,  of  the  Confeder- 
ate War  Department :  "  Thus,  with  5.000 
m.en,  exclusive  of  the  garrison,  we  stopped 
and  held  in  check  over  100.000  of  the 
enemy."  McClellan  now  began  those  ap- 
proaches towards  Richmond  which  result- 
ed in  the  Seven  Days'  battles  near  that 
city. 

When  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg 
(q.  V.)  had  ended,  there  was  much  feeling 
against  General  Burnside  on  the  part  of 
the  officers  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
who  had  participated  in  it.  An  order  re- 
ceived by  Burnside.  just  as  he  was  pre- 
paring for  other  active  operations,  from 
the  President  (Dec.  30.  1862),  directing 
him  not  to  enter  upon  further  operations 
without  his  (the  President's)  knowledge, 
satisfied  him  that  enemies  in  his  own  army 
were  at  work  against  him.   Burnside  hast- 


212 


ARMY 


ened  to  Washington  for  an  explanation, 
when  he  learned  that  general  officers  of 
his  army  had  declared  that  such  was  the 
feeling  among  the  troops  against  him  that 
the  safety  of  the  army  would  be  imperilled 
by  a  movement  under  his  direction.  He 
believed  there  was  a  secret  conspiracy 
among  the  officers  for  his  removal.  He  re- 
turned to  the  army,  determined  to  do 
what  he  might  to  retrieve  the  disaster  at 
Fredericksburg,  but  was  soon  induced  to 
return  to  Washington,  bearing  a  general 
order  for  the  instant  dismissal  or  relief 
from  duty  of  several  of  the  generals  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  whom  he 
charged  with  "  fomenting  discontent  in 
the  army."  Generals  Hooker,  Brooks,  and 
Newton  were  designated  for  instant  dis- 
missal; and  Generals  Franklin,  W.  F. 
Smith,  Cochran,  and  Ferrero,  and  Lieut.- 
Col.  J.  H.  Taylor  were  to  be  relieved  from 
duty  in  that  army.  Generals  Franklin 
and  Smith  had  written  a  joint  letter  to 
the  President  (Dec.  21)  expressing  their 
opinion  that  Burnside's  plan  of  opera- 
tions could  not  succeed,  and  substantially 
reinstated  in  command.  Burnside  was 
recommending  that  McClellan  should  be 
competent  to  issue  the  order  for  such  dis- 
missal and  relief  on  his  o^vn  responsibility, 
but  he  submitted  it  to  the  President.  The 
latter  was  perplexed.  He  talked  with 
Burnside  as  a  friend  and  brother,  and 
it  was  finally  arranged  that  the  general 
should  be  relieved  of  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  and  await  orders 
for  further  service. 

Maj.-Gen.  Joseph  Hooker  was  appointed 
Burnside's  successor.  In  making  this  ap- 
pointment the  President  wrote  a  fatherly 
letter  to  Hooker,  in  which,  after  speaking 
of  his  many  excellent  qualities  as  a  sol- 
dier, he  referred  to  his  (Hooker)  having 
been,  with  others,  to  blame  for  too  freely 
criticising  the  military  conduct  of  Burn- 
side, and  so  doing  a  great  wrong  to  him. 
He  reminded  Hooker  that  he  would  now 
be  open  to  such  criticism,  but  that  he 
(Lincoln)  would  do  what  he  might  to 
suppress  it,  for  little  good  could  be  got 
out  of  an  army  in  which  such  a  spirit  pre- 
vailed. The  army  was  then  lying,  weak 
and  demoT-Rlized,  at  Falmouth,  opposite 
Fredericksburg.  From  January  until 
April  (1863)  Hooker  was  engaged  in  pre- 
paring for  a  vigorous  summer  campaign. 


His  forces  remained  in  comparative  quiet 
for  about  three  months,  during  which  time 
they  were  reorganized  and  disciplined,  and 
at  the  close  of  April  his  army  numbered 
100,000  efTective  men.  General  Lee's  army, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  had  been 
divided,  a  large  force,  under  General  Long- 
street,  having  been  required  to  watch  the 
movements  of  the  Nationals  under  Gen- 
eral Peck  in  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk.  Lee 
had  in  hand  about  60,000  well-drilled 
troops,  lying  behind  strong  intrenchments 
extending  25  miles  along  the  line  of 
the  Rappahannock  River.  Hooker  had 
made  important  changes  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  army,  and  in  the  various  staff 
departments;  and  the  cavalry,  hitherto 
scattered  among  the  three  grand  divisions 
into  which  the  six  corps  of  the  army  had 
been  consolidated — two  corps  in  each — and 
without  organization  as  a  corps,  were  now 
consolidated  and  soon  placed  in  a  state  of 
greater  efficiency.  To  improve  them  he 
had  sent  them  out  upon  raids  within  the 
Confederate  lines,  and  for  several  weeks 
the  region  between  Bull  Run  and  the 
Rapidan  was  the  theatre  of  many  daring 
cavalry  exploits. 

To  give  more  efficiency  to  the  troops 
covering  Washington  in  1862,  they  were 
formed  into  an  organization  called  the 
"  Army  of  Virginia,"  and  placed  under  the 
command  of  Maj.-Gen.  John  Pope.  Gen- 
eral Halleck  was  then  general-in-chief  of 
all  the  armies,  with  his  headquarters  at 
Washington.  The  corps  of  the  new  army 
were  commanded,  respectively,  by  Generals 
McDowell,  Banks,  and  Sigel.  When  Mc- 
Clellan had  retreated  to  Harrison's  Land- 
ing and  the  Confederate  leaders  were  satis- 
fied that  no  further  attempts  would  then 
be  made  to  take  Richmond,  they  ordered 
Lee  to  make  a  dash  on  Washington.  Hear- 
ing of  this.  Halleck  ordered  Pope,  in  the 
middle  of  July,  to  meet  the  intended  in- 
vaders at  the  outset  of  their  raid.  General 
Rufus  King  led  a  troop  of  cavalry  that 
destroyed  railroads  and  bridges  to  within 
30  or  40  miles  of  Richmond.  Pope's 
troops  were  posted  along  a  line  from 
Fredericksburg  to  Winchester  and  Har- 
per's Ferry,  and  were  charged  with  the 
threefold  duty  of  covering  the  national 
capital,  guarding  the  valley  entrance 
into  Maryland  in  the  rear  of  Washing- 
ton, and  threatening  Richmond  from 
13 


AHMY 


the    north    as    a    diversion    in    favor    of 
McClellan. 

When  General  Grant  began  his  march 
against  Richmond  (May,  1864),  Gen. 
Benjamin  F.  Butler  was  in  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  James,  and  was  directed 
to  co-operate  with  the  Army  of  the  Po- 
tomac. Butler  prepared  to  make  a  vig- 
orous movement  against  Richmond  from 
the  south,  while  Grant  moved  from  the 
north.  Butler's  eflfective  force  was  about 
40,000  men  when  he  was  ordered  to  ad- 
vance. It  was  composed  chiefly  of  the 
ISth  Army  Corps,  commanded  by  Gen.  W. 
F.  Smith,  and  the  10th  Corps,  under  Gen. 
Q.  A.  Gillmore,  who  arrived  at  Fort 
Monroe  May  3.  Butler  successfully  de- 
ceived the  Confederates  as  to  his  real  in- 
tentions by  making  a  demonstration  tow- 
ards Richmond  by  way  of  the  York  River 
and  the  Peninsula,  along  McClellan's  line 
of  march.  On  the  night  of  May  4,  Butler's 
army  was  embarked  on  transports  and 
conveyed  around  to  Hampton  Roads-;  and 
at  dawn  the  next  morning  35,000  troops, 
accompanied  by  a  squadron  of  war  vessels 
under  Admiral  Lee,  were  rapidly  ascend- 
ing the  James  towards  City  Point,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Appomattox.  At  the  same 
time.  Gen.  A.  V.  Kautz,  with  3,000  cav- 
alry, moving  swiftly  from  Suffolk,  south 
of  the  James,  struck  the  Weldon  Railway 
south  of  Petersburg,  and  burned  a  bridge 
over  Stony  Creek,  while  Col.  R.  M.  West, 
with  1,800  cavalry  (mostly  colored  men), 
moved  from  Williamsburg  up  the  north 
bank  of  the  James,  keeping  abreast  of 
the  grand  flotilla.  The  bewildered  Con- 
federates made  no  serious  opposition  to 
these  movements.  A  division  of  National 
troops  took  quiet  possession  of  City  Point 
(May  5)  and  the  war  vessels  took  a  posi- 
tion above  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox. 
At  the  same  time  a  heavy  force  landed  on 
a  triangular  piece  of  land  between  the 
James  and  Appomattox,  called  Bermuda 
Hundred,  and  there  established  an  in- 
trenched camp.  In  the  space  of  tAvent}^- 
four  hours,  Butler  gained  an  important 
foothold  within  15  miles  of  Richmond 
in  a  straight  line,  and  only  about  8 
miles  from  Petersburg.  The  movement 
produced  great  consternation  at  Rich- 
mond; but  before  Petersburg  could  be  se- 
riously threatened  by  Butler,  Beauregard 
was  there  with  troops  from  Charleston. 


TROOPS    FURNISHED    THE    GOVERNMENT    DURING 
THE    CIVIL    WAR    FROM    1861    TO    1865. 

Under   call   of   April    15,    1861,    for 

75,000  men  for  three  months...         91,816 

Under  call  of  May  3,  1861,  for 
500,000  men  for  six  months, 
one  year,  two  years,  three  years.       700,680 

Under  call  of  July  2,  1862,  for  300,- 

000  men  for  three  years 421,465 

Under  call  of  Aug.  4,  1862,  for  300,- 

000  men  for  nine  months 87,588 

Under  proclamation,  June  15,  1863, 

men   for   six   months 16,361 

Under  call  of  Oct.  17,  1863  (in- 
cluding drafted  men  of  1863), 
and  call  of  Feb.  1,  1S64,  for 
500,000  for  three  years 317,092 

Under  call  of  March   14,   1864,  for 

200,000   for  three  years 259,515 

Militia  for  100  days,  mustered  in 
between  April  23  and  July  18, 
1864    83,612 

Under  call  of  July  18,  1864,  for 
500,000  (reduced  by  excess 
credits  of  previous  calls)  for  one 
year,  two  years,  three  years,  and 
four  years    385,163 

Under  call  of  Dec.  19,  1864,  for 
300,000  men  for  one  year,  two 
years,  three  years,  four  years...       211,752 

Other  troops  furnished  by  States 
and  Territories  which,  after  first 
call,  had  not  been  called  upon 
for  quotas  when  general  call  for 
troops  was  made 182,857 

By  special  authority  granted  May 
and  June,  1862,  New  York.  Il- 
linois, and  Indiana  furnished  for 
three  months 15,007 


Total 2,772,408 

Number  of  men  who  paid  commuta- 
tion            86,724 


Grand  total 2,859,132 


Aggregate  reduced  to  a  three  years' 

standard    2,320,272 

ACTUAL  STRENGTH  OF  THE  ARMY  BETWEEN  JAN. 
1,    1860,    AND    MAX    1,    1865. 


Date 

Roerulars. 

Volunteers. 

Total. 

Jan. 

1860. 

..16,435 

16,435 

Jan. 

1861. 

,.16,367 

16,367 

July 

1861., 

,  .16,422 

170,329 

186,751 

Jan. 

31,' 

1862. 

.  .22,425 

553,492 
613,818 

575,917 

March 

1862. 

.  .23,308 

637,126 

Jan. 

1863. . 

.  .25,463 

892.728 

918.191 

Jan. 

1864. . 

.24,636 

836,101 

860,737 

Jan. 

1865. , 

.  .22,019 

937,441 

959,460 

jSrarch 

31, 

1865. , 

..21,669 

958,417 

980,086 

May 

1, 

1865.  . 

1,000,516 

Disbanding  of  the  Union  Armies. — 
The  soldiers  of  the  great  armies  that  con- 
fronted Lee  and  Johnston  in  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  and  conquered  them,  were 
marched  to  the  vicinity  of  the  national 
capital,  and  during  two  memorable  days 
14 


ARMY— ARNOLD 


(May  22  and  23,  1865),  moved  through  nalia  of  war,  transformed  in  the  space  of 
that  city,  with  tens  of  thousands  of  moist-  150  days  into  a  vast  army  of  citizens,  en- 
ened  eyes  gazing  upon  them,  and  passed  gaged  in  the  pursuits  of  peace.  See  Civil 
in  review  before  the  chief  magistrate  of  War,  The;  Lee,  Egbert  Edward. 
the  nation  and  his  ministers.  Then  began  Army  War  College.  A  department  of 
the  work  of  disbanding  the  armies  by  mus-  the  United  States  military  educational 
tering  out  of  service  officers  and  men.  On  establishment,  authorized  by  Congress  in 
June  2  Lieutenant-General  Grant,  the  gen-  1900,  Brig.-Gen.  William  Ludlow  being 
eral-in-chief  of  the  National  armies,  issued  the  chief  of  the  board  that  drafted  the 
the  following  address  to  them:  "Soldiers  regulations.  The  object  is  to  unify  the 
of  the  Armies  of  the  United  States, — By  systems  of  instruction  at  the  four  exist- 
your  patriotic  devotion  to  your  country  in  ing  service  institutions;  to  develop  these 
the  hour  of  danger  and  alarm,  your  mag-  systems;  and  to  give  opportunity  for  the 
nificent  fighting,  bravery,  and  endurance,  most  advanced  professional  study  of  mili- 
you  have  maintained  the  supremacy  of  tary  problems.  The  officers  of  the  college 
the  Union  and  the  Constitution,  over-  exercise  supervision  over  the  course  of 
thrown  all  armed  opposition  to  the  en-  study  in  each  of  the  service  schools,  and 
forcement  of  the  laws  and  of  the  procla-  over  all  civil  institutions  to  which  the 
mation  forever  abolishing  slavery — -the  government  details  an  officer  for  military 
cause  and  pretext  of  the  rebellion — and  instruction.  The  faculty  of  the  college 
opened  the  way  to  the  rightful  authorities  study  the  military  organizations  of  the 
to  restore  order  and  inaugurate  peace  on  United  States,  with  regard  to  a  complete 
a  permanent  and  enduring  basis  on  every  understanding  of  its  efficiency,  and  con- 
foot  of  American  soil.  Your  marches,  stitute  an  advisory  board  to  which  the 
sieges,  and  battles,  in  distance,  duration,  Secretary  of  War  can  turn  at  any  time 
resolution,  and  brilliancy  of  results,  dim  for  recommendations  as  to  any  point  in  the 
the  lustre  of  the  world's  past  military  mechanism  of  the  whole  military  service, 
achievements,  and  will  be  the  patriot's  Arnold,  Abraham  Kerns,  military  offi- 
precedent  in  defence  of  liberty  and  right  cer;  born  in  Bedford,  Pa.,  March  24,  1837; 
in  all  time  to  come.  In  obedience  to  your  graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
country's  call,  you  left  your  homes  and  tary  Academy  and  brevetted  a  second 
families,  and  volunteered  in  her  defence,  lieutenant  in  1859;  colonel  of  the  8th  Cav- 
Victory  has  crowned  your  valor  and  se-  airy  in  1891.  He  served  through  the  Civil 
cured  the  purpose  of  your  patriotic  hearts ;  War  with  distinction,  and  was  awarded  a 
and  with  the  gratitude  of  your  countrymen  congressional  medal  of  honor  for  excep- 
and  the  highest  honors  a  great  and  free  tional  bravery  in  the  engagement  at 
nation  can  accord,  you  will  soon  be  per-  Davenport  Bridge,  North  Anna  River,  Va., 
mitted  to  return  to  your  homes  and  fami-  May  18,  1864.  After  the  Civil  War  he 
lies,  conscious  of  having  discharged  the  served  in  the  Indian  country.  On  May  4, 
highest  duty  of  American  citizens.  To  1898,  he  was  commissioned  a  brigadier- 
achieve  these  glorious  triumphs  and  se-  general  of  volunteers,  and  served  through 
cure  to  yourselves,  your  fellow-country-  the  American-Spanish  War.  He  was  dis- 
men  and  posterity  the  blessings  of  free  charged  from  the  volunteer  service  May 
institutions,  tens  of  thousands  of  your  12,  1899.  He  died  Nov.  23,  1901. 
gallant  comrades  have  fallen,  and  Arnold,  Benedict,  pioneer;  born  in 
sealed  the  priceless  legacy  with  their  England,  Dec.  21,  1615;  emigrated  to 
blood.  The  graves  of  these  a  grateful  Providence,  R.  I.,  about  1635;  president 
nation  bedews  with  tears,  honors  their  of  the  colony,  1657;  assistant  in  1660; 
memory,  and  will  ever  cherish  and  sup-  again  president  in  1662.  Under  the  royal 
port  their  stricken  families."  The  dis-  charter  he  was  elected  governor  of  Rhode 
banding  of  this  army  went  steadily  Island  five  times.  He  died  June  20,  1678. 
on  from  June  1,  and  by  the  middle  of  Arnold,  Benedict,  military  officer; 
autumn  786,000  officers  and  men  were  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  Jan.  14,  1741.  As 
mustered  out  of  the  service.  The  wonder-  a  boy  he  was  bold,  mischievous,  and  quar- 
ful  spectacle  was  exhibited  of  vast  armies  relsome.  Apprenticed  to  an  apothecary, 
of  men,   surrounded  by  all  the  parapher-    he  ran  away,  enlisted  as  a  soldier,  but  de- 

215 


ARNOLD,    BENEDICT 


serted.  For  four  years  (1763-67)  he  was 
a  bookseller  and  druggist  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  and  was  afterwards  master  and 
supercargo  of  a  vessel  trading  to  the  West 


BIRTHPLACE   OF    BENEDICT   ARNOLD. 

Indies.  Immediately  after  the  affair  at 
Lexington,  he  raised  a  company  of  volun- 
teers and  marched  to  Cambridge.  There 
he  proposed  to  the  Massachusetts  Com- 
mittee of  Safety  an  expedition  against 
Fort  Ticonderoga,  and  was  commissioned 
a  colonel.  Finding  a  small  force,  under 
Colonels  Easton,  Brown,  and  Allen,  on  the 
same  errand  when  he  reached  western 
Massachusetts,  he  joined  them  without 
command. 

Returning  to  Cambridge,  he  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  an  expedition  for  the  capt- 
ure of  Quebec.  He  left  Cambridge  with 
a  little  more  than  1,000  men,  composed 
of  New  England  musketeers  and  riflemen 
from  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania,  the  latter 
under  Capt.  Daniel  Morgan.  He  sailed 
from  Newburyport  for  the  Kennebec  in  the 
middle  of  September,  1775.  They  rendez- 
voused at  Fort  Western,  on  the  Kennebec 
River,  opposite  the  site  of  the  present  city 
of  Augusta,  Me.,  and  on  the  verge  of  a 
wilderness  uninhabited  except  by  a  few 
Indian  hunters.  At  Norridgewock  Falls 
their  severe  labors  began.  Their  bateaux 
were  drawn  by  oxen,  and  their  provisions 
were  carried  on  their  backs  around  the 
falls — a  wearisome  task  often  repeated  as 
they  pressed  towards  the  head-waters  of 
the  Kennebec,  often  wading  and  pushing 
their  bateaux  against  swift  currents.  At 
length  they  left  that  stream  and  traversed 
tangled  ravines,   craggy  knolls,   and  deep 


morasses,  until  they  reached  the  Dead 
River.  The  stream  flowed  placidly  on  the 
summit  of  the  water-shed  between  the  St. 
liawrence  and  the  Atlantic,  and  they 
moved  pleasantly  over  its  bosom  until 
they  encamped  at  the  foot  of  a  high  moun- 
tain capped  with  snow.  Sickness  and  de- 
sertion now  began  to  reduce  the  number  of 
effective  men.  October  was  passing  away. 
Keen  blasts  came  from  the  north.  A 
heavy  rain  fell,  and  the  water,  rushing 
from  the  hills,  suddenly  filled  the  Dead 
River  to  its  brim  and  overflowed  its 
banks.  Some  of  the  boats  were  over- 
turned and  much  provision  was  lost  or 
spoiled.  Food  for  only  twelve  days  re- 
mained. A  detachment  was  sent  to  get 
a  supply,  but  did  not  return.  The  floods 
began  to  freeze  and  the  morasses  became 
almost  impassable.  Through  ice-cold  wa- 
ter they  were  frequently  compelled  to 
wade;  even  two  women,  wives  of  soldiers, 
endured  this  hardship.  At  length  they 
reached'  the  Chaudiere  River,  that  empties 
into  the  St.  Lawrence.  Starvation  threat- 
ened. Seventy  miles 
lay  between  them 
and  Sertigan,  the 
nearest  French  set- 
tlement. Leaving 
his  troops  on  the 
banks  of  the  upper 
Chaudiere,  Arnold 
and  fifty-five  men 
started  down  the 
river  for  Sertigan 
to  obtain  food.  Two 
or  three  boats  had 
been  wrecked  just 
before  their  depart- 
ure, and  much  of 
their  scanty  supply 
of  food  was  lost.  Ar- 
nold and  his  party 
reached  the  settle- 
ment. Indians  were 
sent  back  with  pro- 
visions and  as 
guides  for  the  rest 
of  the  troops  to  the 
settlement.  When 
the  forces  were  join- 
ed they  moved  towards  the  St.  Lawrence; 
and  on  Nov.  9,  in  a  heavy  snow  -  storm, 
they  suddenly  appeared  at  Point  Levi,  op- 
posite   Quebec,    only    750    in   number.      It 


ARNOLD'S  ROUTE  THROUGH 
THE   WILDERNESS. 


216 


ARNOLD,    BENEDICT 


was  almost  two  months  after  they  left 
Cambridge  before  they  reached  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Their  sufferings  from  cold  and 
hunger  had  been  extreme.  At  one  time 
they  had  attempted  to  make  broth  of 
boiled  deer  -  skin  moccasins  to  sustain 
life,  and  a  dog  belonging  to  Henry 
(afterwards  General)  Dearborn  made 
savory  food  for  them.  In  this  expe- 
dition were  men  who  afterwards  became 
famous  in  American  history — Aaron  Burr, 
R.  J.  Meigs,  Henry  Dearborn,  Daniel  Mor- 
gan, and  others. 

Arnold  assisted  Montgomery  in  the 
siege  of  Quebec,  and  was  there  severely 
wounded  in  the  leg.  Montgomery  was 
killed,  and  Arnold  was  promoted  to  briga- 
dier-general (Jan.  10,  1776),  and  took 
command  of  the  remnant  of  the  Ameri- 
can troops  in  the  vicinity  of  Quebec.  Suc- 
ceeded by  Wooster,he  went  up  Lake  Cham- 
plain  to  Ticonderoga,  where  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  an  armed  flotilla  on  the 
lake.  With  these  vessels  he  had  disas- 
trous battles  (Oct.  11  and  13,  1776)  with 
British  vessels  built  at  St.  Johns.  Arnold 
was  deeply  offended  by  the  appointment, 
by  Congress,  early  in  1777,  of  five  of  his 
juniors  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  He 
received  the  same  appointment  soon  after- 
wards (Feb.  7,  1777),  but  the  affront  left 
an  irritating  thorn  in  his  bosom,  and  he 
was  continually  in  trouble  with  his  fellow- 
officers,  for  his  temper  was  violent  and  he 
was  not  upright  in  pecuniary  transac- 
tions. General  Schuyler  admired  him  for 
his  bravery,  and  was  his  abiding  friend 
until  his  treason.  He  successfully  went 
to  the  relief  of  Fort  Schuyler  on  the  up- 
per Mohawk  (August,  1777),  with  800 
volunteers;  and  in  September  and  October 
following  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in 
the  defeat  of  Burgoyne,  in  spite  of  Gen- 
eral Gates.  There  he  was  again  severely 
wounded  in  the  same  leg,  and  was  dis- 
abled several  months.  When  the  Brit- 
ish evacuated  Philadelphia  (June,  1778) 
Arnold  was  appointed  commander  at  Phil- 
adelphia, where  he  married  the  daughter 
of  a  leading  Tory  (Edward  Shippen),  lived 
extravagantly,  became  involved  in  debt, 
was  accused  of  dishonest  official  conduct, 
and  plotted  his  treason  against  his  coun- 
try. To  meet  the  demands  of  importu- 
nate creditors,  he  engaged  in  fraudulent 
transactions,   for   which   his   official   posi- 


tion gave  him  facilities,  and  charges  of 
dishonesty  and  malpi-actice  in  office  were 
preferred  against  him  before  the  Continen- 
tal Congress.  A  tribunal  before  which  he 
was  tried  convicted  him,  but  sentenced  him 
to  a  reprimand  only  by  the  commander-in- 
chief.  Washington  performed  the  duty 
with  great  delicacy,  but  the  disgrace 
aroused  in  the  bosom  of  Arnold  a  fierce 
spirit  of  revenge.  He  resolved  to  betray 
his  country,  and,  making  treasonable  over- 
tures to  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  kept  up  a 
correspondence  on  the  subject  for  a  long 
time  with  Maj.  John  Andre  ( g.  v.) ,  the 
a.djutant-general  of  the  British  army.  This 
correspondence  was  carried  on  mutvially 
imder  assumed  names,  and  on  the  part  of 
Arnold  in  a  disguised  hand.  Feigning 
great  patriotism  and  a  desire  to  serve  his 
country  better,  he  asked  for,  and,  through 
the  recommendation  of  General  Schuyler 
and  others,  obtained  the  command  of  the 
important  post  of  West  Point  and  its  de- 
pendencies in  the  Hudson  Highlands.  He 
arranged  with  Major  Andre  to  surrender 
that  post  into  the  hands  of  a  British  force 
which  Sir  Henry  might  send  up  the  Hud- 
son. For  this  service  he  was  to  receive 
the  commission  of  a  brigadier-general  in 
the  British  army  and  nearly  $.50,000  in 
gold.  He  made  his  headquarters  at  the 
house  of  Beverly  Robinson,  a  Tory,  op- 
posite West  Point,  and  the  time  chosen 
for  the  consummation  of  the  treason  was 
when  Washington  should  be  absent  at  a 
conference  with  Rochambeau  at  Hartford. 
Arnold  and  Andre  had  negotiated  in 
writing;  the  former  wished  a  personal 
interview,  and  arrangements  were  made 
for  it.  Andre  went  up  the  Hudson  in  the 
British  sloop  -  of  -  war  Vulture  to  Teller's 
(afterwards  Croton)  Point,  from  which  he 
was  taken  in  the  night  in  a  small  boat  to 
a  secluded  spot  near  Haverstraw,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river,  where,  in  bushes, 
he  met  Arnold  for  the  first  time.  Before 
they  parted  (Sept.  22.  1780)  the  whole 
matter  was  arranged:  Clinton  was  to  sail 
vip  the  river  with  a  strong  force,  and,  after 
a  show  of  resistance,  Arnold  was  to  sur- 
render West  Point  and  its  dependencies 
into  his  hands.  But  all  did  not  work  well. 
The  Vulture  was  driven  from  her  anchor- 
age by  some  Americans  with  a  cannon  on 
Teller's  Point,  and  when  Andre,  with 
Arnold,  at  Joshua  H.  Smith's  house,  above 
17 


ARNOLD,  BENEDICT 

Haverstraw,   looked   for   her   in   the   early  mander    (Colonel  Jameson)    did  not  seem 

morning  she  had  disappeared  from  sight,  to   comprehend   the  matter,   and  unwisely 

He  had  expected  to  return  to  the  Vulture  allowed    Andre     (who    bore   a    pass    from 

after  the  conference  was  over;  now  he  was  Arnold    in    which    he    was    called    "John 

compelled    to    cross    the    river    at    King's  Anderson")    to   send   a   letter   to   Arnold 

Ferry  and  return  to  New  York  by  land,  telling  him  of  his  detention.     Washington 


J 


Iwvs. 


UUl^>.|  -VYV^  'V^v. -V.     i^^A^U 


FAC-SIMILE    OF   ARNOLD'S    DISGUISED    HANDWRITING. 


..-^=^^^$5^^         ^^^^^^^ 


FAC-SIMILE   OF    A    PORTION   OF   ONE    OF    ANDRE'S    LETTERS. 


He  left  his  uniform,  and,  disguised  in 
citizen's  dress,  he  crossed  the  river  tow- 
ards evening  with  a  single  attendant, 
passed  through  the  American  works  at 
Verplanck's  Point  without  suspicion,  spent 
the  night  not  far  from  the  Croton  River, 
and  the  next  morning  journeyed  over  the 
Neutral  Ground  on  horseback,  with  a  full 
expectation  of  entering  New  York  before 
night.  Arnold  had  furnished  him  with 
papers  revealing  the  condition  of  the  high- 
land stronghold.  At  Tarrytown,  27  miles 
from  the  city,  he  was  stopped  (Sept.  23) 
and  searched  by  three  young  militiamen, 
who,  finding  those  papers  concealed  under 
the  feet  of  Andre  in  his  boot,  took  him  to 
the    nearest    American    post.     The    com- 

2] 


returned  from  Hartford  sooner  than  he 
expected.  He  rode  over  from  Fishkill 
towards  Arnold's  quarters  early  in  the 
morning.  Two  of  his  military  family 
(Hamilton  and  Lafayette)  went  forward 
to  breakfast  with  Arnold,  while  Washing- 
ton tarried  to  inspect  a  battery.  While 
they  were  at  breakfast  Andre's  letter  was 
handed  to  Arnold.  With  perfect  self-pos- 
session he  asked  to  be  excused,  went  to 
liis  wife's  room,  bade  her  farewell,  and, 
mounting  the  horse  of  one  of  his  aides 
that  stood  saddled  at  the  door,  rode  swift- 
ly to  the  river  shore.  There  he  entered 
his  barge,  and,  promising  the  oarsmen  a 
handsome  reward  if  they  would  row  the 
boat  swiftly,  escaped  to  the  Yulture. 


ARNOLD,    BENEDICT 


So^n  after  his  flight  to  the  British  army, 
Arnold  published  an  Address  to  the  In- 
habitants of  America,  in  which  he  at- 
tempted to  gloss  over  his  treason  by  abus- 
ing the  Congress  and  the  French  alliance. 
He  also  published  a  Proclamation  to  the 
Officers  and.  Soldiers  of  the  Continental 
Army,  in  which  he  contrasted  the  wretch- 
edness of  their  condition  with  the  prompt 
pay  and  abundant  supplies  of  the  British 
service.     To  induce  them  to  desert  he  of- 


bMlTH  6    HULbl 


fered  $15  to  every  private  soldier,  and 
to  the  officers  commissions  in  the  British 
army  according  to  their  rank  and  the 
number  of  men  they  might  bring  with 
them.  This  effort  by  a  traitor  to  corrupt 
those  whom  he  had  sought  to  betray  pro- 
duced no  result  except  to  excite  the  con- 
tempt and  scorn  of  the  American  soldiers. 
With  great  generosity  Virginia  had  sent 
her  best  troops  to  assist  the  Ca-rolinians 
iu  their  attempt  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
laid  upon  their  necks  by  Cornwallis.  To 
call  these  troops  back  from  Greene's  army, 
the  British,  at  the  close  of  1780,  sent  Ar- 
nold into  Virginia  with  a  marauding  party 
of  British  and  Tories,  about  1,600  in  num- 
ber, with  seven  armed  vessels,  to  plunder, 
distress,  and  alarm  the  people  of  that 
State.  In  no  other  way  could  Arnold  be 
employed  by  his  master,  for  respectable 
British  officers  refused  to  serve  with  him 
in  the  army.  He  arrived  at  Hampton 
Roads  on  Dec.  30,  1780.  Anxious  to  dis- 
tinguish himself,  he  immediately  pushed 
up  the  James  River  as  far  as  Richmond. 


when,  after  destroying  a  large  quantity 
of  public  and  private  stores  there  and  in 
the  vicinity  (Jan.  5,  1781),  he  withdrew 
to  Portsmouth,  opposite  Norfolk,  and 
made  that  place  his  headquarters  for  a 
while.  Earnest  efforts  were  made  to  capt- 
ure the  marauder,  but  in  vain.  Jeft'erson 
offered  $25,000  for  his  arrest,  and  Wash- 
ington detached  Lafayette,  with  1,200  men, 
drawn  from  the  New  England  and  New 
Jersey  levies,  who  marched  to  Virginia 
for  that  purpose  and  to  protect  the 
State. 

A  portion  of  the  French  fleet  went  from 
Rhode  Island  (March  8)  to  shut  Arnold 
up  in  the  Elizabeth  River  and  assist  in 
capturing  him.  Steuben,  who  was  recruit- 
ing for  Greene's  army  in  Virginia,  also 
watched  him.  The  effort  failed,  for  Arnold 
was  vigilant  and  extremely  cautious.  He 
knew  what  would  be  his  fate  if  caught. 
"  What  would  the  Americans  do  with  me, 
if  they  should  catch  me?"  Arnold  in- 
quired of  a  young  prisoner.  "  They  would 
cut  off  and  bury  with  military  honors 
your  leg  that  was  wounded  at  Saratoga, 
and  hang  the  rest  of  you,"  replied  the 
young  American  soldier.  General  Phil- 
lips joined  Arnold  (March  26)  with  more 
than  2,000  men,  and  took  the  chief  com- 
mand. The  traitor  accompanied  him  on 
another  expedition  up  the  James  River, 
in  April,  and  then  returned  to  New  York, 
for  Cornwallis,  who  came  into  Virginia 
from  North  Carolina,  refused  to  serve  with 
him. 

When  Sir  Henry  Clinton  found  that  the 
allied  armies  were  actually  going  to  Vir- 
ginia, he  tried  to  alarm  Washington  by 
threats  of  marauding  expeditions.  He 
sent  Arnold,  with  a  band  of  regulars  and 
Tories,  to  commit  atrocities  in  Connecti- 
cut. Arnold  crossed  the  Sound,  from  Long 
Island,  and  on  Sept.  6,  1781,  landed  his 
troops  on  each  side  of  the  Thames,  below 
New  London.  He  plundered  and  burned 
that  town,  and  a  part  of  his  force  took 
Fort  Griswold,  opposite,  by  storm.  It 
was  gallantly  defended  by  Colonel  Led- 
yard  and  a  garrison  of  150  poorly  armed 
militiamen.  Only  six  of  the  garrison  were 
killed  in  the  conflict,  but  after  the  sur- 
render the  British  officer  in  command 
(Colonel  Eyre)  murdered  Ledyard  with 
his  sword,  and,  refusing  to  give  quarter  to 
the  garrison,  seventy-three  were  massacred. 
19 


ARNOLD— ART 


Then  the  wounded  were  placed  in  a  bag- 
gage-wagon and  sent  down  the  slope 
towards  the  river,  with  the  intention  of 
drowning  them  in  the  stream  at  its  foot, 
but  the  vehicle  was  caught  by  an  apple- 
tree.  The  cries  of  the  sufferers  could  be 
heard  above  the  crackling  of  the  burning 
town  by  persons  across  the  river.  With 
this  atrocious  expedition  the  name  of 
Benedict  Arnold  disappears  from  the 
records  of  our  history. 

Arnold  went  to  England  at  the  close  of 
the  war,  where  he  was  despised  and 
shunned  by  all  honorable  men.  He  was 
afterwards  a  resident  of  St.  Johns,  New 
Brunswick,  engaged  chiefly  in  trade  and 
navigation,  but  was  very  unpopular.  He 
was  there  hung  in  effigy.  His  son,  James 
Robertson  (an  infant  at  the  time  of  his 
father's  treason ) ,  became  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  the  British  army.  Arnold's 
second  wife,  whom  he  married  when  she 
was  not  quite  eighteen  years  of  age,  sur- 
vived him  just  three  years.  Arnold  died 
in  obscurity,  but  in  comfortable  pecuniary 
circumstances,  in  Gloucester  Place,  Lon- 
don, June   14,   1801. 

Arnold,  Franz.     See  Liebee,  Francis. 

Arnold,  Richard,  military  officer;  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  April  12,  1828;  was 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1850.  He 
served  in  Florida,  California,  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Bull  Run,  on  the  Peninsula,  and 
was  made  chief  of  artillery  of  Banks's 
expedition  in  November,  1862.  At  Port 
Hvidson  and  in  the  Red  River  campaign  he 
rendered  important  service;  also  in  the 
capture  of  Fort  Fisher,  and  of  Fort  Mor- 
gan, near  Mobile.  He  was  brevetted  ma- 
jor-general United  States  army  in  1866. 
He  died  on  Governor's  Island,  New  York, 
Nov.  8,  1882. 

Arnold,  Samuel  Greene,  legislator 
and  author;  born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
April  12,  1821.  He  was  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1841.  After  exten- 
sive travel  in  Europe,  the  East,  and  South 
America,  he  became,  in  1852,  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Rhode  Island.  In  1861  he 
took  the  field  in  command  of  a  battery 
of  artillery.  He  was  lieutenant-governor, 
1861-62,  and  United  States  Senator  in 
1863.  He  was  the  author  of  a  History  of 
Rhode  Island.  He  died  in  Providence, 
Feb.   12,   1880. 

Aroostook   Disturbance.      In    1837-39 


the  unsettled  boundary  between  Maine  and 
New  Brunswick  nearly  led  to  active  hos- 
tilities on  the  Aroostook  River.  Maine 
sent  armed  men  to  erect  fortifications,  and 
Congress  authorized  the  President  to  re- 
sist the  encroachments  of  the  British. 
General  Scott  arranged  a  truce  and  joint 
occupation.  The  boundaries  were  finally 
adjusted  by  treaty,  Aug.  9,  1842.  See 
AsHBURTON,  Lord;  Maine;  Webster, 
Daniel. 

Arroyo,  a  seaport  in  the  district  of 
Guayama,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
island  of  Porto  Rico.  It  is  on  a  bay  of 
the  same  name,  and  has  a  population  of 
about  1,200.  Its  trade  with  the  United 
States  prior  to  the  war  with  Spain  was 
annually  from  7,000  to  10,000  hogsheads  of 
sugar,  2.000  to  5,000  casks  of  molasses,  and 
50  to  150  casks  and  barrels  of  bay-rum. 

Arsenals.  In  1901,  arsenals,  armories, 
and  ordnance  depots  were  established  at 
the  following  places:  Arsenals — -Alle- 
gheny, Pa. ;  Augusta,  Ga. ;  Benicia,  Cal. ; 
Columbia,  Tenn. ;  Fort  Monroe,  Va. ; 
Frankford,  Pa.;  Indianapolis,  Ind. ;  Ken- 
nebec (Augusta),  Me.;  New  York  (Gov- 
ernor's Island),  N.  Y. ;  Rock  Island,  111.; 
San  Antonio,  Tex. ;  Watertown,  Mass. ; 
and  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  Armory — Spring- 
field, Mass.  Poioder  Depots — St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  and  Dover,  N.  J.  Ordnance  Proving 
(rround — Sandy  Hook  (Fort  Hancock), 
N.  J. 

Art,  Metropolitan  Museum  of.  New 
York  City,  founded  by  the  action  of  a 
public  meeting  held  at  the  Academy  of 
Music  in  November,  1869.  In  April,  1870, 
a  charter  was  obtained  from  the  legislat- 
ure "  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a 
museum  and  library  of  art ;  of  encourag- 
ing and  developing  the  study  of  the  fine 
arts;  of  the  application  of  art  to  manu- 
facture and  to  practical  life;  of  advancing 
the  general  knowledge  of  kindred  subjects; 
and  to  that  end  of  furnishing  popular  in- 
struction and  recreation."  Later  the  leg- 
islature authorized  the  Park  Department 
to  erect  a  two-story  fire-proof  building  for 
its  use  in  Central  Park,  the  cost  not  to 
exceed  .$500,000,  and  also  to  set  apart  a 
tract  of  eighteen  and  a  half  acres  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Park  between  Eightieth 
and  Eighty-fifth  streets.  The  Museum  was 
formally  opened  by  the  President  of  the 
ITnited  States,  March  30,  1880.  An  addi- 
20 


ABTESIAN    WELLS— ARTHUR 


tion  on  the  south  side  and  one  on  the 
north  were  made  in  1894,  increasing  the 
total  ground  area  from  233  by  104  feet  to 
233  by  344  feet.  In  1897  a  further  ex- 
si  on  was  authorized,  for  which  an  ap- 
propriation of  $1,000,000  was  made. 

Artesian  Wells,  wells  formed  by  bor- 
ing through  upper  soil  to  strata  contain- 
ing water  which  has  percolated  from  a 
higher  level,  and  which  rises  to  that  level 
through  the  boring-tube.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  deepest  wells  in  the  United 
States: 


Pdver,  from  800  to  1,600  feet  deep,  afford- 
ing a  bountiful  supply  of  pure  water. 
The  water  from  great  depths  is  always 
warmer  than  at  the  surface. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  attempts 
to  sink  an  artesian  well  in  the  United 
States  was  made  in  Galveston,  Tex.  A 
depth  of  3,070  feet  and  9  inches  was 
reached,  without  penetrating  any  rock  or 
finding  water.  After  the  contractors  had 
reached  a  depth  of  3,000  feet,  which  was 
the  limit  stipulated  in  their  contract, 
they  were  paid  $76,000,  and  the  work  was 


Location. 

Depth. 

Bored. 

Remarks. 

St.   Louis,   Mo 

St.   Louis,   Mo 

2,197       ft. 
3,843 

2,086 

2,7751/2     " 
1,250 

1849-52 

1866-70 
1856-57 

iS48 

108,000  gallons  daily.     Salty. 

Does  not  rise  to  the  surface.    Salty. 

330,000  gallons  daily.     Mineral. 
Water   saline,    91°  Fahr.  :    no    force. 
28,800    gallons    daily.      Saline. 

Columbus,  O 

Charleston,   S.  C 

South  Dakota,  sometimes  called  the  officially  abandoned  in  1892,  the  contrac- 
"  Artesian  State,"  has  many  powerful  ar-  tors  carrying  the  work  a  few  feet  further 
tesian  wells  in  the   valley  of  the  James    as  a  matter  of  curiosity.     See  Irrigation. 


ARTHUR,    CHESTER    ALAN 


Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  twenty-first 
President  of  the  United  States,  from  Sept. 
19,  1881,  to  March  4,  1885;  Republican; 
born  in  Fairfield,  Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1830;  was 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1848; 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1854;  and  became  a  successful  prac- 
titioner. He  gained  much  celebrity  in  a 
suit  which  involved  the  freedom  of  some 
slaves,  known  as  the  "  Lemmon  case."  He 
procured  the  admission  of  colored  persons 
to  the  street-cars  of  New  York  City  by 
gaining  a  suit  against  a  railway  company 
in  1856.  Mr.  Arthur  did  efficient  service 
during  the  Civil  War  as  quartermaster- 
general  of  the  State  of  New  York.  In 
1872  he  was  appointed  collector  of  the 
port  of  New  York,  and  was  removed  in 
1878.  In  1880,  he  was  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent, and  on  the  death  of  President  Gar- 
field, Sept.  19,  1881,  he  became  Presi- 
dent. He  died  in  New  York  City,  Nov. 
18,  1886. 

Veto  of  Chinese  Immigration  Bill. — On 
April  4,  1882,  President  Arthur  sent  the 
following  veto  message  to  the  Senate: 


To  the  Senate, — After  a  careful  consid- 
eration   of    Senate    Bill    No.    71 1    entitled 

2 


"  An  act  to  execute  certain  treaty  stipu- 
lations relating  to  Chinese,"  I  herewith 
return  it  to  the  Senate,  in  which  it  origin- 
ated, with  my  objections  to  its  passage. 

A  nation  is  justified  in  repudiating  its 
treaty  obligations  only  when  they  are 
in  conflict  with  great  paramount  inter- 
ests. Even  then  all  possible  reasonable 
means  for  modifying  or  changing  these 
obligations  by  mutual  agreement  should 
be  exhausted  before  resorting  to  the  su- 
preme right  of  refusal  to  comply  with 
them. 

These  rules  have  governed  the  United 
States  in  their  past  intercourse  with 
other  powers,  as  one  of  the  family  of  na- 
tions. I  am  persuaded  that  if  Congress 
can  feel  that  this  act  violates  the  faith 
of  the  nation  as  pledged  to  China,  it  will 
concur  with  me  in  rejecting  this  particu- 
lar mode  of  regulating  Chinese  immigra- 
tion, and  will  endeavor  to  find  another 
v/hich  shall  meet  the  expectations  of 
the  people  of  the  United  States  without 
coming  in  conflict  with  the  rights  of 
China. 

The  present  treaty  relations  between 
that  power  and  the  United  States  spring 
from  an  antagonism  which  arose  between 
21 


ARTHTTR,    CHESTER    ALAN 


our  paramount  domestic  interests  and  our 
previous  relations.  The  treaty  commonly 
known  as  the  Burlingame  treaty  conferred 
upon  Chinese  subjects  the  right  of  volun- 
tary emigration  to  the  United  States  for 
the  purposes  of  curiosity  or  trade,  or  as 
permanent  residents,  and  was  in  all  re- 
spects reciprocal  as  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States  in  China.  It  gave  to  the 
voluntai-y  emigrant  coming  to  the  United 
States  the  right  to  travel  there  or  reside 
there,  with  all  the  privileges,  immuni- 
ties, or  exemptions  enjoyed  by  the  citi- 
zens or  subjects  of  the  most  favored  na- 
tion. 

Under  the  operation  of  this  treaty  it 
was  found  that  the  institutions  of  the 
United  States  and  the  character  of  its  peo- 
ple and  their  means  of  obtaining  a  live- 
lihood might  be  seriously  affected  by  the 
unrestricted  introduction  of  Chinese  labor. 
Congress  attempted  to  alleviate  this  con- 
dition by  legislation,  but  the  act  which 
it  passed  proved  to  be  in  violation  of  our 
treat}''  obligations,  and,  being  returned  by 
the  President  with  his  objections,  failed 
to  become  a  law. 

Diplomatic  relief  was  then  sought.  A 
new  treaty  was  concluded  with  China. 
Without  abrogating  the  Burlingame 
treaty,  it  was  agreed  to  modify  it  so  far 
that  the  government  of  the  United  States 
might  regulate,  limit,  or  suspend  the  com- 
ing of  Chinese  laborers  to  the  United 
States,  or  their  residence  therein,  but 
that  it  should  not  absolutely  prohibit 
them,  and  that  the  limitation  or  suspen- 
sion should  be  reasonable,  and  should 
apply  only  to  Chinese  who  might  go  to 
the  United  States  as  laborers,  other 
classes  not  being  included  in  the  limita- 
tions. This  treaty  is  unilateral,  not  re- 
ciprocal. It  is  a  concession  from  China 
to  the  United  States  in  limitation  of  the 
rights  which  she  was  enjoying  under  the 
Burlingame  treaty.  It  leaves  us  by  our 
own  act  to  determine  when  and  how  we 
will  enforce  those  limitations.  China 
may,  therefore,  fairly  have  a  right  to  ex- 
pect that  in  enforcing  them  we  will  take 
good  care  not  to  overstep  the  grant,  and 
to  take  more  than  has  been  conceded  to  us. 

It  is  but  a  year  since  this  new  treaty 
under  the  operation  of  the  Constitution, 
became  part  of  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land ;   and  the  present  act  is  the  first  at- 


tempt to  exercise  the  more  enlarged  pow- 
ers which  it  relinquishes  to  the  United 
States.  In  its  first  article,  the  United 
States  is  empowered  to  decide  whether 
the  coming  of  Chinese  laborers  to  the 
United  States,  or  their  residence  therein, 
affects  or  threatens  to  affect  our  inter- 
ests, or  to  endanger  good  order,  either 
within  the  whole  country  or  in  any  part 
of  it.  The  act  recites  that  "  in  the  opin- 
ion of  the  government  of  the  United 
States  the  coming  of  Chinese  laborers  to 
this  country  endangers  the  good  order  of 
certain  localities  thereof."  But  the  act 
itself  is  much  broader  than  the  recital. 
It  acts  upon  residence  as  well  as  immigra- 
tion, and  its  provisions  are  effective 
throughout  the  United  States.  I  think  it 
may  fairly  be  accepted  as  an  expression  of 
the  opinion  of  Congress  that  the  coming 
of  such  laborers  to  the  United  States,  or 
their  residence  here,  affects  our  interests 
and  endangers  good  order  through  the 
country.  On  this  point  I  should  feel  it 
my  duty  to  accept  the  views  of  Congress. 

The  first  article  further  confers  the 
power  upon  this  government  to  regulate, 
limit,  or  suspend,  but  not  actually  to  pro- 
hibit, the  coming  of  such  laborers  to  or 
their  residence  in  the  United  States.  The 
negotiators  of  the  treaty  have  recorded 
with  unusual  fulness  their  understanding 
of  the  sense  and  meaning  with  which 
these  words  were  used. 

As  to  the  class  of  persons  to  be  affected 
by  the  treaty,  the  Americans  inserted  in 
their  draft  a  provision  that  the  words 
"  Chinese  laborers  "  signify  all  immigra- 
tion other  than  that  for  "  teaching,  trade, 
travel,  study,  and  curiosity."  The  Chi- 
nese objected  to  this  that  it  operated  to 
include  artisans  in  the  class  of  laborers 
whose  immigration  might  be  forbidden. 
The  Americans  replied  that  they  could 
not  consent  that  artisans  shall  be  excluded 
from  the  class  of  Chinese  laborers,  for  it 
is  this  very  competition  of  skilled  labor  in 
the  cities,  where  the  Chinese  labor  immi- 
gration concentrates,  which  has  caused 
the  embarrassment  and  popular  discon- 
tent. In  the  subsequent  negotiations  this 
definition  dropped  oiit,  and  does  not  ap- 
pear in  the  treaty.  Article  II.  of  the  treaty 
confers  the  rights,  privileges,  immunities, 
and  exemptions  which  are  accorded  to 
citizens  and  subjects  of  the  most  favored 


222 


ARTHUR,    CHESTER    ALAN 

nation  upon  Chinese  subjects  proceeding  cellencies  to  the  end  that  a  limitation 
to  the  United  States  as  teachers,  students,  either  in  point  of  time  or  numbers  may- 
merchants,  or  from  curiosity.  The  Amer-  be  fixed  upon  the  emigration  of  Chinese 
iean  Commissioners  report  that  the  Chi-  laborers  to  the  United  States."  At  a  sub- 
uese  government  claimed  that  in  this  sequent  interview  they  said  that  "  by  limi- 
article  they  did,  by  exclusion,  provide  that  tations  in  number  they  meant,  for  example, 
nobody  should  be  entitled  to  claim  the  tliat  the  United  States,  having,  as  they 
benefit  of  the  general  provisions  of  the  supposed,  a  record  of  the  number  of  im- 
Burlingame  treaty  but  those  who  might  migrants  in  each  year,  as  well  as  the  total 
go  to  the  United  States  in  those  capaci-  number  of  Chinese  now  there,  that  no  more 
ties  or  for  those  purposes.  I  acecpt  this  should  be  allowed  to  go  in  any  one  year 
as  the  definition  of  the  word  "  laborers  "  in  future  than  either  the  greatest  number 
as  used  in  the  treaty.  which  had  gone  in  any  year  in  the  past, 

As  to  the  power  of  legislating  respect-  or  that  the  total  number  should  never  be 

ing  this  class  of  persons  the  new  treaty  allowed  to  exceed  the  number  now  there, 

provides  that  we  "  may  not  absolutely  pro-  As  to  limitation  of  time,  they  meant,  for 

hibit "    their    coming    or    their    residence,  example,   that  Chinese  should  be  allowed 

The  Chinese  commissioners  gave  notice  in  to  go   in  alternate  years,   or   eveiy  third 

the  outset  that  they  would  never  agree  to  year,    or    for    example,    that   they   should 

a    prohibition    of    voluntary    emigration,  not  be   allowed  to   go   for   two,   three,   or 

Notwithstanding  this,   the   United   States  five  years."     At   a   subsequent   conference 

commissioners  submitted  a  draft  in  which  the    Americans    said:  "The  Chinese    com- 

it   was   provided   that   the   United   States  missioners  have  in  their  project  explicitly 

might   "  regulate,  limit,   suspend,   or   pro-  recognized  the  right  of  the  United  States 

hibit "  it.     The  Chinese  refused  to  accept  to  use  some  discretion,  and  have  proposed 

this.       The   Americans   replied   that   they  a  limitation  as  to  time  and  number.     This 

were  willing  to  consult  the  wishes  of  the  is  the  right  to  regulate,  limit,  or  suspend." 

Chinese     government     in     preserving     the  In   one   of  the   conferences   the   Chinese 

principle  of  free  intercourse  between  the  asked  the  Americans  whether  they  could 

people  of  the  two  countries  as  established  give    them    any   idea    of    the    laws   which 

by  existing  treaties,  provided  that  the  right  would  be  passed  to  carry  the  powers  into 

of  the  United   States   government  to   use  execution.     The  Americans  answered  that 

its    discretion    in    guarding    against    any  this     could    hardly    be    done;     that    the 

possible   evils   of   immigration   of   Chinese  United    States    government    might    never 

laborers  is  distinctly  recognized.       There-  deem  it  necessary  to  exercise  this  power, 

fore,  if  such  concession  removes  all  diffi-  It  would  depend  upon  circumstances.     If 

culty   on   the   part    of   the    Chinese   com-  Chinese  immigration  concentrated  in  cities, 

missioners    (but   only   in   that   case),   the  where  it  threatened  public  order,  or  if  it 

United    States    commissioners    will    agree  confined  itself  to  localities  where  it  was 

to  remove  the  word  "  prohibit "  from  their  an  injury  to  the  interests  of  the  American 

article   and   to   use   the  words   "  regulate,  people,    the    government    of    the    United 

limit,  or  suspend."     The  Chinese  reply  to  States   would   undoubtedly   take    steps   to 

this  can  only  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  prevent    such    accumulations    of    Chinese, 

in  the  place  of  an  agreement,  as  proposed  If,   on   the   contrary,   there   was   no   large 

by  our  commissioners,  that  we  might  pro-  immigration,  or  if  there  were  sections  of 

hibit  the  coming  or  residence  of  Chinese  the  country  where  such  immigration  was 

laborers,  there  was  inserted  in  the  treaty  clearly  beneficial,   then   the  legislation  of 

an  agreement  that  we  might  not  do  it.  the  United  States  under  this  power  would 

The  remaining  words,  "  regulate,  limit,  be   adapted    to    such    circumstances.      For 

and  suspend,"  first  appear  in  the  Ameri-  example,    there    might    be    a    demand    for 

can    draft.     When    it    was    submitted    to  Chinese  labor  in  the  South  and  a  surplus 

the  Chinese  they  said :     "  We  infer   that  of  such  labor  in  California,  and  Congress 

of    the    phrases   regulate,    limit,    suspend,  might  legislate   in   accordance  with   these 

or  prohibit,  the  first  is  a  general  expres-  facts.      In   general,   the   legislation   would 

sion  referring  to  the  others.  .  .  .  We  are  be   in  view   of   and   depend   upon   circum- 

entirely  ready  to  negotiate  with  your  Ex-  stances   of   the   situation   at   the   moment 

223 


ARTHUR,    CHESTER    ALAN 

such    legislation    became    necessary.     The  return  the  act  with  this  objection  to  its 

Chinese  commissioners  said  this  explana-  passage. 

tion  was  satisfactory;  but  they  had  not  Deeply  convinced  of  the  necessity  of 
intended  to  ask  for  a  draft  of  any  special  some  legislation  on  this  subject,  and  con- 
act,  but  for  some  general  idea  of  how  the  curring  fully  with  Congress  in  many  of  the 
power  would  be  exercised.  What  had  just  objects  which  are  sought  to  be  accom- 
been  said  gave  them  the  explanation  which  plished,  I  avail  myself  of  the  opportunity 
they  wanted.  to   point  out   some  other   features   of  the 

With  this  entire  accord  as  to  the  mean-  present  act  which,  in  my  opinion,  can  be 

ing  of  the  words  they  were  about  to  em-  modified  to  advantage. 

ploy,  and  the  object  of  the  legislation  The  classes  of  Chinese  who  still  enjoy 
which  might  be  had  in  consequence,  the  the  protection  of  the  Burlingame  treaty 
parties  signed  the  treaty,  in  Article  I.  of  are  entitled  to  the  privileges,  immuni- 
which  "  the  government  of  China  agrees  ties,  and  exemptions  accorded  to  citizens 
that  the  government  of  the  United  States  and  subjects  of  the  most  favored  nation, 
may  regulate,  limit,  or  suspend  such  com-  We  have  treaties  with  many  powers 
ing  or  residence,  but  may  not  absolutely  which  permit  their  citizens  and  subjects 
prohibit  it.  The  limitation  or  suspension  to  reside  within  the  United  States  and 
shall  be  reasonable,  and  shall  apply  only  carry  on  business  under  the  same  laws 
to  Chinese  who  may  go  to  the  United  and  regulations  which  are  enforced 
States  as  laborers,  other  classes  not  being  against  citizens  of  the  United  States.  I 
included  in  the  limitations.  Legislation  think  it  may  be  doubted  whether  pro- 
taken  in  regard  to  Chinese  laborers  will  visions  requiring  personal  registration 
be  of  such  a  character  only  as  is  necessary  and  the  taking  out  of  passports  which  are 
to  enforce  the  regulation,  limitation,  or  not  imposed  upon  natives  can  be  required 
suspension  of  immigration."  of  Chinese.     Without  expressing  an  opin- 

The  first  section  of  the  act  provides  that  ion  on  that  point,  I  may  invite  the  atten- 

"  from  and  after  the  expiration  of  sixty  tion  of  Congress  to  the  fact  that  the  sys- 

days  next  after  the  passage  of  this   act,  tem  of  personal  registration  and  passports 

and  iintil  the  expiration  of  twenty  years  is  undemocratic  and  hostile  to  the  spirit 

next   after    the   passage    of    this    act,    the  of  our  institutions.     I  doubt  the  wisdom 

coming   of   Chinese   laborers   be,    and   the  of    putting    an    entering    wedge    of    this 

same   is   hereby,    suspended;    and    during  kind   into   our   laws.      A   nation   like   the 

such    suspension    it    shall    not    be    lawful  United  States,  jealous  of  the  liberties  of 

for  any  Chinese  laborer  to  come,  or  hav-  its   citizens,   may  well   hesitate   before   it 

ing  so  come  after  the  expiration  of   said  incorporates     into     its     polity     a     system 

sixty  days,  to  remain  within  the  United  which  is  fast  disappearing  in  Europe  be- 

States."  fore   the   progress   of   liberal   institutions. 

The  examination  which  I  have  made  of  A  wide  experience  has  shown  how  futile 
the  treaty  and  of  the  declarations  which  such  precautions  are,  and  how  easily  pass- 
its  negotiators  have  left  on  record  of  the  ports  may  be  borrowed,  exchanged,  or  even 
meaning  of  its  language  leaves  no  doubt  forged  by  persons  interested  to  do  so. 
in  my  mind  that  neither  contracting  party  If  it  is,  nevertheless,  thought  that  a 
in  concluding  the  treaty  of  1880  contem-  passport  is  the  most  convenient  way  for 
plated  the  passage  of  an  act  prohibiting  identifying  the  Chinese  entitled  to  the 
immigration  for  twenty  years,  which  is  protection  of  the  Burlingame  treaty,  it 
nearly  a  generation,  or  thought  that  such  may  still  be  doubted  whether  they  ought 
a  period  would  be  a  reasonable  suspension  to  be  required  to  register.  It  is  certain- 
or  limitation,  or  intended  to  change  the  ly  our  duty,  under  the  Burlingame 
provisions  of  the  Burlingame  treaty  to  treaty,  to  make  their  stay  in  the  United 
that  extent.  States,     in     the     operation     of     general 

I  regard  this  provision  of  the  act  as  a  laws   upon   them,   as   nearly  like   that   of 

breach   of   our   national    faith,   and   being  our   own   citizens   as  we   can   consistently 

unable  to  bring  myself  in  harmony  with  with  our  right  to  shut  out  the  laborers, 

the  views  of  Congress  on  this  vital  point.  No   good   purpose   is   served   in  requiring 

the  honor  of  the  country  constrains  me  to  them  to  register. 

224 


ARTHUR,    CHESTER    ALAN 


My  attention  has  been  called  by  the 
Chinese  minister  to  the  fact  that  the 
bill  as  it  stands  makes  no  provision  for 
the  transit  across  the  United  States  of 
Chinese  subjects  now  residing  in  foreign 
countries.  I  think  that  this  point  may 
well  claim  the  attention  of  Congress  in 
legislating  on  this  subject. 

I  have  said  that  good  faith  requires  us 
to  suspend  the  immigration  of  Chinese 
laborers  for  a  less  period  than  twenty 
years.  T  now  add  that  good  policy  points 
in  the  same  direction. 

Our  intercourse  with  China  is  of  recent 
date.  Our  first  treaty  with  that  power 
is  not  yet  forty  years  old.  It  is  only 
since  we  acquired  California  and  estab- 
lished a  great  seat  of  commerce  on  the 
Pacific  that  we  may  be  said  to  have 
broken  down  the  barriers  which  fenced 
in  that  ancient  monarchy.  The  Bur- 
lingame  treaty  naturally  followed.  Under 
the  spirit  which  inspired  it,  many  thou- 
sand Chinese  laborers  came  to  the  Unit- 
ed States.  No  one  can  say  that  the  coun- 
try has  not  profited  by  their  work.  They 
were  largely  instrumental  in  constructing 
the  railroads  which  connect  the  Atlantic 
with  the  Pacific.  The  States  of  the  Pa- 
cific slope  are  full  of  evidences  of  their 
industry.  Enterprises  profitable  alike  to 
the  capitalist  and  the  laborer  of  Cau- 
casian origin  would  have  been  dormant 
but  for  them.  A  time  has  now  come  when 
it  is  supposed  they  are  not  needed,  and 
when  it  is  thought  by  Congress,  and  by 
those  most  acquainted  with  the  subject, 
that  it  is  best  to  try  to  get  along  without 
them.  There  may,  however,  be  other  sec- 
tions of  the  country  where  this  species  of 
labor  may  be  advantageously  employed 
without  interfering  with  the  laborers  of 
our  own  race.  In  making  the  proposed 
experiment  it  may  be  the  part  of  wis- 
dom, as  well  as  of  good  faith,  to  fix  the 
length  of  the  experimental  period  with 
reference  to  this  fact. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  trade  of 
the  East  is  the  key  to  national  wealth 
and  influence.  The  opening  of  China  to 
the  commerce  of  the  whole  world  has  bene- 
fited no  section  of  it  more  than  the 
States  of  our  own  Pacific  slope.  The 
State  of  California  and  its  great  mari- 
time ports  especially  have  reaped  enor- 
mous advantages  from  this  source. 
I.— P  225 


Blessed  with  an  exceptional  climate,  en- 
joying an  unrivalled  harbor,  with  the 
riches  of  a  great  agricultural  and  mining 
State  in  its  rear,  and  the  wealth  of  the 
whole  Union  pouring  into  it  over  its  lines 
of  railroad,  San  Francisco  has  before  it 
an  incalculable  future  if  our  friendly  and 
amicable  relations  with  Asia  remain  un- 
disturbed. It  needs  no  argument  to  s^iow 
that  the  policy  which  we  now  propose  to 
adopt  must  have  a  direct  tendency  to  re- 
pel Oriental  nations  from  us,  and  to  drive 
their  trade  and  commerce  into  more  friend- 
ly hands.  It  may  be  that  the  great  and 
paramount  interest  of  protecting  our 
labor  from  Asiatic  competition  may  jus- 
tify us  in  a  permanent  adoption  of  this 
policy;  but  it  is  wiser  in  the  first  place 
to  make  a  shorter  experiment  with  a  view 
hereafter  of  maintaining  permanently  only 
such  features  as  time  and  experience  may 
commend. 

I  transmit  herewith  copies  of  the  papers 
relating  to  the  recent  treaty  with  China 
which  accompanied  the  confidential  mes- 
sage of  President  Hayes  to  the  Senate  of 
Jan.  10,  1881,  and  also  a  copy  of  the 
memorandum  respecting  the  act  herewith 
returned,  which  was  handed  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  by  the  Chinese  minister  in 
Washington.  Chester  A.  Arthur. 

Executive   Mansion,   Washington, 

April  Jf,  1882. 

THE  MEMORANDUM. 

1.  The  time  fixed  in  the  bill,  namely, 
twenty  years,  is  unreasonable.  The  lan- 
guage of  Article  I.  that  "  laborers "  shall 
not  be  absolutely  prohibited  from  coming 
to  the  United  States  and  that  the  "  sus- 
pension shall  be  reasonable,"  as  well  as 
the  negotiations,  indicate  that  a  brief 
period  was  intended. 

The  total  prohibition  of  the  immigra- 
tion of  Chinese  laborers  into  the  United 
States  for  twenty  years  would,  in  my 
opinion,  be  unreasonable,  and  a  violation 
of  the  meaning  and  intent  of  the  treaty. 

2.  The  inclusion  of  "  skilled  labor "  in 
the  bill  is  an  addition  to  the  words  and  in- 
tent of  the  treaty.  It  will  operate  with 
harshness  upon  a  class  of  Chinese  mer- 
chants entitled  to  admission  to  the  United 
States  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 
The  shoe  merchants  and  cigar  merchants 
of  China  manufacture  the  goods  they  sell 


ARTHUH— ASGILL 

at  their   places   of  business,   and   to   shut  30,    1775,   and   extended   March   20,   1776; 

out  the  "  skilled  labor  "  they  need  would  enacted  again,  with  little  alteration,  April 

practically  shut  them  out  as  well,  since  it  10,  180G.     Some  additions  were  made  from 

would    prevent    them    from    carrying    on  1861-65,  and  in  1874  they  were  codified  as 

their  business  in  this  country.     The  laun-  section    1,342   of  the  Revised  Statutes  of 

dryman,   who   keeps   his   shop   and   has   a  the  United  States. 

small  capital  with  which  to  prosecute  his  Artillery.     See  Explosives  for  Large 

trade,  cannot  in  any  sense  be  included  in  Guns;  Ordnance. 

the  class  of  "  laborers,"  and  the  merchant  Arts.       See     Fine     Arts  ;     Mechanic 

tailor  comes  in  the  same  category.  Arts;  Technology,  Institutes  of. 

3.  The  clauses  of  the  bill  relating  to  Asboth,  Alexander  Sandor,  military 
registration  and  passports  are  a  vexatious  officer;  born  in  Hungary,  Dec.  18,  1811. 
discrimination  against  Chinese  residents  He  had  served  in  the  Austrian  army,  and 
and  immigrants,  when  Article  II.  provides  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1848 
explicitly  that  they  shall  be  entitled  to  all  he  entered  the  insurqent  army  of  Hungary, 
the  privileges  conceded  to  the  subjects  of  He  accompanied  Kossuth  in  exile  in  Tur- 
the  most  favored  nation.  The  execution  key.  In  the  autumn  of  1851  he  came  to 
of  these  provisions  of  the  bill  will  cause  the  United  States  in  the  frigate  Missis- 
irritation,  and  in  case  of  the  loss  of  the  sippi,  and  became  a  citizen.  When  the 
passport  or  certificate  of  registration,  Chi-  Civil  War  broke  out  in  1861  he  offered  his 
nese  residents  entitled  to  remain  may  be  services  to  the  government,  and  in  July 
.forcibly  expelled  from  the  country.  he  went  as  chief  of  Fremont's  staff  to  Mis- 

4.  If  the  bill  becomes  a  law  it  will  leave  souri,  where  he  was  soon  promoted  to 
the  impression  in  China  that  its  govern-  brigadier-general.  He  performed  faith- 
ment  strangely  misunderstood  the  char-  ful  services  until  wounded  in  the  face  and 
acter  of  the  treaty,  or  that  the  Congress  one  arm,  in  Florida,  in  a  battle  on  Sept. 
has  violated  some  of  its  provisions,  and  27,  1864.  For  his  services  there  he  was 
this  will  tend  to  prejudice  the  intelligent  Jbrevetted  a  major-general  in  the  spring  of 
classes  against  the  United  States  govern-  1865,  and  in  August  following  he  resigned, 
ment  and  people,  whom  they  now  greatly  and  was  appointed  minister  to  the  Ar- 
admire  and  respect.  gentine  Republic.     The  wound  in  his  face 

5.  There  is  no  provision  in  the  bill  for  caused  his  death  in  Buenos  Ayres,  Jan. 
the   transit   across   the   United    States   of  21,  1868. 

Chinese   subjects  now  residing  in  foreign  Asbury,    Francis,    first   bishop    of   the 

countries.     Large  numbers  of  Chinese  live  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  America; 

in  Cuba,  Peru,   and  other  countries,  who  born   at   Handsworth,    Staffordshire,   Eng- 

cannot  return  home  without  crossing  the  land,  Aug.  26,  1745.     In  his  twenty- third 

territory  of  the  United  States  or  touching  year  he  became  an  itinerant  preacher  un- 

at    San    Francisco.      To    deny   this   privi-  der    the    guidance    of    John    Wesley,    and 

lege,  it  seems  to  me,  is  in  violation  of  in-  came  to  the  United  States  in   1771.     The 

ternational    law    and    the    comity    of    na-  next  year  Wesley  appointed  him  general 

tions,  and  if  the  bill  becomes  a  law  it  will  superintendent  of  the  Methodist  churches 

in   this   respect   result   in   great   hardship  in  America,  and  he  held  that  office  until 

to  many  thousands  of  innocent  Chinese  in  the    close    of    the    Revolution,    when    the 

foreign  countries.  Methodists  here  organized  as  a  body  sepa- 

Arthur,   Peter  M.,   labor  leader;   born  rate  from  the  Church  in  England.    Mr.  As- 

in   Scotland   about   1831;    emigrated   as   a  bury  was  consecrated  bishop  by  Dr.  Coke 

boy    to    America;     elected    chief    of    the  in  1784.     After  that,  for  thirty-two  years, 

locomotive  engineers  in  1876.  he    travelled    yearly   through    the   United 

Articles  of  Confederation.     See  Con-  States,  ordaining  not  less  than  3,000  min- 

federation.  Articles  of.  isters,  and  preaching  not  less  than  17,000 

Articles  of  War.    In  the  United  States,  sermons.     He  died  in  Spottsylvania,  Va., 

Congress  only  can  make  articles  of  war.  March  31,  1816. 

These    have    been    based    on    the    English  Asgill,   Sir  Charles,   British  military 

articles  and  mutiny  act.     They  were  "first  officer;    born   in   England,   April   7,    1762. 

adopted  by  the  Continental  Congress,  Julv  He    was    among   the    troops   under    Corn- 

'226 


ASGILL— ASHBURTON 


wallis  surrendered  at  Yorktown,  where  he 
held  the  position  of  captain.  Late  in  1781, 
Capt.  Joseph  Huddy,  serving  in  the  New 
Jersey  line,  was  in  charge  of  a  block-house 
on  Toms  River,  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J.  There 
he  and  his  little  garrison  were  capt- 
ured in  March,  1782,  by  a  band  of  refu- 
gee loyalists  sent  by  the  "  Board  of  As- 
sociated Loyalists "  of  New  York,  of 
which  ex-Governor  Franklin,  of  New  Jer- 
sey, was  president,  and  taken  to  that  city. 
On  April  8,  these  prisoners  were  put  in 
charge  of  Capt.  Richard  Lippincott,  a  New 
Jersey  loyalist,  who  took  them  in  a  sloop 
to  the  British  guard-ship  at  Sandy  Hook. 
There  Huddy  was  falsely  charged  with  be- 
ing   concerned    in    the    death    of    Philip 


CAPT.   CHARLES   ASGILL. 

White,  a  desperate  Tory,  who  was  killed 
while  trying  to  escape  from  his  guard. 
While  a  prisoner,  Huddy  Avas  taken  by 
Lippincott  to  a  point  at  the  foot  of  the 
Navesink  Hills,  near  the  present  light- 
houses, and  there  hanged.  Lippincott  af- 
fixed a  label  to  the  breast  of  the  murdered 
Huddy,  on  which  retaliation  was  threat- 
ened, and  ending  with  the  words,  "  Up 
goes  Huddy  for  Philip  White!" 

This  murder  created  intense  excitement 
at  Freehold,  N.  J.,  Avhere  Huddy  was 
buried,  and  the  leading  citizens  petitioned 
Washington  to  retaliate.  A  council  of  his 
officers  decided  in  favor  of  retaliation,  and 
that  Lippincott,  the  leader,  ought  to  suf- 


fer. He  was  demanded  of  Sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton. Congress  authorized  retaliation, 
and  from  among  several  British  officers, 
prisoners  of  war,  Capt.  Charles  Asgill  was 
chosen  by  lot,  to  be  executed  immediately. 
Washington  postponed  the  execution  until 
he  should  hear  from  Clinton  about  the 
surrender  of  Lippincott.  Clinton  at  once 
condemned  the  action  of  Lippincott,  and 
ordered  (April  26)  the  Board  of  Asso- 
ciated Loyalists  not  to  remove  or  ex- 
change any  prisoners  of  war  without  the 
authority  of  the  commander-in-chief.  He 
caused  the  arrest  of  Lippincott  for  trial, 
who  claimed  that  he  acted  under  orders 
of  the  Board  of  Associated  Loyalists. 
Franklin  tried  to  get  him  to  sign  a  paper 
that  he  had  acted  without  their  orders 
or  approbation,  but  he  stoutly  refused,  and 
was  acquitted.  Sir  Guy  Carleton  succeed- 
ed Clinton,  and  he  promised  that  further 
inquiry  in  the  matter  should  be  had. 
Meanwhile  months  elapsed  and  the  execu- 
tion was  postponed.  Lady  Asgill  appealed 
to  the  king  in  behalf  of  her  only  son. 
She  also  wrote  to  the  King  and  Queen  of 
France  asking  them  to  intercede  with 
AVashington.  She  also  wrote  a  touching 
letter  to  Washington,  who  was  disposed 
to  save  the  young  officer,  if  possible.  The 
King  and  Queen  of  France  did  intercede, 
and  on  Nov.  5,  1782,  Congress  resolved, 
"  That  the  commander-in-chief  be,  and 
hereby  is,  directed  to  set  Captain  Asgill 
at  liberty."  It  was  done.  The  case  of 
young  Asgill  had  created  an  intense  in- 
terest in  Europe,  and,  on  the  arrival  of 
every  ship  from  America  at  any  European 
port,  the  first  inquiry  was  about  the  fate 
of  Asgill.  In  1836,  Congress  granted  to 
Martha  Piatt,  only  surviving  child  of 
Captain  Huddy,  then  seventy  years  of  age, 
$1,200  in  money  and  600  acres  of  land,  the 
"  amount  due  Captain  Huddy  for  seven 
years'  service  as  captain  of  artillery."  As- 
gill succeeded  to  the  title  and  estate  of  his 
father,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  in 
the  British  army.  He  died  in  London, 
July  2.3,  1823.  Madame  de  Sevingg  made 
the  story  of  Captain  Asgill  the  ground- 
work of  a  tragic  drama. 

Ashburton,  Alexander  Baring,  Lord, 
English  diplomatist;  born  in  England, 
Oct.  27,  1774;  son  of  Sir  Francis  Baring, 
an  eminent  merchant;  was  employed,  in 
bis   youth,    in   mercantile    affairs,    in   the 


227 


ASHBY— ASIA 


United  States,  and  married  an  American  pox,   which   he  had   contracted   in   prison, 

wife.     In  1810  he  became  the  head  of  his  in  Sampson  county,  N.  C,  Oct.  24,  1781. 

father's   business    house;    in    1812-35    sat  Ashmun,    George,   statesman;    born   in 

in  Parliament,  and  in  1835  was  raised  to  Blandford,    Mass.,    Dec.    25,    1864;    grad- 

the  peerage  under  the  title  of  Baron  Ash-  uated  at  Yale  in  1823;  elected  member  of 

burton.      The   unsettled    condition    of    the  the  State  legislature  1833  to  1841 ;  member 

Northeastern    boundary    question    led    Sir  of  Congress  1845  to  1851 ;  president  of  the 

Kobert  Peel  to  send   Baron  Ashburton  to  Chicago  convention  which  nominated  Lin- 

the    United    States,    as    being   widely    ac-  coin   for   President   in   1860.      He   died   in 

quainted  with  American  affairs.     Here  he  Springfield,  Mass.,  July  17,  1870. 

concluded,  Aug.  9,  1842,  with  Daniel  Web-  Ashmun,  Jehudi,  missionary;   born  in 

ster,    the     "  Webster-Ashburton     Treaty,"  Champlain,   N.   Y.,   in  April,   1794;   grad- 

which   settled   the   northeastern   boundary  uated   at   Bowdoin   College   in    1816.      He 

between  the  United  States  and  the  Brit-  was    sent    with    a    reinforcement    to    Li- 

ish   dominions.     For  this   achievement  he  beria  in  1822,  where  he  acted  as  legislator, 

was  accorded,   in  both   Houses   of  Parlia-  soldier,  and  engineer  in  constructing  for- 

ment,    a    complimentary    vote    of    thanks,  tifications.      He    died    in    Boston,    Mass., 

and   an   earldom  was   offered   him,   which  Aug.  25,  1828. 

he  declined.  He  was  privy  councillor,  Asia,  The,  the  name  of  the  British 
a  trustee  of  the  British  Museum,  and  re-  man-of-war  which  brought  Governor  Try- 
oeived  the  D.C.L.  degree  from  Oxford,  on  to  New  York  (June,  1775) ,  and  anchor- 
He  died  in  Longleat,  England,  May  13,  ed  off  the  Battery,  foot  of  Broadway.  A 
1848.     See  Webster,  Daniel.  party  led  by  John  Lamb,  a  captain  of  ar- 

Ashby,  Turner,  military  officer;  born  tillery,  proceeded,  on  the  evening  of  Aug. 
in  Rose  Hill,  Fauquier  co.,  Va.,  in  1824.  23,  to  remove  the  cannons  fi-om  that  bat- 
When  the  Civil  War  began  he  raised  a  tery  and  the  fort  (for  war  seemed  inevi- 
regiment  of  Confederate  cavalry,  which  table)  and  take  them  to  a  place  of  safety, 
soon  became  celebrated.  He  covered  the  There  was,  also,  an  independent  corps,  un- 
retreat  of  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson  from  at-  der  Colonel  Lasher,  and  a  body  of  citizens, 
tacks  by  General  Banks  and  General  Fre-  guided  by  Isaac  Sears.  The  captain  of 
niont,  skirmishing  with  the  vanguard  of  the  Asia,  informed  of  the  intended  move- 
each  ;  and  he  was  made  a  brigadier-gen-  ment,  sent  a  barge  filled  with  armed  men 
eral  in  the  Confederate  army  in  1862.  to  watch  the  patriots.  The  latter,  in- 
He  was  killed  in  an  encounter  preced-  discreetly,  sent  a  musket-ball  among  the 
ing  the  battle  of  Cross  Keys,  June  6,  men  in  the  barge,  killing  and  wounding 
1862.  several.      It   was    answered    by    a    volley. 

Ashe,   John,   military   officer;    born   in  The  Asia  hurled  three  round  shot  ashore 

Grovely,   Brvmswick   co.,   N.   C,   in    1720;  in    quick    succession.      Lamb   ordered    the 

was  in  the  North  Carolina  legislature  for  drums  to  beat  to  arms;    the  church-bells 

several  year.s,   and  was   speaker  in   1762-  in  the  city  were  rung,  and,  while  all  was 

65.     He  warmly  opposed  the  Stamp  Act;  confusion   and   alarm,   the   war-ship   fired 

assisted  Governor  Tryon  in  suppressing  the  a    broadside.       Others    rapidly    followed. 

Regulator  movement  in  1771,  but  soon  af-  Several  houses  were  injured  by  the  grape 

forwards  became  a  zealous  Whig.    He  was  and  round  shot,  and  three  of  Sears's  party 

an  active  patriot,  and  because  he  led  500  v/ere  killed.     Terror  seized  the  inhabitants 

men  to  destroy  Fort  Johnson  he  was  de-  as  the  rimior  spread  that  the  city  was  to 

nounced  as   a   rebel.     Raising  and  equip-  be  sacked  and  burned.     Hundreds  of  men, 

ping  a  regiment  at  his   own   expense,  he  women,   and   children  were   seen,   at  mid- 

was    appointed    brigadier-general    of    the  night,  hurrying  from  the  town  to  places 

Wilmington  District  in  April,   1776.     He  of   safety.     The   exasperation   of  the  citi- 

joined     Lincoln     in     South     Carolina     in  zens  was  intense;  and  Tryon,  taking  coun- 

1778;  and  after  he  was  defeated  at  Brier  sel   of  his   fears,  took   refuge  on   another 

Creek,  in  March,  1779,  he  returned  home,  vessel  of  war  in  the  harbor,  whence,  like 

General  Ashe  suffered  much  at  the  hands  Dunmore,    he    attempted    to    exercise    au- 

of   the   British    at   Wilmington    after   the  thority  as  governor.     Among  the  citizens 

battle    at    Guilford,    and    died    of    small-  led    by    Sears    was    Alexander    Hamilton, 

228 


ASSAY    OFFICES— ASTORIA 


then  a  student  in  King's  College,  eighteen 
years  of  age.  The  cannon  were  removed 
from  the  battery  and  fort,  and  did  good 
service  in  the  patriot  cause  afterwards. 

Assay  Ofla.ces  in  the  United  States  are 
government  establishments  where  the 
precious  metals  are  officially  tested  to 
determine  their  purity.  In  1901  these 
offices  were  located  in  New  York  City; 
Boise  City,  Idaho;  Helena,  Mont.;  Den- 
ver, Col.;  Seattle,  Wash.;  San  Francisco, 
Cal. ;  Charlotte,  N.  C;  and  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
See  Coinage. 

Assessment  of  Taxes.  See  George, 
Hexry;  Single  Tax. 

Assignment.    See  Bankruptcy  Law. 

Assiniboine  Indians,  a  branch  of  the 
Dakota  family,  inhabiting  each  side  of  the 
boundary-line  between  the  United  States 
and  British  America  in  Montana  and 
Manitoba.  In  1871  their  number  in  the 
United  States  was  estimated  at  4,850,  and 
in  1900  there  were  1,316,  nearly  equally 
divided  at  the  Fort  Peck  and  Fort  Bel- 
knap agencies  in  Montana. 

Assumption.  In  1790  Hamilton  pro- 
posed that  the  general  government  as- 
sume the  debts  of  the  thirteen  colonies. 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  South  Carolina  opposed 
the  plan,  while  New  Hampshire,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia,  Maryland,  Georgia,  and 
North  Carolina  favored  it.  Southern 
support  was  secured  by  agreeing  to  fix 
the  national  capital  on  the  Potomac.  By 
the  act  passed  Aug.  4,  1790  the  State 
debts,  amounting  to  $21,500,000,  were  as- 
sumed by  the  general  government. 

Astor  Family.  John  Jacob,  the  found- 
er, was  born  in  Waldorf,  Germany,  July 
17,  1763.  He  remained  in  London  until 
he  was  twenty,  when  he  began  the  fur 
business  in  New  York.  He  built  up  a 
vast  fur-trade  with  the  Indians,  extending 
his  business  to  the  mouth  of  Columbia 
River,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  he  found- 
ed the  trading  station  of  Astoria  in  1811. 
By  this  and  other  operations  in  trade,  and 
by  investments  in  real  estate,  he  accumu- 
lated vast  wealth.  He  bequeathed  $400,- 
000  for  establishing  a  library  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  which  for  many  years  was 
known  by  his  name,  and  now  forms  a  part 
of  the  New  York  Public  Library.  He  died 
in  New  York  City,  March  29,  1848. 

His    son    William    Backhouse;    born 


JUll.N    JAC'JB    ASTOU. 


Sept.  19,  1792;  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Heidelberg  and  Gottingen.  He  added  to 
the  endowment  of  the  Astor  Library,  and 
gave  largely  to  public  charities.  He  died 
Nov.  24,  1875. 

John  Jacob,  son  of  William  B. ;  born 
June  10,  1822;  served  on  the  staff  of  Gen- 
eral McClellan  during  the  Civil  War; 
promoted  brigadier-general  for  meritorious 
services  during  the  Peninsular  campaign, 
1865;  declined  the  post  of  United  States 
minister  to  England,  1876;  added  largely 
to  the  Astor  Library  and  other  public 
purposes.     He  died  Feb.  22,  1890. 

William,  son  of  William  B. ;  born  July 

12,  1830;  bequeathed  $50,000  to  the  Astor 
Library,  and  $150,000  to  other  public  in- 
stitutions.    He  died  April  25,  1892. 

William  Waldorf,  grandson  of  Will- 
iam B.;  born  March  31,  1848;  United 
States  minister  to  Italy,  1882-85;  removed 
to  England  in  1891,  and  became  a  British 
subject. 

John  Jacob,  son  of  William;  born  July 

13,  1864;  served  on  the  stalT  of  General 
Shaffer  during  the  war  with  Spain. 

Astoria,  a  city  in  Oregon,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  River,  founded  in  1810  by 
John  Jacob  Astok  (q.  v.).  In  1900  the 
population  was  8,381.     See  Oregon. 


229 


ASTOB,    LIBBABY— ATLANTA 


Astor  Library.  See  New  York  Public 
Library. 

Astor  Place  Riot.  See  Forrest, 
Edwin;  Macready,  William  Charles. 

Asylums.     See  Soldiers'  Homes. 

Athabasca  Indians,  a  nation  of  North 
American  Indians  divided  into  two  great 
families,  one  bordering  on  the  Eskimos  in 
the  Northwest,  and  the  other  stretching 
along  the  Mexican  frontier  from  Texas  to 
the  Gulf  of  California.  The  domain  of 
the  Northern  family  extends  across  the 
continent  from  Hudson  Bay  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  There  are  some  smaller  bands  of 
the  same  nation,  scattered  along  the  Pa- 
eilic  coast  from  Cook's  Inlet  to  Umpqua 
River,  in  Oregon.  The  Northern  family  is 
divided  into  a  large  number  of  tribes,  none 
of  them  particularly  distinguished.  The 
population  of  the  Northern  family  is  esti- 
mated at  32,000,  that  of  the  scattered 
bands  at  25,000,  and  the  Southern  family 
at  17,000.  The  latter  inchides  the  Navajos 
and  those  fierce  rovers,  the  Apaches,  with 
which  the  government  of  the  United  States 
has  had  much  to  do.  The  Southern  family 
also  includes  the  Lipans  on  the  borders  of 
Texas.  The  Athabascans  are  distinguished 
for  their  heavy  beards,  short  hands  and 
feet,  and  square,  massive  heads.  They  de- 
rive their  name  from  Lake  Athabasca,  in 
British  North  America,  in  lat.  59°  N.,  and 
half  -  way  between  Hudson  Bay  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  They  claim  to  have 
come  from  the  West,  over  a  series  of  isl- 
ands, and  from  a  land  covered  with  snow. 
Some  observers  trace  in  their  language 
and  features  a  resemblance  to  the  Tartar 
race. 

Atherton  Gag,  The,  the  name  applied 
to  a  resolution  introduced  into  the  na- 
tional House  of  Representatives  by  Charles 
G.  Atherton,  of  New  Hampshire,  provid- 
ing that  all  petitions  and  papers  relating 
to  the  subject  of  slavery  should  be  "  laid 
on  the  table  without  being  debated,  print- 
ed, or  referred."  The  resolution,  which 
was  designed  to  prevent  discussion  of  the 
slavery  question,  was  passed  Dec.  II,  1838, 
and  was  rescinded  in  1845. 

Atkinson,  Edward,  economist;  born  in 
Erookline,  Mass.,  Feb.  10,  1827;  was  edu- 
cated in  private  schools  and  at  Dartmouth 
College;  and  is  most  widely  known  by  his 
numerous  publications  on  economic  sub- 
jects,   treating    of    banking,    competition. 


cookery,  mechanic  arts,  the  tariff,  insur- 
ance, etc.  He  invented  an  improved  cook- 
ing -  stove  called  the  "  Aladdin  Cooker." 
Soon  after  Dewey's  victory  in  Manila 
Bay,  Mr.  Atkinson  became  vice-president 
of  the  Anti-Imperialist  League,  and  when 
it  was  evident  that  the  United  States 
would  retain  the  Philippine  Islands,  the 
League  jaroduced  three  tracts,  entitled 
Criminal  Aggression  by  Whom?  The  Hell 
of  War  and  Its  Penalties;  and  The  Cost  of 
the  National  Crime.  Gen.  Elwell  S.  Otis, 
commander  of  the  United  States  troops  in 
the  Philippines,  early  in  1899  notified  the 
War  Department  that  several  seditious 
tracts,  mailed  in  the  United  States,  had 
been  received  by  many  officers  and  men  in 
his  command.  After  investigation  in- 
structions were  given  to  the  Postmaster- 
General  to  inform  Mr.  Atkinson  and  all 
postmasters  in  the  United  States  that  the 
mails  would  be  closed  to  further  trans- 
mission of  the  publications.  In  justifica- 
tion of  his  action,  Mr.  Atkinson  declared 
that  the  tracts  referred  to  were  reprints 
from  government  publications  and  as  such 
were  rightfully  entitled  to  circulation 
through  the  mails.  Mr.  Atkinson's  pub- 
lications include  The  Distribution  of  Prod- 
ucts (1885);  Industrial  Progress  of  the 
Nation  (1889)  ;  The  Science  of  Nutrition 
(1892);  Taxation  and  Work  (1892); 
Every  Boy  His  Oion  Book  (1893),  etc. 
See  Acquisition  of  Territory;  Annex- 
ed Territory,  Status  of  ;  Anti  -  Expan- 
sion ;  Imperialism. 

Atlanta,  city,  county  -  seat  of  Fulton 
county,  and  capital  of  the  State  of 
Georgia;  171  miles  north  by  west  of  Au- 
gusta ;  popularly  known  as  "  The  Gate 
City " ;  is  noted  for  the  historical  events 
of  which  it  was  the  centre,  for  its  exten- 
sive commercial  and  manufacturing  inter- 
ests, and  for  its  educational  institutions. 
In  its  suburbs  is  Fort  McPherson,  one  of 
the  most  complete  of  the  modern  military 
posts  in  the  country.  Cotton  expositions 
were  held  here  in  1881  and  1895.  The 
population  in  1890  was  65,533;  in  1900, 
89,872. 

In  the  Civil  War  the  main  National  and 
Confederate  armies  remained  quiet  in  their 
camps  after  their  arrival  at  the  Chatta- 
hoochee until  the  middle  of  July,  1864. 
Sherman  was  8  miles  from  the  city.  On 
the   17th  he  resumed  offensive  and  active 


230 


ATLANTA 


operations,  by  throwing  Thomas's  army 
across  the  Chattahoochee,  close  to  Scho- 
field's  right,  with  directions  to  move  for- 
ward. McPherson  moved  against  the  rail- 
way east  of  Decatur,  and  destroyed  (July 
18)  4  miles  of  the  track.  Schofield  seized 
Decatur.  At  the  same  time  Thomas  crossed 
Peach-tree  Creek,  on  the  19th,  in  the  face 
of  the  Confederate  intrenchments,  skir- 
mishing heavily  at  every  step.  At  this 
juncture,  General  Rousseau,  who  had 
swept  through  Alabama 
and  northern  Georgia, 
joined  Sherman  with 
2,000  cavalry.  On  the  20th 
the  National  armies  had 
all  closed  in,  converging 
towards  Atlanta,  and  at 
4  P.M.  the  Confederates, 
under  Hood,  made  a  sor- 
tie, and  struck  Hooker's 
corps  with  great  strength. 
The  Confederates  were  re- 
pulsed and  driven  back  to 
their  intrenchments.  The 
entire  National  loss  in  this 
conflict  was  1,500  men; 
Sherman  estimated  that 
of  the  Confederates  at  not 
less  than  5,000  men.  Hood 
left  on  the  field  500  dead, 
1,000  severely  wounded, 
and  many  prisoners.  On 
the  morning  of  the  21st 
the  Confederates  had 
abandoned  their  position 
on  the  south  side  of  Peach- 
tree  Creek,  and  Sherman 
believed  they  were  evacu- 
ating Atlanta.  He  pressed 
on  towards  the  to\\'Ti  in  a 
narrow  semicircle,  when, 
at  the  average  distance  of 
2  miles  from  it,  the  Nationals  were 
confronted  by  an  inner  line  of  intrench- 
ments much  stronger  than  the  one  just 
abandoned.  Behind  these  swarmed  a  Con- 
federate host.  On  the  22d,  McPherson 
moved  from  Decatur  to  assail  this  strong 
line;  Logan's  corps  formed  his  centre, 
Dodge's  his  right,  and  Blair's  his  left.  The 
latter  had  driven  the  Confederates  from 
a  commanding  eminence  the  evening  be- 
fore, and  the  Nationals  proceeded  to  plant 
a  battery  upon  it. 

Hood   had    left    a    sufBcient   number    of 


troops  in  front  of  Sherman  to  hold  them, 
and,  by  a  night  march  to  the  ilank  and 
rear  of  the  Nationals,  struck  them  a  severe 
and  unexpected  blow.  It  fell  with  heavi- 
est force  on  the  division  of  Gen.  G.  A. 
Smith,  of  Blair's  corps.  McPherson  had 
ridden  from  Sherman  to  Dodge's  moving 
column,  and  had  entered  a  wood  almost 
alone,  for  observation,  in  the  rear  of 
Smith's  column.  At  that  moment  Hardee 
charged  upon  the  Nationals,  and  his  men 


THE   FORTIFICATIONS   A  BOUND    ATLA.N'TA: 

were  pouring  into  a  gap  between  Blair  and 
Dodge.  McPherson  had  just  given  an  or- 
der from  his  place  in  the  wood  for  a  bri- 
gade to  fill  that  gap,  when  the  bullet  of  a 
sharp-shooter  killed  him.  His  body  was  re- 
covered during  the  heat  of  the  battle  that 
ensued.  Logan  immediately  took  command 
of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee.  At  that 
moment  the  battle  was  general  all  along 
the  line,  and  raged  fiercely  for  several 
hours.  At  4  p.m.  there  was  a  brief  lull  in 
the  contest.  Then  a  charge  of  the  Con- 
federates broke  Logan's  line,  pushed  back 
31 


ATLANTA— ATLANTIC  TELEGRAPH 


a  brigade  in  much  disorder,  and  took  pos- 
session of  two  important  batteries.  Sher- 
man ordered  up  reinforcements,  and  Lo- 
gan soon  recovered  the  ground  lost.  Very 
soon  the  Confederates  gave  way  and  fell 
back  to  their  defences. 

The  losses  on  both  sides  were  heavy. 
That  of  the  Nationals  was  3,722,  of  whom 
about  1,000  were  prisoners.  Generals 
Thomas  and  Schofield  having  well  closed 
up,  Hood  was  firmly  held  behind  his  inner 
line  of  intrenchments.  Sherman  concluded 
to  make  a  flank  movement,  and  sent  Stone- 
man  with  about  5,000  cavalry,  and  Mc- 
Cook  with  another  mounted  force,  includ- 
ing Rousseau's  cavalry,  to  destroy  the 
railways  in  Hood's  rear.  McCook  per- 
formed his  part  well,  but  Stoneman,  de- 
parting from  Sherman's  instructions,  did 
not  accomplish  much.  Simultaneously 
with  these  raids,  Slocum  began  (July  27) 
a  flanking  movement  from  Atlanta.  Hood 
had  penetrated  Sherman's  design,  knew 
of  changes  in  his  army,  and  acted  prompt- 
ly. Under  cover  of  an  artillery  fire,  he 
moved  out  with  the  larger  part  of  his 
army  (July  28),  with  the  expectation  of 
finding  Howard's  forces  in  confusion.  He 
was  mistaken,  and  disastrous  consequences 
followed.  He  threw  heavy  masses  of  his 
troops  upon  Logan's  corps  on  Howard's 
right,  and  was  met  by  a  fire  that  made 
fearful  havoc  in  their  ranks.  They  re- 
coiled, but  returned  to  the  attack  again 
and  again.  The  battle  raged  fearfully 
from  noon  until  about  4  p.m.,  when  the 
Confederates  retired  to  their  intrench- 
ments, leaving  several  hundred  of  their 
dead  on  the  field.  Hood's  entire  loss  in 
this  struggle  was  about  5,000  men;  that 
of  the  Nationals  did  not  exceed  600.  Lo- 
gan captured  2,000  muskets,  and  took  233 
prisoners.  Sherman  extended  his  right 
along  an  intrenched  line  to  the  junction 
of  two  railways  at  East  Point,  over  which 
came  the  supplies  for  Atlanta  and  Hood's 
army;  and  the  latter,  extending  a  parallel 
line  of  works,  stood  on  the  defensive. 
Sherman's  long  -  range  guns  kindled  de- 
structive fires  in  Atlanta.  At  length  Hood, 
who  had  lost  half  his  infantry  in  rash  en- 
counters, in  sheer  desperation  sent  out 
Wheeler  with  his  cavalry  to  break  up 
Sherman's  communications  and  capture 
supplies.  Kilpatrick  made  a  successful 
counter-movement. 


On  the  25th  all  of  Sherman's  munitions 
of  war,  supplies,  and  sick  and  wounded 
men  were  sent  to  his  intrenched  position 
on  the  Chattahoochee,  the  siege  of  At- 
lanta was  raised,  and  the  Nationals  began 
a  grand  flanking  movement,  which  events 
had  delayed,  and  which  finally  caused 
Hood  to  abandon  the  coveted  post,  cross 
the  Chattahoochee,  and  make  a  formidable 
raid  upon  Sherman's  communications. 
The  Nationals  entered  Atlanta  as  victors 
on  Sept.  2,  1864,  and  the  national  flag  was 
unfurled  over  the  court-house.  Two  days 
afterwards,  Sherman  issued  an  order  for 
the  inhabitants  to  leave  the  town  within 
five  days,  that  the  place  might  be  appi'opri- 
ated  to  military  purposes.  He  deemed  the 
measure  humane,  under  the  circum- 
stances, for  he  expected  the  Confeder- 
ates to  attack  him  there.  To  a  remon- 
strance by  Hood,  he  replied,  "  God  will 
judge  me  in  good  time,  and  He  will  pro- 
novmce  whether  it  be  more  humane  to 
fight  with  a  town  full  of  women  and  the 
families  of  a  brave  people  at  our  backs,  or 
to  remove  them  in  time  to  places  of  safety 
among  their  o^vn  friends."  In  a  few  days 
Atlanta  was  thoroughly  evacuated  by  the 
civilians. 

Atlantic  Ocean.  See  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey.  Uxited  States. 

Atlantic  Telegraph.  In  1843  (Aug. 
10),  Prof.  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  who  had 
endowed  the  electro-magnetic  telegi'aph 
with  intellectual  power,  in  a  letter  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States,  remarked,  after  alluding  to  recent 
experiments,  "  The  practical  inference 
from  this  law  is,  that  a  telegraphic  com- 
mvmication  on  my  plan  may,  with  cer- 
tainty, be  established  across  the  Atlantic. 
Startling  as  this  may  noiv  seem,  the  time 
will  come  when  this  project  will  be  real- 
ized." Almost  eleven  years  afterwards  an 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  telegraphic 
communication  between  America  and  Eu- 
rope by  means  of  an  insulated  metallic 
cable  under  the  sea.  Cyrus  W.  Field,  a 
New  York  merchant,  was  applied  to  for 
aid  in  completing  a  land  line  of  telegraph 
on  the  Morse  plan,  then  in  the  course  of 
construction  across  Newfoundland — about 
400  miles.  The  question  occurred  to  him, 
"  Why  not  carry  the  line  across  the 
ocean?"  and  with  his  usual  pluck  and  en- 
ergy he  proceeded  to  the  accomplishment 


232 


ATLANTIC    TELEGBAPH 


of  such  an  enterprise.  On  March  10,  1854, 
five  gentlemen  met  at  the  house  of  Mr. 
Field,  on  Gramercy  Park,  New  York,  and 
signed  an  agreement  for  an  association 
called  "  The  New  Yorlv,  Newfoundland,  and 
London  Telegraph  Company."  They  ob- 
tained from  the  legislature  of  Newfound- 
land a  charter  guaranteeing  an  exclusive 
right,  for  fifty  years,  to  establish  a  tele- 
graph from  the  American  continent  to  that 
island,  and  thence  to  Europe.  These  gen- 
tlemen Avere  Peter  Cooper,  Moses  Taylor, 
Marshall  0.  Roberts,  Chandler  White,  and 
Cyrus  W.  Field.  Twenty-five  years  after- 
wards, all  but  one  (Mr.  White)  were  liv- 
ing, and  again  met  in  the  same  room,  and 
around  the  same  table  whereon  that  asso- 
ciation was  signed,  with  the  same  attor- 
ney of  the  association  then  engaged, 
David  Dudley  Field. 

Mr.  Cooper  was  chosen  president  of  the 
company.  Mr.  Field  procured  a  cable  in 
England  to  span  the  waters  between  Cape 
Ray  and  Cape  Breton  Island.  It  was  sent 
out  in  185.5,  and  was  lost  in  an  attempt 
to  lay  it.  It  was  recovered,  and  was  suc- 
cessfully laid  in  1856.  The  same  year  Mr. 
Field  organized  in  London  the  "  Atlantic 
Telegraph  Company "  to  carry  the  line 
across  the  ocean.  Mr.  Field  subscribed 
for  one-fourth  of  the  stock  of  the  com- 
pany. The  American  and  British  govern- 
ments gave  them  aid  in  ships,  and  during 
1857  and  1858  expeditions  were  at  sea, 
laying  a  cable  across  the  ocean  to 
Valentia  on  the  western  coast  of  Ire- 
land. Twice,  in  1857,  the  attempt 
failed,  but  was  successful  the  follow- 
ing year.  Two  vessels,  with  portions  of 
the  cable,  met  in  mid-ocean,  July  28,  1858. 
The  portions  were  spliced,  and  they  sailed 
for  Ireland  and  Newfoundland  respective- 
ly, and  succeeded  in  laying  a  continuous 
line  across  the  Atlantic.  It  was  1,950 
miles  in  length,  and  traversed  water  two- 
thirds  of  the  distance  over  2  miles  in 
depth.  These  wonderful  facts  were  com- 
municated by  Mr.  Field,  by  telegram, 
from  Trinity  Bay,  Newfoundland,  on  Aug. 
5,  1858,  and  created  intense  interest  all 
over  the  country. 

The  first  public  messages  across  the  At- 
lantic were  transmitted,  Aug.  16,  1858,  by 
Queen  Victoria  to  President  Buchanan, 
and  by  him  in  an  immediate  reply,  in 
which   they   congratulated   each   other   on 


the  success  of  the  enterprise  by  which  the 
two  countries  were  connected  by  such  a 
mysterious  tie.  The  Queen  hoped  that  it 
would  "  prove  an  additional  link  between 
the  nations,  whose  friendship  is  founded 
upon  their  common  interest  and  reciprocal 
esteem."  To  this  the  President  cordially 
responded,  and  asked :  "  Will  not  all  na- 
tions of  Christendom  spontaneously  unite 
in  the  declaration  that  it  shall  be  for- 
ever neutral,  and  that  its  communications 
shall  be  held  sacred  in  passing  to  their 
places  of  destination  even  in  the  midst  of 
hostilities?"  Bonfires  and  illuminations 
throughout  the  Union  followed  these  com- 
munications. The  London  Times  said 
(Aug.  6,  1858),  "Since  the  discovery  of 
Columbus,  nothing  has  been  done  in  any 
degree  comparable  to  the  vast  enlargement 
which  has  thus  been 'given  to  the  sphere 
of  human  activity."  In  a  very  short  time 
the  cable  ceased  to  work,  and  it  was  pro- 
nounced a  failure.  It  Avas  even  intimated 
that  the  reputed  despatches  were  only  part 
of  a  huge  fraud.  Mr.  Field's  faith  never 
faltered,  though  discouragements  that 
would  have  paralyzed  the  energies  of  most 
men  were  encountered.  He  crossed  the  At- 
lantic several  times  to  resuscitate  the  com- 
pany. The  cable  had  cost  $1,256,250,  and 
the  expenses  of  the  company  up  to  Dec. 
1,  1858,  amounted  to  $1,834,500.  The 
Civil  War  broke  out  in  1861,  and  it  was 
not  until  1865  that  another  expedition  to 
lay  a  cable  was  fitted  out.  The  Great 
Eastern  then  carried  an  improved  cable. 
While  laying  it,  a  sudden  lurch  of  the  ship 
snapped  the  line,  and  it  was  lost.  The 
company  was  discouraged.  Mr.  Field 
went  to  Thomas  Brassey,  a  great  and 
liberal  English  capitalist,  and  told  him 
that  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Company  had 
suddenly  come  to  a  stand-still.  "  Mr. 
Held,"  said  Mr.  Brassey,  "  don't  be  dis- 
couraged ;  go  down  to  the  company  and 
tell  them  to  go  ahead,  and,  whatever  the 
cost,  I  will  bear  one-tenth  of  the  whole." 
That  company  and  the  "  Telegraph  Con- 
struction and  Maintenance  Company " 
joined  in  forming  a  new  association  known 
as  the  "  Anglo-American  Telegraph  Com- 
pany," Avith  a  capital  of  $3,000,000.  An- 
other cable  Avas  laid,  and  permanent  elec- 
tric communication  betAveen  Europe  and 
America  AA^as  established  July  27,  1866. 
After   tAvelve  years  of  hard   and  anxious 


233 


AT    LEE— AUCHMITTY 


labor,  during  which  time  Mr.  Field  crossed 
the  ocean  nearly  fifty  times,  he  saw  the 
great  work  accomplished.  He  had  been 
nobly  aided  by  men  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. Congress  voted  him  the  thanks  of  the 
nation  and  a  gold  medal,  while  the  Prime 
Minister  of  England  declared  that  it  was 
only  the  fact  that  he  was  a  citizen  of  an- 
other country  that  prevented  his  receiving 
high  honors  from  the  British  government. 
The  glory  of  his  achievement  transcends 
all  that  man  could  bestow.  See  Cables, 
Ocean  ;  Field,  Cyrus  W. 

At  Lee,  Samuel  John,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1738.  He 
commanded  a  company  of  Pennsylvanians 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Entering 
the  Continental  army,  Pennsylvania  line, 
he  commanded  a  battalion  in  the  battle 
of  Long  Island,  Aug.  27,  1776,  where  he 
was  made  prisoner  and  remained  some 
time  in  the  hands  of  the  British.  After- 
wards he  was  appointed  a  commissioner 
to  treat  with  the  Indians.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  Congress  from  1778 
to  1782.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Novem- 
ber, 1786. 

Atlixco,  Battle  at.  General  Lee 
marched  from  Puebla  (Mexico)  in  Oc- 
tober, 1847,  to  attack  the  Mexican  Gen- 
eral Rea,  of  Santa  Ana's  army,  at  Atlixco, 
30  miles  from  that  place.  Lane's  cavalry 
first  encountered  Pea's  advanced  guard, 
and  skirmished  until  the  arrival  of  his 
infantry,  when  the  Mexicans  fell  back  tow- 
aids  A.tIixco,  keeping  up  a  running  fight. 
Less  than  2  miles  from  that  place  their 
main  body  was  discovered  (Oct.  18,  1847). 
Lane's  cavalry  dashed  in  among  them  and 
drove  them  into  a  thick  chaparral,  which 
the  horses  could  not  enter.  The  cavalry 
dismounted,  entered  the  thicket,  and  there 
a  long  and  fierce  hand-to-hand  encounter 
ensued.  The  rest  of  the  Americans  com- 
ing up,  the  Mexicans  were  forced  into  the 
town,  when  Lane's  artillery,  posted  on  a 
hill,  cannonaded  the  place  most  severely 
by  the  light  of  the  moon.  The  Mexicans 
were  driven  away  Avith  much  loss.  At 
Atlixco  Santa  Ana's  troops  finally  deserted 
him,  and  he  fled  alone  towards  the  coast. 
So  ended  the  active  hostilities  of  the  Mexi- 
can War. 

Attainder,  Acts  of,  in  English  law, 
punishing  a  person  by  declaring  his  "  blood 
attainted,"    and    involving    forfeiture    of 

9 


property,  have  been  numerous.  Two  wit- 
nesses in  cases  of  high  treason  were  neces- 
sary where  corruption  of  blood  was  in- 
curred, unless  the  party  accused  confess  or 
stand  mute.  In  the  United  States  the 
Constitution  explicitly  says:  "No  bill  of 
attainder  shall  be  passed,  and  no  attainder 
of  treason,  in  consequence  of  a  judicial 
sentence,  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or 
forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the 
person  attainted." 

Attakappa  Indians,  a  tribe  found  on 
the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  in  southern  Lou- 
isiana and  eastern  Texas.  The  Choctaws 
named^  them  Attakappas,  or  Man-eaters. 
The  French  were  the  first  Europeans  who 
discovered  them ;  and  the  Attakappas  aid- 
ed the  latter  in  a  war  with  the  Natchez 
and  Chickasaws.  When  Louisiana,  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States  in  1803,  there 
were  only  about  100  of  this  nation  on 
their  ancient  domain,  near  Vermilion  Bay- 
ou, and  they  had  almost  wholly  disap- 
peared by  1825.  What  their  real  name 
was,  or  whence  they  came,  may  never  be 
known.  Their  language  was  peculiar,  com- 
posed of  harsh  monosyllables. 

Attiwandaronk  Indians,  members  of 
the  family  of  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois, 
named  by  the  French  the  Neutral  Nation. 
In  early  times  they  inhabited  both  banks 
of  the  Niagara  River,  but  were  mostly  in 
Canada.  They  were  first  visited  in  1627 
by  the  Recollet  Father  Daillon,  and  by 
Brebeuf  and  Chaumonot  in  1642.  The 
Iroquois  attacked  them  in  1651-53,  when 
a  part  of  them  submitted  and  joined  the 
Senecas,  and  the  remainder  fled  westward 
and  joined  the  remnant  of  the  fallen  Hu- 
rons on  the  borders  of  Lake  Superior. 

Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States.     See  Cabinet,  President's. 

Attn,  one  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  the 
most  westerly  point  of  the  United  States. 
It  lies  400  miles  from  Kamchatka.  Call- 
ing Attu  the  western  extremity  of  the 
United  States,  the  city  of  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  is  near  the  middle  of  its  geographical 
extent  east  and  west,  the  territories  of  the 
United  States  stretching  through  120  de- 
grees of  longitude. 

Auchmuty,  Richard  Tylden,  philan- 
thropist; born  in  New  York  City,  in  1831 ; 
became  an  architect,  and  for  many  years 
was  associated  in  practice  Avith  James 
34 


AUDENRIED— AUGUSTA 


Renwick.  He  served  in  the  Union  army 
during  the  war,  and  after  its  close  he  re- 
fused several  public  offices,  retired  from 
business  and  applied  himself  to  works 
of  benevolence.  In  1881  he  and  his  wife 
established  the  New  York  Trade  Schools, 
on  a  plan  entirely  original,  at  a  cost  of 
$250,000.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  made  the 
success  of  this  institution  permanent  by 
giving  it  an  endowment  of  $500,000  in 
1892.  He  died  in  Lenox,  Mass.,  July  18, 
1893. 

Audenried,  Joseph  Grain,  military 
officer ;  born  in  Pottsville,  Pa.,  Nov.  6, 
1839;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1861; 
served  throughout  the  Civil  War ;  lieuten- 
ant-colonel for  gallant  conduct  in  the  At- 
lanta campaign,  1865;  colonel  of  staff  in 
1869.  He  died  in  Washington,  June  3, 
1880. 

Auditor,  under  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment, the  title  of  an  officer  having 
charge  of  various  branches  of  public  ac- 
counts. Each  of  the  departments  has  one 
such  officer,  with  a  deputy.  See  Cabinet, 
President's. 

Audubon,  John  James,  ornithologist; 
born  in  New  Orleans,  May  4,  1780;  was 
the  son  of  a  French  admiral.  Educated  at 
Paris,  he  acquired  much  skill  as  an  artist 


JOHN  JAMES   AUDUBON. 

under  the  instruction  of  the  celebrated 
David.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  years  he 
began  to  make  a  collection  of  drawings 
of  the  birds  of  America,  and  became  a 
most  devoted  student  of  the  feathered 
tribes  of  our  country.     So  early  as   1810 


he  went  down  the  Ohio  River  with  his 
wife  and  child  in  an  open  boat,  to  a  con- 
genial spot  for  a  forest  home.  He  visited 
almost  every  region  of  the  United  States. 
In  some  of  his  Western  excursions,  Wil- 
son, the  ornithologist,  was  his  companion. 
In  1826  he  went  to  Europe  to  secure  sub- 
scriptions to  his  great  work.  The  Birds  of 
America.  It  was  issued  in  numbers,  each 
containing  five  plates,  the  subjects  drawn 
and  colored  the  size  and  tints  of  life.  It 
was  completed  in  4  volumes,  in  1838. 
Of  the  170  subscribers  to  the  work,  at 
$1,000  each,  nearly  one-half  came  from 
England  and  France.  He  also  prepared 
a  work  entitled  Ornithological  Biogra- 
phies, and  had  partly  completed  a  work 
entitled  Quadrupeds  of  America,  when  he 
died.  His  two  sons,  who  inherited  his 
tastes  and  much  of  his  genius,  finished 
this  work,  which  was  published  in  1850. 
His  residence,  in  the  latter  years  of  his 
life,  was  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  not 
far  from  Washington  Heights.  He  died  in 
New  York  City,  .Jan.  27,  1851. 

Auger,  Christopher  Colon,  military 
officer;  born  in  New  York  July  10,  1821; 
was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843. 
He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Generals 
Hopping  and  Gushing  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  and  in  1861  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  after  serving  under 
McDowell.  He  took  command  of  a  division 
under  Banks,  and  was  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Cedar  Mountain,  Aug.  9,  1862; 
the  same  month  he  was  made  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers.  In  November,  1862, 
he  reported  to  General  Banks  for  ser- 
vice in  a  Southern  expedition,  and  was 
very  active  in  the  siege  and  capture-  of 
Port  Hudson.  From  October,  1863,  to  Au- 
gust, 1866,  he  had  command  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Washington,  and  in  1867  he  was 
assigned  to  the  Department  of  the  Platte. 
In  1869  he  was  made  brigadier-general 
U.  S.  A.,  and  in  1885  was  retired.  He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  16,  1898. 

Augusta,  city  and  county-seat  of  Rich- 
mond county,  Ga. ;  on  the  Savannah  River 
at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation ;  120 
miles  northwest  of  Savannah.  It  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  progressive  manu- 
facturing cities  in  the  South.  It  was 
founded  by  English  settlers  under  Ogle- 
thorpe, and  received  the  name  of  an  Eng- 
lish princess.    In  1817  it  was  incorporated 


AUSTIN— AUTOMATIC    GUN 


a  city,  and  was  for  many  years  the  most  his  ■  father    was    confirmed    in    February, 

important  inland  place  in  the  State.     The  1823.     By  it  he  was  invested  with  almost 

population  in   1890  was   33,300;    in   1900,  absolute  power  over   the   colonists,  whom 

39,441.  he  seated  where  the  city  of  Austin  now  is, 

When  Cornwallis  proceeded  to  subju-  the  site  selected  by  him  for  the  capital 
gate  South  Carolina,  he  sent  Lieutenant-  of  Texas.  In  March,  1833,  a  convention 
Colonel  Brown,  a  Tory  leader,  to  hold  Au-  formed  a  State  constitution,  which  Aus- 
gusta.  Over  this  garrison  Pickens  and  tin  took  to  the  central  government  of 
Clarke  had  kept  watch,  and  when,  on  May  Mexico  to  obtain  its  ratification.  There 
20,  1781,  they  were  joined  by  Lee  and  his  were  delays;  and  he  recommended  a  union 
legion,  they  proceeded  to  invest  the  fort  of  all  the  municipalities,  and  the  organ- 
there.  They  took  Fort  Galphin,  12  miles  ization  of  a  State  under  a  Mexican  law 
below,  on  the  21st,  and  then  an  officer  was  of  1824.  He  was  arrested,  taken  back  to 
sent  to  demand  the  surrender  of  Augusta.  Mexico,  and  detained  until  September, 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Brown  was  one  of  the  1835.  On  his  return  he  found  the  country 
most  cruel  of  the  Tories  in  that  region,  in  confusion,  and  he  took  part  with  the 
and  the  partisans  were  anxious  to  make  revolutionary  party.  He  attempted,  with 
him  a  prisoner.  He  refused  to  surrender,  a  small  force,  to  drive  the  Mexicans  out 
A  regular  siege  began  May  23,  and  con-  of  Texas,  but  failed.  In  November,  1835, 
tinned  until  Juiie  4,  when  a  general  as-  Gen.  Sam.  Houston  was  chosen  to  com- 
sault  was  agreed  upon.  Hearing  of  this,  mand  the  little  Texan  army,  and  Austin 
Brown  pi-oposed  to  surrender,  and  the  was  made  commissioner  to  the  United 
town  was  given  up  the  next  day.  In  this  States.  In  July,  1836,  he  returned  to 
siege  the  Americans  lost  fifty  -  one  men  Texas  and  was  engaged  in  negotiations 
killed  and  wounded ;  and  the  British  lost  to  obtain  the  official  recognition  of  inde- 
fifty-two  killed,  and  334,  including  the  pendence,  when  death  closed  his  career, 
wounded,  were  made  prisoners.     For  sev-  Dec.  27,  1836. 

eral  years  after  the  war  it  was  the  capital        Australian    Ballot.     See    Ballot    Re- 

of   Georgia.      It   was   garrisoned   by   Con-  form. 

federate  troops  during  the  Civil  War,  and        Automatic     Gun,     a     light     mounted 

■was  twice  threatened  by  Sherman  in  his  breech-loading    gun,    so    constructed    that 

marches    from    Atlanta    to    the    sea    and  the  power  in  the  recoil  of  each  shot  dis- 

through  South  Carolina.  charges  the  empty  cartridge  case,  reloads, 

Austin,     Oscar    Phelps,    statistician ;  and  returns  the  gun  to  its  firing  position, 

born  in  Illinois;   engaged  from  early  life  In  the  Maxim  gun,  invented  by  Hiram  S. 

as    a    contributor,    reporter,    editor,    and  Maxim,    the    constant    pressure    upon    the 

Washington   correspondent  for   metropoli-  trigger   keeps   it   in   firing  action   till   all 

tan    newspapers.      In    1892    and    1896    he  of  its  ammunition  is  discharged.     A  hun- 

edited    the    campaign    documents    for    the  dred  or  more   cartridges,   the  number  de- 

Eepublican    National    Committee,    and    in  pending   upon    the    size    of    the   gun,    are 

May,    1898,    Avas    appointed    chief    of    the  strung  on  a  belt  and  are  directly  fed  into 

Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  the  ammunition  box.  There  are  two  calibres 

Treasury   Department.      He    is   author   of  of    the   Maxim   gun:    the   first   being   the 

Uncle    Sam's    Secrets;    TJncle    Sam's    Sol-  size  of  an  ordinary  rifle  and  easily  held 

diers;    Colonial    Systems    of    the    Wo7-ld;  cut   at   arm's   length;    the   second   fires   a 

Suhmarine  Telegraphs   of  the  World,  etc.  one-pound  ball.     Both  of  these  guns   can 

See  Commerce,  A  Century  of.  fire   several   hundred  shots  a  minute,  the 

Austin,     Stephen     Fuller,     colonist;  first    about    700.     The    Colt   gun    is    also 

born   about    1790;    son   of   Moses   Austin,  fully    automatic.      It    has    but    a    single 

of  Connecticut,  who  in  1820  received  per-  barrel,  which,  owing  to  its  thickness,  does 

mission  from  the  Mexican  commander  at  not   heat  quickly,   and   consequently   does 

Monterey  to  colonize  300  families  in  the  not  need  a  water-jacket.     The  barrel  is  at- 

province.     Moses  died  Jtme  10,  1821,  and  tached  to  a  breech  casing,  and  the  belts 

Stephen      successfully     carried     out     the  are  either  contained  in  boxes  or  may  rest 

scheme.     The   latter  went  to   the   city  of  on    the    ground.      When    fastened    to    the 

Mexico   in    1821,   and   the  grant   given   to  casing,  the  boxes  move  with  it. 

236 


AUTTOSE— AVERELL 


Auttose,  Battle  of.  Late  in  Novem- 
ber, 1813,  the  Creek  country  was  invaded 
by  troops  from  Georgia.  A  cry  for 
help  from  the  settlers  among  the  Creeks 
had  come  to  the  ears  of  the  Geor- 
gians, when  Gen.  John  Floyd,  at  the  head 
of  950  militia  of  that  State  and  450  friend- 
ly Indians,  guided  by  Mordecai,  a  Jew 
trader,  entered  the  region  of  the  hostiles 
from  the  east.  Crossing  the  Chattahoo- 
chee, he  pushed  on  towards  the  Tallapoosa, 
where  he  was  informed  tliat  a  large  num- 
ber of  hostile  Indians  had  gathered  at  the 
village  of  Auttose,  on  the  "  Holy  Ground," 
on  which  the  prophets  had  made  the  bar- 
barians believe  no  white  man  could  set 
foot  and  live.  It  was  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tallapoosa,  about  20  miles  above 
its  confluence  with  the  Coosa.  Floyd  en- 
camped unobserved  near  the  town  on  the 
evening  of  Nov.  28,  and  at  dawn  he  ap- 
peared before  the  village  with  his  troops 
arrayed  for  battle  in  three  columns.  He 
also  had  two  or  three  field-pieces.  There 
were  two  towns,  one  below  the  other.  The 
towns  were  simultaneously  attacked,  and 
a  general  battle  ensued.  After  a  brief 
contest,  the  roar  of  artillery  and  a  furious 
bayonet  charge  made  the  Indians  fall  back 
in  terror  to  whatever  shelter  they  could 
find.  Their  dwellings,  about  400  in  nimi- 
ber,  were  burned,  and  the  smitten  and 
dismayed  barbarians  were  hunted  and 
butchered  with  fiendish  cruelty.  It  was 
estimated  that  fully  200  of  the  Indians 
were  murdered.  Floyd  lost  eleven  men 
killed  and  fifty- four  wounded.  He  had 
marched  120  miles,  laid  waste  the  town, 
and  destroyed  the  inhabitants  in  the  space 
of  seven  days. 

Averasboro,  Battle  of.  On  his  march 
from  Fayetteville  to  Goldsboro,  Sherman's 
forces  were  menaced  by  the  Confederates, 
and  Kilpatrick  had  several  skirmishes  with 
Wheeler  and  Hampton.  He  had  struck 
the  rear  of  Hardee's  column  (March  8, 
1865)  in  its  retreat  towards  Fayetteville. 
He  had  fought  Hampton,  and  was  defeat- 
ed, losing  many  men  (who  were  made 
prisoners)  and  guns.  Kilpatrick  barely 
escaped  on  foot  in  a  swamp,  where  he 
rallied  his  men.  They  fell  upon  Hampton, 
who  was  plundering  their  camp,  routed 
him,  and  retook  the  guns.  Hampton  had 
captured  10.3  Nationals  and  killed  or 
wounded    eighty.     At    Fayetteville,    Sher- 


237 


man  utterly  destroyed  the  arsenal,  with 
all  the  valuable  public  property  of  the 
Confederates  there.  Moving  on,  Sherman 
in  accordance  with  his  usual  plan,  made 
movements  to  distract  his  adversary.  He 
sent  Slocum  with  four  divisions  of  the 
left  wing,  preceded  by  cavalry,  towards 
Averasboro  and  the  main  road  to  Raleigh ; 
while  two  divisions  of  that  wing,  with  the 
train,  took  the  direct  road  to  Goldsboro. 
Howard  moved  with  four  divisions  on  the 
right,  ready  to  assist  the  left  if  necessary. 
It  was  a  terrible  march  over  quagmire 
roads,  made  so  by  incessant  rain.  They 
had  to  be  corduroyed  continually.  Slocum 
found  Hardee  intrenched  near  Averasboro 
with  about  20,000  men.  General  Williams, 
with  the  20th  Corps,  took  the  lead  in  mak- 
ing an  attack,  and  very  soon  he  broke  the 
Confederate  left  Aving  into  fragments  and 
drove  it  back  upon  a  second  and  stronger 
line.  W^ard's  division  pushed  the  fugitives 
and  captured  three  guns  and  217  men.; 
nnd  the  Confederates  left  108  of  their  dead 
on  the  field.  Kilpatrick  was  just  securing 
a  footing  on  the  road  to  Bentonville 
when  he  was  furiously  attacked  by 
McLaw's  division,  and,  after  a  hard  fight, 
was  pushed  back.  Then  the  whole  of 
Slocum's  line  advanced,  drove  Hardee 
within  his  intrenchments,  and  pressed  him 
so  heavily  that  on  the  dark  and  stormy 
night  of  March  16,  1865,  he  retreated 
to  Smithfield.  Slocimi  lost  in  the  bat- 
tle seventy-seven  killed  and  477  wounded. 
Hardee's  loss  was  estimated  at  about  the 
same.  Ward  pursued  the  fugitives  through 
Averasboro.  but  soon  srave  up  the  chase. 

Averell,  William  Woods,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Cameron,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  5, 
1832;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1855. 
Entering  the  Mounted  Rifles,  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  New  Mexico  by  the 
surprise  and  capture  of  a  body  of  Ind- 
ians. In  that  warfare  he  was  severely 
wounded.  Soon  after  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Civil  War  he  was  chosen  colonel  of*a 
regiment  of  Pennsylvania  cavalry,  and 
became  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
September,  1862.  He  had  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  battles  on  the  Peninsula  and 
in  Pope's  campaign  in  July  and  August, 
1862.  He  reinforced  Pleasonton  in  the  ad- 
vance after  the  battle  of  Antietam,  and  was 
afterwards  very  active  in  Virginia,  espe- 
cially  in   the  mountain  regions,   in   1863. 


AVERELL— AVERY 


There    had    been    comparative    quiet    in  of  all  arms,  and  moved  southward,  driving 

that  region  after  the  close  of   1861   until  Confederates  under  Gen.  "  Mudwall  "   (W. 

the  summer  and  fall  of   1863,  when  Gen-  S.)  Jackson  to  a  post  on  the  top  of  Droop 

eral    Averell,  with   a   cavalry  force,   made  Mountain,  in  Greenbrier  county ;   stormed 

extensive  raids  in  that  mountainous  coun-  them  (Nov.  6,  1803),  and  drove  them  into 

try.     Before    the    close    of    that    year    he  Monroe  county,  with   a   loss   of   over   300 

had    nearly    purged    western    Virginia    of  men,    three    guns,    and    700    small-arms, 

armed   Confederates,   and   seriously   inter-  Averell's  loss  was  about  100  men. 


rupted  railway  communication  between  the 


WILLIAM    WOODS   AVERELL. 


armies  of  Lee  and  Bragg.  Col.  John  Tol- 
land had  led  a  cavalry  raid  in  these  moun- 
tain regions  in  July,  1863.  He  made  a 
descent  upon  Wytheville,  on  the  Virginia 


West  Virginia  was  now  nearly  free  of 
armed  Confederates,  and  Averell  started, 
in  December,  with  a  strong  force  of  Vir- 
ginia mounted  infantry,  Pennsylvania  cav- 
alry, and  Ewing's  battery,  to  destroy  rail- 
way communications  between  the  armies 
of  Lee  in  Virginia  and  Bragg  in  Tennessee. 
He  crossed  the  mountains  amid  ice  and 
snow,  and  first  struck  the  Virginia  and 
Tennessee  Railway  at  Salem,  on  the  head- 
waters of  the  Roanoke  River,  where  he  de- 
stroyed the  station-house,  rolling-stock, 
and  Confederate  supplies.  Also,  in  the 
course  of  six  hours  his  troops  tore  up  the 
track,  heated  and  ruined  the  rails,  burned 
five  bridges,  and  destroyed  several  cul- 
verts over  the  space  of  15  miles.  This 
raid  aroused  all  the  Confederates  of  the 
mountain  region,  and  seven  separate  com- 
mands were  arranged  in  a  line  extending 
from  Staunton  to  Newport  to  intercept 
the  raider.  He  dashed  through  this  line 
at  Covington  in  the  face  of  some  oppo- 
sition, destroyed  the  bridges  behind  him, 
and  one  of  his  regiments,  which  had  been 


and   Tennessee   Railway,   where   his    force  cut   off   from   the   rest,   swam   the   stream 

was     roughly    handled     by    Confederates,  and   joined   the   others,   with   the   loss   of 

Tolland  was  killed,  and  his  command  re-  four      men     drowned.    Averell      captured 

turned    to    the    Kanawha.     In    a    ride    of  during    the    raid    about    200    men.      "My 

about  400  miles,  during  eight  days,  they  command,"    he    said    in   his    report    (Dec. 

had    suffered   much,    and    lost    eighty-two  21,    1863),    "has    marched,    climbed,    slid, 

men  and  300  horses.    A  little  later  General  and  swam  340  miles  since  the  8th  inst." 

Averell  started  from  Tygart's  Valley ;  pass-  He  reported   a   loss   of   six  men   drowned, 

ed    through    several    counties    southward;  five  wounded,   and  ninety  missing, 

drove    Confederates    over    Warm    Spring  He     performed    gallant    service    under 

Mountains;     destroyed     saltpetre  -  works ;  Hunter,  Sigel,  and  Sheridan  in  the  Shen- 

menaced    Staunton,    and    was    confronted  andoah  Valley  in  1864;  and  was  brevetted 

by  a  large  force  of  Gen.   S.  Jones's  com-  major-general     of    volunteers     in    March, 

mand  near  White  Sulphur  Springs,  where  1865.     The  same  year  he  resigned  his  com- 

a  conflict  for  Rock  Gap  occurred,  and  last-  mission  of   captain   in  the   regular   army, 

ed   the   greater   part  of   Aug.   26   and   27.  He    was    consul-general    at    Montreal    in 

Averell  was  repulsed,  and  made  his  way  1866-69.     In  1888,  by  special  act  of  Con- 


back  to  Tygart's  Valley,  having  lost  207 
men  and  a  Parrott  gun,  which  burst  dur- 
ing the  fight.  The  Confederates  lost  156 
men.  Much  later  in  the  year  Averell  made 
another    agsrressive    movement.      He    left 


gress,    he    was    reappointed    a    captain    in 
the     army,     and     soon     afterwards     was 
retired.     He  died  in  Bath,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  3, 
1900. 
Avery,    Samitel    Putnam,    benefactor; 


Beverly  early  in  November  with  5,000  men    born  in  New  York  City,  March  17,  1822; 

238 


AVERY— AZTECS 

began    his    business    career    as    a    copper-  active   in   civil   affairs;    and   in   1779   was 

plate  and  wood  engraver;  in  1865  became  colonel  of  the  county  militia,  serving  with 

an  art  publisher  and  dealer;   and  retired  great  zeal  during  the  British  invasion  of 

in  1888.     He  was  a  founder  of  the  Metro-  North    Carolina.     He  removed    to    Burke 

politan    Museum    of    Art,    and    is    a    life  county  in   1781,  which  he  represented  in 

member    of    the    American    Geographical  the    State    legislature    many    years.     He 

Society,      American      Historical      Society,  was    the    first    State    attorney-general    of 

American  Zoological   Society,  and  Ameri-  North  Carolina.   He  died  in  Burke  county, 

can  Museum  of  Natural  History.     He  has  N.  C,  March  15,  1821. 

also   been   president   of   the   Grolier   Club,  Ayres,  Eomeyn  Beck,  military  officer; 

and  of  the  Sculpture  Society.     In  1891  he  born  in  East  Creek,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  20,  1825; 

and   his   wife   established    the   Avery   Ar-  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1847.   He 

chitectural   Library   in   Columbia   Univer-  served   in   the   artillery   in   the  war   with 

sity,    in    memory   of     their    deceased    son.  Mexico,  and  commanded  a  battery  in  the 

In^l900  he  gave  to  the  New  York  Public  battle  of  Bull  Pvun.     In  October,  "^1861,  he 

Library    {q.    v.)    a    collection    of    photo-  became  chief   of   artillery   of   Gen.   W.   F. 

graphs,  lithographs,  and  etchings,  amount-  Smith's  division,  and   soon  afterwards  of 

ing  in  all  to  over  17,500  pieces,  and,  with  the  6th  Corps.     He  was  in  the  campaign 

this  magnificent  collection,   a  large  num-  on    the   Peninsula,   and   the    chief   battles 

ber  of  art  volumes.  afterwards  in  Virginia  and  Maryland.    He 

Avery,   Waigiitstill,  lawyer;   born  in  served  with  distinction  through  the  Rich- 

Groton,  Conn.,  May  3,  1745;   studied  law  mond  campaign  of  1864-65;  was  brevetted 

in   Maryland,    and   began   its   practice   in  major-general     of    volunteers     in    March, 

Mecklenburg  county,  N.  C,  in   1769.     He  1865;   promoted  to  colonel  of  the  3d  Ar- 

was  prominent  there  among  the  opposers  tillery,   July   18,   1879;    and  died  in  Fort 

of  the  obnoxious  measures  of  the  British  Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  4,  1888. 

Parliament   bearing   on   the   colonies,   and  Aztecs.      The   most    probable — that   is, 

was  one  of  the  promoters  and  signers  of  the    least    unlikely — traditions    represent 

the  famous  "  Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  that  the  Nahuatlecas,  the  great  family  of 

Independence."      He    was    a    delegate    to  which  the  Aztecs  were  a  tribe  or  nation, 

the   Provincial    Congress   at   Hillsborough  displaced  a  people  of  much  higher  culture, 

in    1775    which    organized    the    military  and    of    whose    civilization    that    of    the 

forces    of    the    State;     and    in    the    sum-  Aztecs  was  only  a  rude  reflection.     Tradi- 

mer   of    1776   he   joined   the   army,   under  lion    represents    the    seven    tribes    of    the 

General  Rutherford,  in  the  Cherokee  coun-  Nahuatlecas  as  emerging  from  seven  cav- 

try.     He  was  a  commissioner  in  framing  erns  in  the  region  called  Aztlan,  possibly 

the  treaty  of  Holston,  which  effected  peace  Arizona   and   New   Mexico.      See   Cortez; 

on  the  Western  frontier.     Mr.  Avery  was  Montezuma;  Velasquez. 


B. 


Babbitt,  Isaac,  inventor ;  born  in  Taun- 
ton, Mass.,  July  26,  1799.  About  1831  he 
made,  in  Taunton,  the  first  Britannia-ware 
manufactured  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
1839  he  invented  the  anti-friction  metal 
which  bears  his  name.  Congress  gave  him 
$20,000  for  his  invention;  and  he  took 
out  patents  in  England  (1844)  and  Rus- 
sia (1847).  He  died  in  Somerville,  Mass., 
May  26,   1862. 

Babcock,  Kendric  Charles,  educator; 
born  in  South  Brookfield,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8, 
1864;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Minnesota  in  1889;  and  became  professor 
of  history  in  the  University  of  California 
in   1894. 

Babuyan  Islands,  a  group  of  small 
islands  in  the  Balintang  Channel,  between 
Formosa  and  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
island  of  Luzon  in  the  Philippines.  The 
principal  one  is  Claro  Babuyan.  These 
islands  are  also  known  as  Madjicosima 
Islands,  and  administratively  were  con- 
nected in  the  past  with  the  Loo-Choo  Isl- 
ands. The  population  in  1898  was  sup- 
posed to  be  about  12,000.  See  Luzon; 
Phii.tppine  Islands. 

Bacbe,  Alexander  Dallas,  physicist; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  19,  1806; 
was  a  great-grandson  of  Dr.  Franklin,  and 
was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  with  high  honor  in  1825, 
receiving  the  appointment  of  lieutenant 
of  engineers,  and  remaining  in  the  acad- 
emy awhile  as  assistant  professor.  Two 
years  he  was  under  Colonel  Totten  in  the 
construction  of  military  works  in  New- 
port, where  he  married  Miss  Fowler,  who, 
as  his  wife,  was  his  great  assistant  in  as- 
tronomical observations.  He  resigned  from 
the  army  in  1827,  and  from  that  time  until 
1832  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  Ardently  devoted  to 
scientific  pursuits,  he  made  important  dis- 
coveries. In  1836  he  was  chosen  president 
of   the   board   of   trustees   of   Girard   Col- 


lege, and  he  was  veiy  efficient  in  the  or- 
ganization of  that  institution.  He  visited 
Eurojse  to  study  various  institutions  of 
learning  there;  and  in  1839  he  published 
a  Report  on  the  European  System  of  Edu- 
cation. In  1841  he  became  the  first  prin- 
cipal of  the  Philadelphia  High  School ; 
and  in  1843  he  was  appointed  superintend- 
ent of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey. 
His  services  in  this  field  were  of  the  high- 
est importance.     Various  universities  con- 


ALEXANDER  DALLAS  BACUE. 

ferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of 
LL.D.  He  published  several  scientific  es- 
says ;  was  a  member  of  the  Light-house 
Board;  a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, and  active  in  various  public  la- 
bors. Dr.  Bache  bequeathed  $42,000  to 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Science  in  Phila- 
delphia, for  the  promotion  of  researches 
in  physical  and  natural  science,  by  assist- 
ing experimenters  and  observers.     He  died 


240 


BACHE— BACON 

in    Newport,    R.    I.,    Feb.    17,    1867.     See  Bachman,    John,    naturalist;    born    in 

Coast  ajvd  Geodetic  Survey.  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  4,  1790.     He 

Bache,     Franklijv,    chemist;     born    in  was    pastor    of    a    Lutheran    church    at 

Philadelphia,   Pa.,   Oct.   25,   1792;   became  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1815-74;  but  is  best 

Professor   of   Chemistry   at   the   Philadel-  known    from   his   association   with   Audu- 

phia  College  of  Pharmacy  and  at  the  Phil-  bon  in  the  preparation  of  his  great  work 

adelphia  Medical  College;   published  8ys-  on  ornithology.     He  contributed  the  most 

tern  of  Chemistry  for  Students  of  Medi-  of  the  text  on  the  quadrupeds   of  North 

cine,   and  was   associated   with   Professor  America,  which  Audubon  and  his  sons  il- 

Wood    in    compiling   Dispensatory    of    the  lustrated.     He  died  in   Charleston,   S.   C, 

United  States.     He  died   in   Philadelphia,  Feb.  25,  1874. 

Pa.,  March"  19,   1864.  Bacolor,   a  town   in   Luzon,   Philippine 

Bache,  George  M.,  naval  officer;  born  Islands,  on  the  road  from  Manila  to  Tar- 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  Nov.  12,  lac;  about  30  miles  northwest  of  the 
1840;  was  graduated  at  the  Naval  Acad-  former  city.  During  the  British  invasion 
emy  in  1860.  He  became  lieutenant  in  of  the  Philippines,  in  1762,  it  was  for 
1862;  lieutenant-commmander  in  1866;  some  time  the  capital  of  the  group,  the 
and  commander  in  1875;  and  was  retired  SpaniaiMs,  under  fear  lest  the  city  of 
April  5,  1S75.  He  commanded  an  iron-  Manila  should  be  bombarded,  hastily  re- 
clad  gunboat  on  the  Mississippi  early  in  moving  their  seat  of  government.  The 
the  Civil  War,  and  behaved  with  great  town  attracted  considerable  attention  in 
bravery  before  Vicksburg.  He  was  after-  1S99  because  of  the  United  States  mili- 
wards  in  command  of  a  little  squadron  of  tary  operations  against  the  Filipino  in- 
gunboats  in  a  spirited  action  near  Claren-  surgents  and  the  remarkable  chase  after 
don,  Ark.,  in  June,  1864.  He  died  in  Aguinaldo  through  that  section  of  Luzon. 
Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.   11,   1896.  See  Aguiiv^aldo,  Emilio;  Luzon. 

Bache,  Hartman,  engineer;  born  in  Bacon,  Delia,  author;  born  in  Tall- 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  3,  1798;  was  niadge,  O.,  Feb.  2,  1811;  a  sister  of  Dr. 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1818,  and  Leonard  Bacon  (g.  v.).  She  published 
while  in  the  army  served  continuously  as  in  1857  The  Philosoj)hy  of  Shakespeare's 
a  topographical  engineer,  on  surveys  for  Plays,  in  which  she  put  forth  the  hy- 
harbor  and  river  improvements,  coast  de-  pothesis  that  these  plays  were  not  writ- 
fence,  roads,  and  canals.  On  March  3,  ten  by  Shakespeare,  but  by  Sir  Francis 
1865,  he  was  promoted  to  brigadier-gen-  Bacon.  She  died  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
eral,    the    highest    rank    in    the    engineer  Sept.  2,   1859. 

corps,  and  in  1867  was  retired.  His  most  Bacon,  John  Mosby,  military  officer; 
important  engineering  works  were  the  born  in  Kentucky,  April  17,  1844;  en- 
construction  of  the  Delaware  breakwater  listed  as  a  private  Sept.  22,  1862;  was 
and  the  successful  application  of  iron  commissioned  a  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
screw-piles  in  the  building  of  foundations  imteers  May  4.  1898:  subdued  the  Chip- 
of  light-houses  upon  coral-reefs  and  sandy  pewas  during  the  outbreak  of  1898 ;  and 
shoals.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  served  in  Cuba  during  the  American- 
8,  1872.                                                                    .  Spanish  War. 

Bache,  Sarah,  philanthropist;  born  in  Bacon,  Leonard,  clergyman:  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  11,  1744;  daugh-  Detroit,  Mich.,  Feb.  19,  1802;  gradu- 
ter  of  Benjamin  Franklin  and  wife  of  ated  at  Yale  in  1820,  and  at  Andover 
Eichard  IBache;  was  distinguished  Theological  Seminary  in  1824,  and  con- 
throughout  the  Revolutionary  War  for  nected  with  Yale  Divinity  School  for 
her  eiTorts  to  relieve  the  condition  of  many  years,  and  lecturer  on  American 
the  American  troops,  collecting  money.  Church  History.  He  was  one  of  the  ed- 
purchasing  medicines  and  other  supplies,  itors  of  the  Independent  for  several  years, 
and  directing  nearly  3,000  women  in  the  and  author  of  Select  Practical  Writings 
work  of  making  clothing  and  other  neces-  of  Richard  Baxter;  Thirteen  Dicourses 
sities  for  the  army.  She  also  performed  on  the  Ttoo  Hundredth  Anniversary  of  the 
valuable  service  in  the  hospitals  as  a  First  Church  in  Neiv  Haven;  Slavery  Dis- 
nurse.  She  died  Oct.  5,  1808.  C4issed;  Genesis  of  the  New  England 
I.— Q                                                         241 


BACON 


Churches,  etc.  He  died  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Dec    '?i.   ISST. 

Bacon,  Natpianiel,  patriot;  born  in 
Suffolk,  England,  Jan.  2,  1642.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Inns  of  Court,  London: 
came  to  America  with  a  considerable  fort- 
une in  1670;  settled  in  Gloucester  county, 
"Va.,  and  owned  a  large  estate  high  up  on 
the  James  River.  A  lawyer  by  jDrofession 
and  eloquent  in  speech,  he  easily  exercised 
great  influence  over  the  people.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  council  in  1672.  He  was 
a  republican  in  sentiment;  and,  strongly 
opposing  the  views  and  public  conduct  of 
Governor  Berkeley,  the  stanch  loyalist,  he 
stirred  up  the  people  to  rebellion.  Berke- 
ley, who  was  very  popular  at  first,  had  be- 
come tyrannical  and  oppressive  as  an  un- 
compromising royalist  and  rigorous  exec- 
utor of  his  royal  master's  will.  At  the 
same  time  republicanism  had  begun  a 
vigorous  growth  among  the  jaeople  of  Vir- 
ginia; but  it  was  repressed  somewhat  by  a 
majority  of  royalists  in  the  House  of  Bur- 
gesses; and  the  council  were  as  pliant 
tools  of  Berkeley  as  any  courtiers  who 
paid  homage  to  the  King.  The  governor 
rigidly  enforced  navigation  laws  oppres- 
sive to  colonial  commerce ;  and  the  mar- 
riage laws,  and  the  elective  and  other 
franchises,  were  modified,  abridged,  or 
abolished.  The  Church  of  England  was 
made  supreme,  and  was  an  instrument  of 
persecution  in  the  hands  of  the  dominant 
party,  in  attempts  to  drive  Baptists, 
Quakers,  and  Puritans  out  of  Virginia. 
Stimulated  by  these  oppressions,  repub- 
licanism grew  vigorously  in  Virginia,  and 
the  toilers  and  righteous  men  of  the  aris- 
tocracy soon  formed  a  powerful  republican 
party  that  threatened  ere  long  to  fill  the 
House  of  Burgesses  with  men  of  their 
creed.  Berkeley,  having  a  pliant  majority 
of  the  cavalier  class  in  the  Assembly,  sanc- 
tioned unjust  and  arbitrary  decrees  of  the 
King,  who  gave  to  profligate  court  favor- 
ites, first  large  tracts  of  land,  some  of  it 
cultivated,  in  Virginia ;  and,  finally,  in 
1673,  he  gave  to  two  of  them  (Lord  Cul- 
pepper and  Earl  of  Arlington)  "all  the 
dominion  of  land  and  water  called  Vir- 
ginia "  for  thirty  years. 

The  best  men  in  the  colony  of  both 
parties,  alarmed  by  this  proceeding,  sent 
a  committee  Avith  a  remonstrance  to  the 
King,  but  the  mission  was  fruitless.     The 


republicans  were  very  indignant.  Bebel- 
lious  murmurs  were  heard  everywhere  in 
the  colony ;  and  the  toiling  people  were 
taught  to  regard  the  aristocracy  as  their 
enemies,  and  so  the  majority  of  them 
were.  Having  a  majority  in  the  legis- 
lature of  the  colony,  they  ruled  without 
any  regard  for  the  happiness  of  the  people. 
Everything  for  the  public  good  was  neg- 
lected. There  were  no  roads  or  bridges 
in  Virginia;  and  the  people  were  com- 
pelled to  travel  along  bridle-jiaths  on 
land,  and  to  ford  or  swim  the  streams. 
They  journeyed  on  the  water  in  canoes  or 
boats,  and  endured  many  hardships.  The 
Avorking-people  lived  in  log-cabins  with  un- 
glazed  windows.  There  were  no  villages. 
At  the  time,  Jamestown,  the  capital,  con- 
sisted of  only  a  church,  a  State-house,  and 
eighteen  dwellings ;  and,  until  lately,  the 
Assembly  had  met  in  the  hall  of  an  ale- 
house. This  was  about  seventy  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  colony,  when  it  con- 
tained 50,000  inhabitants.  The  large  land- 
owners— the  aristocracy — meanwhile  were 
living  in  luxury  in  fine  mansions,  in 
sight  of  some  beautiful  river,  surrounded 
by  negro  slaves  and  other  dependants,  and 
enjoying  a  sort  of  patriarchal  life.  The 
governor  was  clamoring  for  an  increase 
of  his  salary,  while  his  stables  and  fields 
had  seventy  horses  in  them,  and  flocks  of 
sheep  were  on  his  great  plantation,  called 
"  Green  Spring."  The  tendency  of  such 
a  state  of  society  was  obvious  to  every  re- 
fleeting  mind. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Bacon 
arrived  in  Virginia,  and  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  republicans.  In  the  summer 
of  1675  the  Indians,  seeing  their  domain 
gradually  absorbed  by  the  encroaching 
white  people,  in  their  despair  struck  a 
heavy  blow.  As  they  swept  from  the 
North  through  Maryland,  John  Washing- 
ton, grandfather  of  the  first  President  of 
the  United  States,  opposed  them  with  a 
force  of  Virginians,  and  a  fierce  border  war 
ensued.  Berkeley,  who  had  the  monopoly 
of  the  fur  -  trade  with  the  barbarians 
treated  the  latter  leniently.  Six  chiefs 
who  had  come  to  camp  to  treat  for  peace 
were  treacherously  slain  by  Englishmen 
The  wrathful  savages  strcAved  their  path 
way,  in  the  country  between  the  Rappa 
hannock  and  James  rivers,  with  the  dead 
bodies  of  ten  Englishmen  for  every  chief 


242 


BACON 


that    was    treacherously    murdered,    and  fore  the   insurgent   chief,   and  baring  his 

blackened  its  face  with  fire.     The  supine-  bosom,  exclaimed,  "Shoot!   shoot!   it  is  a 

ness  of  the  governor  increased  the  sense  fair    mark!"      Bacon    said,    respectfully, 

of    insecurity    among    the    people,    and    a  "  Not  a  hair  of  your  head  shall  be  hurt ; 

deputation    headed    by    Bacon    petitioned  we    have    come    for    our    commissions    to 

him  for  leave  to  arm  and  protect  them-  save   our   lives   from   the   Indians."      The 

selves.      Berkeley,    having    reason,    as    he  governor,  influenced  by  his  judgment  when 

thought,    to    suspect   Bacon   of   ambitious  his  anger  had  cooled,  or  by  his  fears,  not 

rather  than  patriotic  motives   (for  he  had  only    signed    the    commission,    but    joined 

been  engaged  in  an  insurrection  before),  his  council  in  commending  Bacon  to  the 

refused  to  grant  this  prayer.  King   as    a   zealous,    loyal,    and   patriotic 

At  this  Bacon  took  fire.     He  knew  the  citizen.     That  was  done  on  July  4,   1676, 

hidden    cause   of   the    refusal,   and   he    at  just  100  years  before  the  famous  Declara- 

once  proclaimed  that  he  was  ready  to  lead  tion   of   Independence,   written   by   a  Vir- 

the    people    against    the    approaching    in-  ginia  "  rebel,"  Thomas  Jefferson  {q.  v.) , 

vaders    Avithout    permission,     if     another  proclaimed  the  English- American  colonies 

white  person  should  be  murdered  by  them.  "  free  and  independent  States." 

Very  soon  news  reached  him  that  some  on  Bacon,      so      encouraged,      immediately 

his  own  plantation,  near    (present)    Rich-  marched  against  the  Indians.     The  faith- 

mond,  had  been  slain.     He  summoned  the  less    governor,    relieved    of    his    presence, 


people    to    a    consultation.      Mounting 
stump,    he    addressed    them    with    impas- 
sioned eloquence,  denounced  the  governor. 


crossed  the  York  River,  called  a  conven- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  Gloucester 
county,   and  proposed  to   proclaim   Bacon 


and  advised  his  hearers  to  take  up  arms  a    traitor.       The    convention    refused    to 

in  their  own  defence.    They  were  soon  em-  do   so,   when   the  haughty  baronet   issued 

bodied  in  military  force,  and  chose  Bacon  such  a  proclamation  on   his  own   respon- 

as  their  general.     He  asked  the  governor  sibility,   in   spite   of   their   remonstrances. 

to  give   him   a   commission   as    siich,   but  The  news   of   this   perfidy   reached   Bacon 

was  refused;   and  Bacon  marched  against  at  his  camp  on  the  Pamunky  River.     He 

the   Indians   without   it.      Before   he   had  addressed      his      followers      with      much 

reached    York    River,    the    governor    pro-  warmth,  saying,  "  It  vexes  me  to  the  heart 

claimed  him  a  rebel,  and  ordered  his  fol-  that,  while  I  am  hunting  the  wolves  and 

lowers  to  disperse.     A  greater  portion  of  tigers   that   destroy   our   lands,    I    should 

them  followed  Bacon's  standard,  and  the  myself  be  pursued  as  a  savage.    Shall  per- 

expedition     pushed    forward;     while     the  sons   wholly   devoted   to   their   King   and 

lower    settlements    arose    in    insurrection,  country — men     who     hazard     their     lives 

and   demanded   an   immediate   dissolution  against  the  public  enemy — deserve  the  ap- 

of   the   aristocratic   Assembly.      The    Ind-  pellation  of  'rebels'  and  'traitors'?    The 

ians  were  driven  back  to  the  Rappahan-  whole  country  is  witness  to  our  peaceable 

nock,    a   new   Assembly   was    chosen,    and  behavior.      But    those    in    authority,    how 

Bacon  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  House  have  they  obtained  their   estates?     Have 

of  Burgesses  from  Henrico  county.  they  not  devoured  the  common  treasury? 

The  new  House  represented  the  popular  What  arts,  what  sciences,  what  learning 

will.     They  gave  Bacon  a  commission  as  have    they    promoted?      I    appeal    to    the 

general,  but  Berkeley  refused  to  sign   it.  King  and  Parliament,  where  the  cause  of 

Some  of  the  Assembly  supported  the  gov-  the    people    will    be    heard    impartially." 

ernor  in  the  matter,  when  Bacon,  fearing  Under  the  circumstances.  Bacon  felt  hira- 

treachery,  retired  to  the  "  Middle  Planta-  self  compelled  to  lead  in  a  revolution.    He 

tion"     (now    Williamsburg),    where    500  invited  the  Virginians  to  meet  in  conven- 

followers     proclaimed     him     commander-  tion  at  the  Middle  Plantation.     The  best 

in-chief    of    the    Virginia    forces.      With  men  in  the  colony  were  there.     They  de- 

these    he    appeared    at    Jamestown,    and  bated  and  deliberated  on  a  warm  August 

demanded     his     commission.        Regarding  day   from   noon   until   midnight.      Bacon's 

the  movement  as   revolutionary,   the  gov-  eloquence  and  logic  led  them  to  take  an 

ernor  again  refused  to  sign  it.    The  sturdy  oath  to  svipport  their  leader  in  subduing 

old  cavalier  went  out  in  great  anger  be-  the  Indians  and  in  preventing  civil  war; 

243 


BACON 


and  again  he  went  against  the  barbarians. 
The  governor,  alarmed  by  the  proceedings 
at  tlie  Middle  Plantation,  fled,  with  his 
council,  to  the  eastern  shore  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  where,  by  jDromises  of  booty, 
he  tried  to  raise  an  army  among  the  in- 
habitants and  the  seamen  of  English  ves- 
sels there.     William  Drummond,  who  had 


Meanwhile  Berkeley  had  gathered  a 
motley  host  of  followers  incited  by  prom- 
ises of  plunder;  proclaimed  the  freedom 
of  the  slaves  of  "rebels";  was  joined  by 
some  Indians  from  the  eastern  shore,  and 
the  English  ships  were  placed  at  his  ser- 
vice. With  this  army,  commanded  by  Major 
Beverly,  the  governor  sailed  with  five  ships 


been  the  first  governor  of  North  Carolina,  and  ten  sloops,  and  landed  at  Jamestown 

with  his  brave  and  patriotic  wife,  Sarah,  early    in    September,    1676,    where,    after 

was   then   with   Bacon.     Mrs.   Drummond  piously     ofl'ering     thanksgiving     in     the 

did  much  to  incite  the  Virginians  to  go  church,    he    proclaimed    Bacon    a    traitor, 

on  in  the  path  of  revolution,  and  she  was  Bacon  was  surprised,  for  he  had  then  few 

denounced  as  "  a  notorious,  wicked  rebel."  followers  in  camp ;   but  his  ranks  swelled 


Her  husband  proposed  to  Bacon  to  pro- 
claim government  in  the  colony  abdicated 
by  Berkeley  on  account  of  his  act.  It  was 
suggested  that  a  power  would  come  from 
England  that  would  ruin  the  republicans 


rapidly  as  the  news  went  from  plantation 
to  plantation.  At  the  head  of  a  consider- 
able host  of  patriotic  Virginians,  he 
marched  towards  Jamestown,  seizing  by 
the  way  as  hostages  the  wives  of  loyalists 


in  the  colony.     Sarah  snatched  up  a  small    who  were  with  Berkeley.     The  republicans 


stick  from  the  ground,  and  exclaimed,  "  I 
fear  the  power  of  England  no  more  than 
a  broken  straw.     The  child  that  is  unborn 


t 


appeared  before  the  capital  on  a  moonlit 
evening,  and  cast  up  intrenchments.  In 
vain  the  governor  urged  his  motley  troops 
to  attack  them;  they  were 
not  made  of  stuff  for  soldiers. 
Finally,  the  royalists  stole 
away  in  the  night,  and  com- 
jjelled  the  indignant  governor 
to  follow  them,  when  Bacon 
entered  Jamestown,  and  as- 
sumed the  reins  of  civil  power. 
Very  soon  he  was  startled  by 
a  rumor  that  the  royalists  of 
the  upper  counties  were  com- 
ing down  upon  him.  In  a 
council  of  war  it  was  agreed 
to  burn  the  capital.  The  torch 
Avas  applied  at  the  twilight  of 
a  soft  September  day,  and  the 
next  morning  nothing  was  left 
but  the  brick  tower  of  the 
church  and  a  few  chimneys 
(see  Jamestown).  Then 
Bacon  hastened  to  meet  the 
approaching  royalists,  AA'ho, 
not  disposed  to  fight,  desert- 
ed their  leader  and  joined 
the  "  rebels."  At  the  same 
time  the  royalists  of  Glouces- 
ter yielded  their  allegiance  to 
shall  have  cause  to  rejoice  for  the  good  Bacon,  and  he  resolved  to  cross  the 
that  will  come  by  the  rising  of  the  coun-  Chesapeake  and  drive  the  royalists  and 
try."  The  proclamation  of  abdication  was  Berkeley  from  Virginia.  His  plans  were 
made,  on  the  ground  that  the  governor  siiddenly  frustrated  by  a  foe  deadlier 
was  fomenting  civil  war;  and  writs  were  than  the  malignity  of  the  royalists  who 
issued  for  a  representative  convention.  opposed    him.       The     malaria     from     the 

244 


THE   OLD   CHURCH   TOWER   AT   JAMESTOWN,  IN   1850. 


BACON'S    REBELLION— BAD    LANDS 


marshes  around  Jamestown  in  Septem- 
ber had  poisoned  his  blood,  and  on  Oct. 
11,  1676,  he  died  of  malignant  fever.  His 
followers  made  but  feeble  resistance  there- 
after; and  before  November  Berkeley  re- 
turned to  the  Peninsula  and  resumed  the 
functions  of  government  at  the  Middle 
Plantation,  which  was  made  the  capital 
of  Virginia  (see  Williamsburg).  Bacon 
had  failed ;  yet  those  "  do  not  fail  who  die 
in  a  good  cause."  His  name  is  embalmed 
in  history  as  a  rebel;  had  he  succeeded,  he 
would  have  been  immortalized  as  a  pa- 
triot. His  principal  followers  Avere  very 
harshly  treated  by  the  soured  governor, 
and  for  a  while  terror  reigiied  in  Virginia. 
The  rebellion  cost  the  colony  $500,000. 
See  Berkeley,  Sir  William. 

Bacon's  Rebellion.  See  Bacon,  Na- 
thaniel. 

Bad  Axe,  Battle  at.  See  Black 
Hawk. 

Badeau,  Adam,  military  officer;  born 
in  New  York,  Dec.  29,  1831 ;  served  on 
the  staflf  of  General  Sherman  early  in  the 
Civil  War;  was  severely  wounded  at  Port 
Hudson ;  became  General  Grant  s  mil- 
itary secretary  in  January,  1864;  aide-de- 
camp to  the  general  of  the  army  in  March, 
1865;  retired  in  1869,  holding  the  rank 
of  brevet  brigadier-general,  U.  S.  V.  He 
was  consul-general  in  London  in  1870-81, 
and  was  consul-general  in  Havana  in  1882- 
84.  He  published  Military  History  of 
U.  S.  Grant;  Grant  in  Peace,  etc.  He 
died  in  Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  March,  19,  1895. 

Badgar,  Oscar  Charles,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Windham,  Conn.,  Aug.  12,  1823; 
served  throughout  the  Mexican  and  Civil 
wars;  retired  as  commodore  in  1885; 
died  June  20,  1899. 

Badger,  George  Edmund,  statesman; 
born  in  Newbern,  N.  C,  April  13,  1795; 
member  of  the  State  legislature,  1816-20; 
judge  of  the  North  Carolina  Superior 
Court,  1820-25;  appointed  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  by  President  Harrison,  1841; 
United  States  Senator,  1846-55;  opposed 
secession  of  North  Carolina  in  1861.  He 
died  in  Raleigh,  N.  C,  May  11,   1866. 

Badger  State,  a  name  popularly  given 
to  the  State  of  Wisconsin  on  account  of 
the  number  of  badgers  found  there  by  the 
early  settlers. 

Bad  Lands,  The,  "  Mauvaises  Terres," 
of  the  old  French  fur-traders'  dialect,  are 


an  extensive  tract  in  the  Dakotas,  Wyo- 
ming, and  northwestern  Nebraska,  between 
the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte  and  the 
South  Fork  of  the  Clieyenne  rivers,  west, 
south,  and  southeast  of  the  Black  Hills. 
It  lies  mostly  between  long.  103°  and  105° 
N.,  with  an  area  as  yet  not  perfectly  de- 
fined, but  estimated  to  cover  about  60,000 
square  miles.  There  are  similar  lands  in 
the  Green  River  region,  of  which  Fort 
Bridger  is  the  centre,  and  in  southeastern 
Oregon.  They  belong  to  the  Miocene 
period,  geologically  speaking.  The  surface 
materials  are  for  the  most  part  white  and 
yellowish  indurated  clays,  sands,  marls, 
and  occasional  thin  beds  of  lime  and  sand- 
stone. The  locality  is  fitly  described  as 
one  of  the  most  wonderful  regions  of  the 
globe.  It  is  held  by  geologists  that  dur- 
ing the  geological  period  named  a  vast 
fresh-water  lake  system  covered  this  por- 
tion of  our  continent,  when  the  compara- 
tively soft  materials  which  compose  the 
present  surface  were  deposited.  As  these 
lakes  drained  off,  after  the  subsidence  of 
the  plains  farther  east,  resulting  in  the 
formation  of  the  Missouri  Valley,  the  orig- 
inal lake  beds  were  worn  into  canyons  that 
wind  in  every  conceivable  direction.  Here 
and  there  abrupt,  almost  perpendicular 
portions  of  the  ancient  beds  remain  in 
all  imaginable  forms,  some  resembling  the 
ruins  of  abandoned  cities.  "  Towers,  spires, 
cathedrals,  obelisks,  pyramids,  and  monu- 
ments "  of  various  shapes  appear  on  every 
side,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  range.  Dr. 
Hayden,  the  earliest  explorer  of  this  re- 
gion, said :  "  Not  unfrequently  the  rising 
or  setting  sun  will  light  up  these  grand 
old  ruins  with  a  wild,  strange  beauty,  re- 
minding one  of  a  city  illuminated  in  the 
night,  as  seen  from  some  high  point.  The 
harder  layers  project  from  the  sides  of 
the  canyons  with  such  regularity  that 
they  appear  like  seats  of  some  vast  weird 
amphitheatre."  Through  all  this  country 
rainfall  is  very  light;  the  earth  absorbs 
the  most  of  what  rain  does  fall,  and  water 
and  grass  are  very  scanty.  The  surface- 
rock  is  so  soft  that  it  disintegrates  rap- 
idly, covering  the  lower  groxmds  in  many 
places  to  a  depth  of  several  feet  with  a 
soft,  powdery  soil  into  which  animals  sink 
as  in  snow,  while  when  wet  it  becomes  a 
stiff  mud  of  impassable  depth.  These 
lands  are  plainly  imsuited  for  agriculture, 


245 


BAFFIN— BAILEY 


and  with  rare  exceptions,  here  and  there, 
are  of  little  value  for  grazing  purposes. 
They  are,  however,  one  of  the  most  aston- 
ishing treasuries  of  fossil  remains  to  be 
found  anywhere.  The  soft  clayey  deposits 
are  in  some  places  literally  filled  with  the 
bones  of  extinct  species  of  the  horse,  rhi- 
noceros, elephant,  hog,  camel,  a  deer  that 
strongly  resembled  a  hog,  sabre-toothed 
lions,  and  other  marvellous  creatures, 
which  have  rendered  this  section  of  the 
earth  a  study  of  the  highest  interest  to 
geologists  of  all  lands. 

Baffin,  William,  navigator;  said  to 
have  been  born  in  London  about  1584.  He 
made  voyages  to  West  Greenland  in  1612- 
15,  and  to  Spitzbergen  in  1614.  In  161  (» 
he  commanded  a  vessel  which  reached,  it 
is  said,  lat.  81°  30'  N.,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  ascertained  the  limits  of  the  great 
bay  that  bears  his  name.  He  was  the 
author  of  two  books,  in  the  first  of  which 
he  gave  a  new  method  of  discovering  the 
longitude  at  sea  by  an  observation  of  the 
stars.  He  was  killed  by  the  Portuguese 
at  the  siege  of  Ormuz,  May  23,  1622. 

Bagley,  Worth,  naval  officer;  born  in 
Ealeigh,  N.  C,  April  6,  1874;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1895.  After  serving  two  years  on  the 
Montgomery,  Texas,  and  the  Maine,  he  was 
made  ensign  July  1,  1897.  He  was  a  short 
time  on  the  Indiana,  and  then  became  the 
executive  clerk  of  Capt.  Charles  D.  Sigs- 
bee  on  the  Maine.  In  November,  1897, 
he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  new  tor- 
pedo-boat Winsloiv,  and  when  she  went 
into  commission  on  Dec.  28,  he  was  made 
her  executive  officer,  under  Lieut.  J.  B. 
Bernadou.  her  commander.  In  April,  1898, 
the  WinsloiD  was  with  the  fleet  mobilized 
for  operations  in  Cuban  waters.  On  the 
morning  of  May  II  she  prepared,  with 
the  Hudson  and  Wihnington,  to  force  an 
entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Cardenas.  She 
was  fired  upon  by  one  of  several  Spanish 
gunboats,  and  immediately  there  was  a 
general  engagement.  The  Winsloio  was 
soon  disabled,  and  was  with  difficulty 
hauled  out  of  range  of  the  Spanish  guns. 
Just  as  the  engagement  ended,  Ensign 
Bagley  and  four  sailors  were  killed  by  a 
shell,  he  being  the  first  American  naval 
offi.cer  to  fall  in  the  war  with  Spain. 

Bagot  -  Rush  Treaty.  See  RusH- 
Bagot. 


Bahama  Islands,  The,  were  granted  by 
Charles  II.  (1667)  to  the  eight  courtiers 
to  whom  he  granted  the  Carolinas.  They 
had  sent  William  Sayle  to  bring  them 
some  account  of  the  Carolina  coast.  His 
vessel  was  driven  by  a  storm  among  the 
Bahama  Islands.  There  he  gained  much 
knowledge  of  them,  especially  of  New 
Providence,  which  had  a  good  harbor.  On 
his  return  to  England,  King  Charles  gave 
a  patent  for  the  Bahamas  to  the  proprie- 
tors of  Carolina.  At  that  time  these  isl- 
ands were  uninhabited,  and  the  group  was 
a  favorite  resort  for  buccaneers.  In 
1776  Commodore  Hopkins  captured  New 
Providence,  but  soon  abandoned  it  as  un- 
tenable. During  our  Civil  War  the  isl- 
ands were  the  headquarters  of  the  block- 
ade-runners, which  were  chiefly  British 
ships.     See  Blockade-Runners. 

Bailey,  Guildford  Dudley,  military 
officer;  born  at  Martinsburg,  Lewis  co., 
N.  Y.,  June  4,  1834;  was  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1856,  and  entered,  as 
lieutenant,  the  2d  Artillery,  then  sta- 
tioned at  Fort  Ontario,  Oswego,  N.  Y., 
where,  in  1858,  he  married  a  daughter 
of  Col.  G.  W.  Patten,  U.  S.  A.  He  was 
afterwards  stationed  at  Fort  Leavenworth, 
Kan.,  and  when  the  Civil  War  began  he 
was  acting  adjutant  of  the  post  at  Fort 
Brown,  Texas,  whose  commander.  Captain 
Stoneman,  refused  to  surrender  to  the 
Confederates  of  Texas  in  obedience  to  the 
orders  of  General  Twiggs.  Captain  Stone- 
man  chartered  a  steamboat,  and,  after 
securing  the  most  valuable  public  prop- 
erty there,  evacuated  the  fort  and  sailed 
for  New  York,  where  he  arrived  March 
15,  1861.  Soon  afterwards  Lieutenant 
Bailey  was  sent  with  reinforcements  for 
Fort  Pickens.  His  mission  was  success- 
ful. Sickness  finally  compelled  him  to 
return  to  New  York  to  recruit  his 
strength.  Soon  afterwards  he  Avas  re- 
quested by  Governor  Morgan  to  organize 
a  State  regiment  of  light  artillery,  of 
which  he  was  made  colonel.  With  these 
troops,  which  he  had  well  disciplined  at 
Elmira,  he  Avent  to  Washington,  and  in 
the  spring  of  1862  he  joined  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  at  Fort  Monroe.  At 
the  battle  of  Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines 
(q.  v.).  Colonel  Bailey  Avas  in  General 
Casey's  division.  When  the  sudden  and 
furious    attack    was    made,    the    infantry 


246 


BAILEY— BAINBRIDGE 


TIIKODORUS   BAILEY. 


fell  back,  leaving  Colonel  Bailey's  battery  specially  commended  Captain  Bailey  as 
exposed.  Instead  of  retreating  and  leav-  the  leader  in  that  attack.  In  1862  he  was 
ing  his  guns  in  the  hands  of  the  Confed-  in  command  of  the  Eastern  Gulf  squad- 
erates,  he  determined  to  make  their  spoils  run,  and  was  successful  in  breaking  up 
useless  to  them.  Leaping  from  his  horse, 
he  was  in  the  act  of  spiking  one  of  the 
guns  with  his  own  hand,  when  the  bullet' 
of  a  sharp-shooter  penetrated  his  brain, 
and  he  fell  dead,  May  31,  1862. 

Bailey,  Joseph,  military  officer;  born 
in  Salem,  0.,  April  28,  1827;  entered  the 
Union  army  as  a  private  in  1861 ;  acquired 
great  fame  by  his  skill  in  damming  the  Red 
River  at  Alexandria  (May,  1864),  by 
which  the  squadron  of  iron-clad  gunboats, 
under  Admiral  Porter,  was  enabled  to 
pass  down  the  rapids  there  Avhen  the  water 
was  low.  He  had  been  a  lumberman  in 
Wisconsin,  and  in  that  business  had 
learned  the  practical  part  which  he  used 
in  his  engineering  at  Alexandria,  where 
he  was  acting  chief-engineer  of  the  19th 
Army  Corps.  Other  engineers  said  his 
proposition  to  dam  the  river  was  absurd, 
but  in  eleven  days  the  boats,  by  his 
method,  passed  safely  down.  For  this  blockade-running  on  the  Florida  coast.  He 
achievement  he  was  promoted  to  colonel,  captured  about  150  of  those  vessels  in  the 
brevetted  brigadier-general,  voted  the  space  of  a  year  and  a  half.  In  1865-67  he 
thanks  of  Congress,  and  presented  with  "\^as  in  command  of  the  navy-yard  at 
a  sword  and  $3,000  by  the  officers  of  the  Portsmouth.  He  died  in  Washington,  D. 
fleet.      He    settled    in   Missouri    after    the    C.,  Feb.  10,  1877. 

war,  where  he  was  a  formidable  enemy  of  Bailey,  William  Henry,  lawyer;  born 
the  "bushwhackers,"  and  was  shot  by  in  Pasquatauk  county,  N.  C,  Jan.  22, 
them  in  Nevada,  in  that  State,  on  March  1831;  was  elected  and  appointed  to  many 
21,  1867.  offices    in    his    native    State;    removed    to 

Bailey,  Theodorus,  naval  officer;  born  Texas  in  1891;  is  the  author  of  The  Ef- 
in  Chateaugay,  Franklin  co.,  N.  Y.,  April  fc-ct  of  Civil  War  Upon  the  Rights  of 
12,  1805;  entered  the  na\y  as  midship-  Persons  and  Property;  Conflict  of  Ju- 
man  in  January,  1818,  and  was  captain  in    dicial  Decisions,  etc. 

1855.  In  July,  1862,  he  was  made  com-  Bainbridge,  William,  naval  officer; 
modore,  and  in  July,  1866,  rear-admiral  born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  May  7,  1774.  At 
on  the  retired  '  list.  In  1861  Captain  the  age  of  sixteen  years  he  went  to  sea, 
Bailey  was  in  command  of  the  Colorado,  and  at  nineteen  commanded  a  ship.  On 
in  the  Western  Gulf  squadron,  and  was  the  reorganization  of  the  navy  in  1798  he 
second  in  command  of  the  expedition  under  was  appointed  a  lieutenant.  He  and  his 
Butler  and  Farragut  up  the  Mississippi  vessel  and  crew  were  captured  in  the  West 
to  capture  New  Orleans,  in  the  spring  of  Indies  by  a  French  cruiser  in  September 
1862.  His  vessel  was  too  large  to  pass  of  that  year,  but  were  released  in  Deceni- 
the  bar.  and  taking  what  men  and  guns  ber,  when,  returning  home,  he  was  pro- 
he  could  spare,  he  went  up  the  river  in  his  moted  to  the  command  of  a  brig.  In  May, 
boats  as  a  vokmteer,  and  assumed  the  com-  1800,  he  was  commissioned  a  captain,  and 
mand  of  the  first  division.  He  led  in  the  in  the  ship  Washington  he  carried  tribute 
desperate  attack  on  Fort  St.  Philip,  Fort  from  the  United  States  to  the  Dey  of  Al- 
Jackson,  and  the  Confederate  flotilla.  It  giers,  by  whom  he  was  treated  with  much 
was  one  of  the  most  gallant  naval  opera-  insolence.  By  threats  of  capture  and  a 
tions  of  the  war;   and  Admiral  Farragut    declaration  of  war  by  the  Algerine  ruler, 

247 


BAINBRIDGE— BAIRD 


he  was  compelled  to  take  an  embassy  to 
Constantinople  for  that  petty  despot.  On 
his  return,  with  power  given  him  by  the 


WJLLIAM    BAI.VHKIDGE. 


Sultan,  Bainbridge  frightened  the  insolent 
Dey,  compelling  him  to  release  all  Chris- 
tian prisoners  then  in  his  possession.  He 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1801,  and 


command  of  the  Philadelphia,  one  of 
Preble's  squadron.  On  Oct.  11  the  Phila- 
delphia struck  on  a  rock  near  Tripoli,  and 
was  captured,  with  her  commander  and 
crew.  At  Tripoli  Bainbridge  and  315  of 
his  men ,  remained  prisoners  about  nine- 
teen months.  On  his  return  to  the  United 
States,  he  was  received  with  great  respect, 
and  in  the  reorganization  of  the  navy,  in 
180G,  he  became  the  seventh  in  the  list  of 
captains.  Having  obtained  the  rank  of 
commodore,  Bainbridge  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  a  squadron  ( September, 
1812)  composed  of  the  Constitution  (flag- 
ship), Essex,  and  Hornet,  and  sailed  from 
Boston  in  October.  Otl'  the  coast  of  Brazil 
the  Constitution  captured  the  British  frig- 
ate Java  (Dec.  26)  ;  and  for  this  exploit 
the  commodore  received  the  thanks  of  Con- 
gress and  a  gold  medal.  Other  honors 
were  bestowed  upon  him.  In  1815  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  a  squadron 
of  twenty  sail,  destined  for  Algiers  {q.  v.), 
but  peace  was  concluded  before  it  reached 
the  Mediterranean.  He  settled  disputes 
with  the  Barbary  States;  and  he  again 
commanded  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1819- 
21.  From  that  time  he  was  almost  con- 
stantly employed  in  service  on  shore,  be- 
ing at  one  time  president  of  the  Board  of 
Navy  Commissioners.     He  died  in  Phila- 


BAINBRIDGE    MEDAL. 


he  was  again   sent   to  the  Mediterranean    delphia,   Pa.,  July  28,   183.3,   and   in   that 
with  the  frigate  Essex.    Upon  tbe  declara-    city  was  buried  in  Christ  church-yard, 
tion  of  war  against  the  United  States  by        Baird,  Absalom,  military  officer:   born 
Tripoli,   in   1803,   Bainbridge   was   put   in    in   Washington,   Pa.,  Aug.   20,   1824:   was 

348 


BAIRD— BAKER 


graduated  at  West  Point  in  1849,  having    books  upon  the  Huguenots  in  France  and 

studied  law  before  he  entered  the  military    in   America. 

academy.    He  was  ordered  to  Washington,        Baircl,    Spencer   Fullerton,    scientist; 

born  in  Reading,  Pa.,  Feb.  3,  1823; 
was  graduated  at  Dickinson  College 
in  1840.  In  1850  he  was  appoint- 
ed assistant  secretary  to  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  He  held  that 
office  until  the  death  of  Prof.  Jo- 
seph Henry  (g.  v.)  in  1878,  when 
he  succeeded  to  the  office  of  secre- 
tary, which  he  held  until  his  death, 
on  Aug.  19,  1887.  Professor  Baird 
published  several  works  on  natural 
history.  In  1871  he  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  United  States  Fish 
Commission.  He  died  in  Wood's 
Holl,  Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1887. 

Baker,  Edward  DicivINSON,  mil- 
itary officer;  born  in  London,  Eng- 
land, Feb.  24,  1811.  His  family 
came  to  the  United  States  when  he 
was  a  young  child,  and  settled  first 
in  Philadelphia  and  afterwards 
(1825)  in  Illinois.  Young  Baker 
chose  the  law  for  a  vocation,  and 
entered  upon  its  practice  in  Green 
county,  111.  In  1837,  while  residing 
in  Springfield,  he  was  elected  to  the 
legislatuie.  He  was  a  State  Sena- 
tor in  1840-44,  and  then  a  member 
of  Congress  until  the  beginning  of 
the  war  with  iMexico.  In  that  war 
(1840-47)   he  served  as  colonel  of  Illinois 


BAINBRIDGE  S   MONUMENT. 


D.  C,  in  March,  1861,  and  in  May  was 
made  assistant  adjutant-general.  He  be- 
came aide  to  C4eneral  Tyler  in  the  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  and  in  November  Avas  made 
assistant  inspector-general,  with  the  rank 
of  major.  In  March,  1862,  he  became 
General  Keys's  chief  of  staff;  and  in 
April  he  was  made  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  and  sent  to  Kentucky.  He 
commanded  a  division  under  General 
Granger  in  April,  1863,  and  was  after- 
wards active  in  northern  Georgia  and  in 
the  Atlanta  campaign.  In  Sherman's 
inarch  to  the  sea  he  commanded  a  division 
of  the  14th  Army  Corps,  and  also  in  the 
advance  through  the  Carolinas.  He  was 
brevetted  major  -  general,  U.  S.  A.,  in 
March,  1865 ;  promoted  brigadier-general 
and  inspector-general  in  1885 ;  and  re- 
tired in  1888. 

Baird,    Henry  Martyn,  educator;  born 
in   Philadelphia,    Pa.,   Jan.    17,    1832;    be- 
came Professor  of  Greek  in  the  New  York    volunteers,  and  was  again  elected  to  Con- 
University   in    1859;    wrote   a   number   of    gress  in  1848.     He  settled  in  California  in 

249 


EDWARD    DICKINSON    BAKER. 


BAKER— BALBOA 


1852,  where  he  became  distinguished  in 
his  profession,  and  as  an  orator  in  the 
ranks  of  the  Republican  Party  {q.  v.). 
In  1859  he  removed  to  Oregon,  where 
he  was  elected  United  States  Senator 
in  1860.  He  was  in  that  service  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  when  he 
laised  a  body  of  troops  in  New  York  and 
Philadelphia.  Those  of  Pennsylvania 
v/ere  called  the  "  1st  California  Regi- 
ment.." Declining  to  be  appointed  gen- 
eral, he  went  into  the  field  as  colonel  at 
the  head  of  his  regiment.  While  fighting 
at  Ball's  Bluff,  in  Virginia,  he  was  shot 
dead,  Oct.  21,  18G1.  See  Ball's  Bluff, 
Battle  of. 

Baker,  Lafayette  C,  detective;  born 
in  Stafford,  jST.  Y.,  Oct.  13,  1826;  was  a 
member  of  the  vigilance  committee  in 
San  Francisco  in  1856;  ofi'ered  his  ser- 
vices to  the  federal  government  in  1861; 
and  was  sent  to  Richmond,  where  he  suc- 
ceeded in  collecting  much  information, 
and  returned  to  Washington  within  a 
month.  While  in  Richmond  he  was  ar- 
rested and  imprisoned  as  a  spy,  and  had 
several  interviews  with  the  President  of 
the  Confederacy.  When  the  secret-service 
bureau  was  transferred  to  the  War  De- 
partment, he  was  appointed  its  chief, 
with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  subsequent- 
ly was  promoted  brigadier-general.  When 
President  Lincoln  was  shot  by  Booth, 
General  Baker  organized  pursuit,  and 
was  present  at  Booth's  capture  and  death. 
He  published  History  of  the  United  States 
Secret  Service.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  July  2,  1868. 

Baker,  Marcus,  cartographer;  born  in 
Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  Sept.  23,  1849;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1870.  He  became  connected  Avith  the 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 
in  1873 ;  and  with  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1886.  He  has  made  ex- 
tended explorations  in  Alaska  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  was  the  cartographer 
of  the  Venezuelan  Boundary  Commission. 
In  1900  he  was  secretary  of  the  United 
States  Board  on  Geographic  Names.  He 
has  published  many  geographical  and 
mathematical  monographs,  and,  with 
Prof.  William  H.  Dall,  brought  out  the 
Alaska  Coast  Pilot. 

Baker,  Remejiber,  a  captain  of 
"  Green  Mountain  Boys  "    (q.  v.)  ;   born 


in  Woodbury,  Conn.,  about  1740.  He 
went  to  the  New  Hampshire  Grants  in 
1764,  before  the  Aliens  took  up  their 
abode  there.  He  was  a  soldier  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War,  and  was  in  the 
fierce  battle  at  Ticonderoga  in  1758.  He 
settled  at  Arlington,  on  "  the  Grants," 
and  was  very  active  with  Ethan  Allen  in 
resisting  the  claims  of  New  York  to  Ver- 
mont territory.  Baker  was  arrested,  and 
was  cruelly  treated  while  a  prisoner,  by 
the  New  -  Yorkers.  The  government  of 
that  province  had  outlawed  him  and  set 
a  price  upon  his  head.  Captain  Baker 
was  with  Allen  when  he  took  Ticonde- 
roga, in  May,  1775.  He  was  killed,  while 
on  a  scout  in  the  Continental  service,  by 
the  Indians  on  the  Sorel,  the  outlet  of 
Lake   Champlain,    in   August,    1775. 

Balance  of  Trade,  a  phrase  employed 
in  commerce  to  express  the  difference  be- 
tween the  value  of  a  country's  exports 
and  its  imports.  When  the  exports  of  a 
country  exceed  its  imports  the  balance  of 
trade  is  popularly  said  to  be  in  favor  of 
that  country.  Leaving  to  others  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  controversial  questions  as 
to  whether  free-trade  or  protection  is  best 
for  a  country,  and  whether  a  decrease  in 
importations  indicates  an  increase  in  the 
prosperity  of  a  country  through  larger 
local  productions,  attention  is  here 
called  to  the  fact  that  in  recent  years 
the  United  States  has  exported  much 
more  than  it  imported.  For  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1900,  the  official 
statistics  of  the  U^nited  States  Treasury 
Department  showed  for  these  two  move- 
ments of  merchandise  the  following:  Ex- 
ports, domestic,  $1,370,476,158;  foreign, 
$23,710,213;  a  total  of  $1,394,186,371; 
total  imports,  $849,714,670;  showing  a 
balance  in  merchandise  of  $544,471,651. 
During  the  same  period  the  trade  in 
gold  and  silver  coin  and  bullion  was:  Ex- 
ports, $106,978,504;  imports,  $78,066,154; 
showing  a  balance  in  this  trade  in  favor 
of  the  United  States  of  $28,912,350;  mak- 
ing the  balance  of  all  trade,  or  the  excess 
of  exports  over  imports,  during  that  fiscal 
year,  $573,384,001.  See  Commerce;  Free 
Trade;  Protection. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  discoverer 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  born  in  Xeres  de 
los  Caballeros,  Spain,  in  1475;  went  to 
Santo  Domingo  in  1501 ;  and  thence  to 
Q 


BALBOA— BALDWIN 


the  Isthmus  of  Darien  in  1510.  Pope 
Alexander  VI.  {q.  v.)  gave  to  the  Span- 
ish crown,  as  God's  vicegerent  on  the 
earth,  all  lands  that  lay  300  leagues 
westward  of  the  Azores — in  fact,  all  of 
America.  Ferdinand  of  Spain  divided 
Central  America,  whose  shores  Colum- 
bus had  discovered,  into  two  provinces, 
over  one  of  which  he  placed  as  governor 
Ojeda,  the  navigator,  and  over  the  other 
Diego  de  Nicuessa,  with  Bachelor  Enciso 
as  lieutenant.  Nunez,  deeply  in  debt  in 
Santo  Domingo,  escaped  from  his  cred- 
itors by  being  carried  in  a  provision-cask 
on  board  Enciso's  ship.  When  she  had 
weighed  anchor  Nunez  came  from  his 
cask.  Enciso,  angered  by  the  deception, 
threatened  him,  but  became  reconciled. 
At  Darien,  where  the  seat  of  government 
was  to  be  established,  Nunez,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  discontent  of  the  Span- 
iards, headed  a  revolt.  When  Nicuessa 
came,  they  defied  him  and  sent  him  adrift 
in  a  crazy  vessel :  and  Enciso,  seeing  no 
chance  for  subduing  the  insurgents,  Avenfc 
back  to  Spain  with  loud  complaints 
against  Nunez,  and  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment sent  out  Davila,  with  a  fleet  and 
troops,  as  governor  of  Darien. 

Meanwhile  Nuuez  had  become  a  great 
discoverer.  The  cacique,  or  Indian  ruler, 
of  a  neighboring  district,  named  Caveta, 
had  treated  two  Spaniards  with  great 
kindness,  who  requited  his  hospitality  by 
advising  Nuiiez  to  attack  and  plunder  him, 
for  he  had  much  gold.  While  the  people 
of  Caveta's  village  were  slumbering, 
Nuiiez  and  his  followers  entered  it  and 
carried  off  the  cacique  and  his  whole 
family  and  others,  and,  with  considerable 
booty,  returned  to  Darien.  Caveta  and 
Nuiiez  soon  became  friends.  The  former 
gave  his  young  and  beautiful  daughter  to 
the  Spanish  adventurer  as  his  wife,  and 
she  acquired  great  influence  over  her  hus- 
band. While  visiting  a  powerful  cacique, 
a  friendly  neighbor  of  Caveta,  Nunez  was 
told  that  beyond  the  mountains  was  a 
mighty  sea  that  could  be  seen  from  their 
summits,  and  that  the  rivers  that  flowed 
down  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  on  the 
other  side  abounded  with  gold;  also  that 
along  the  coast  of  that  sea  was  a  country 
where  gold  was  as  plentiful  as  iron.  This 
story  was  confirmed  by  others,  and  finally 
Nuriez,  with  nearly  200  men  and  a  number 

25 


of  bloodhounds,  set  out  for  the  tops  of  the 
mountains.  On  Nov.  26,  1513,  Nuiiez  and 
his  men  were  near  the  bold  rocky  summit 
of  a  mountain.  The  leader  ascended  it 
alone,  when  he  beheld  a  mighty  sea.  It 
Vv'as  the  Pacific  Ocean.  On  that  summit 
he  and  his  followers  set  up  a  huge  cross, 
and  then  descended  to  the  shore  of  the 
sea.  Wading  into  its  waters,  Nunez  took 
formal  possession  of  the  great  ocean  in 
the  name  of  his  sovereign.  After  that  he 
made  voyages  along  its  coast,  and  heard 
tidings  of  Peru,  where  the  Incas,  or  rulers, 
drank  out  of  golden  vessels.  After  Davila 
came,  Nuiiez  Avas  falsely  accused  of 
traitorous  intentions  by  his  jealous  suc- 
cessor and  rival,  and  he  was  beheaded  at 
Ada,  near  Darien,  in  1517.  So  perished 
the  discoverer  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Balcarres,  Alexander  Lindsay,  Earl, 
British  military  officer;  born  in  Scotland 
in  1752;  served  three  years  in  America 
under  Carleton  and  Burgoyne,  and  was 
captured  with  the  latter  at  Saratoga.  At 
the  battle  of  Hubbardton,  where  he  was 
wounded,  thirteen  balls  passed  through 
his  clothes.  He  was  made  major-general 
in  1703;  lieutenant-governor  of  Jamaica 
in  1794;  general  in  1803;  and  subsequent- 
ly one  of  the  representative  peers  from 
Scotland.  He  died  in  London,  March  27, 
1S25. 

Balch,  George  Beall,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Tennessee,  Jan.  3,  1821.  He  en- 
tered the  navy  in  1837 ;  engaged  in  the 
war  against  Mexico,  and  was  wounded 
in  a  naval  engagement  at  Shanghai,  China. 
He  was  engaged  actively  and  successfully 
in  the  South  Atlantic  blockading  squad- 
rons and  in  other  naval  operations.  He 
became  rear-admiral  in  1878,  and  retired 
in   1883. 

Baldwin,  Abraham,  legislator;  born  in 
Guilford,  Conn.,  Nov.  6,  1754;  originated 
the  L'niversity  of  Georgia,  and  was  its 
president  for  several  years;  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1785- 
88,  and  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  in  1787.  In  1789-99  he  was 
a  Representative  in  Congress,  and  was 
then  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
of  which  he  was  president  pro  tern,  in 
1801-02.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
March  4,  1807. 

Baldwin,  Charles  H.,  naval  officer; 
born  in  New  York  City,  Sept.  3,  1822;  en- 
1 


BALDWIlf— BALLOONS    IN    WAR 

teved  the  navy  in  1839;  served  through  the  capture   of   New   York   in    1776,   and   was 

Mexican    War    on    the    frigate    Congress;  brevetted    major    in    November    following, 

commanded    the    steamer    Clifton    of    the  Served  under  Lord  Cornwallis  in  Pennsyl- 

mortar    flotilla    at    the    passage    of    Forts  vania  and  the  Carolinas;  and  was  in  com- 

Jackson  and  St.  Philip  below  New  Orleans,  mand  at  Charleston  in  1781,  when  he  re- 

and  in  the  first  attack  on  Vicksburg,  both  luctantly    obeyed    the    command    of    Lord 

in    1862;    was    promoted    rear-admiral    in  Rawdon  to  execute  Isaac  Hayne    (g.  v.). 

1S83;    and  was  the  official   representative  He  was  then   lieutenant-colonel.     He  was 

of  the  United  States  at  the  coronation  of  made    colonel    and   aide  -  de  -  camp    to   his 

the  Emperor  of  Eussia.     He  died  in  New  king    in    1782,    a    major-general    in    1793. 

York  City,  Nov.  17,  1888.  lieutenant-general    in    1798,   and   general 

Baldwin,    Henry,    historian;    born    in  in    1803.     He    died    in    Dunbog,    Oct.    10, 

New  York  City,  Feb.  1,  1832;  was  elected  1823. 

by    the    convention    of    Patriotic    Organ-  Ball,      Thomas,      sculptor;      born      in 

izations  in  Chicago  in  1891  to  verify  "all  Charlestown,    Mass.,    June    3,    1819;    edu- 

the    facts    of   American    history "    and   to  cated     at     Mayhew     School,     Boston.     In 

collect    a    Library    Americana    to    be    de-  1840-52   he   applied   himself   to   painting, 

posited   at   Washington.     He   has   devoted  but  in  1851  undertook  sculpture.     He  de- 

his  entire  time  to  this  work.  signed  and  executed  the  equestrian  statue 

Baldwin,  Theodore  A.,  military  officer ;  of   Washington   in   Boston,   the   statue   of 

born   in   New   Jersey,   Dec.    31,    1839;    en-  Daniel    Webster    in    Central    Park,    New 

tered   the   army   in   1862;    served   through  York,  and  other  similar  works.     In  1891- 

the  Civil  War;  became  lieutenant-colonel,  98    he   was    engaged    on    a    monument    of 

loth  United  States  Cavalry,  in  1896;  was  Washington   for   Methuen,   Mass.     He   be- 

a    brigadier-general    of   volunteers    in    the  came  an  honorary  fellow  of  the  National 

American-Spanish    War;     and    was     pro-  Sculptors'    Society    in    1896.     He    is    the 

moted  to  colonel  of  the  7th  LTnited  States  author  of  My  Three-Score  Years  and  Ten: 

Cavalry,  May  6,  1899.  an  Autobiography,  which  attracted  much 

Baler,    a   town   in   the   eastern   part   of  attention. 

Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  nearly  midway  Balloons   in   War.      At   the   beginning 

between    Balintang    Channel    and    Bernar-  of    the    Civil    War    the    telegraphic    oper- 

dino  Strait,  and  directly  north  of  a  notable  ations    of    the    army    were    intrusted    to 

■  mountain  of  the  same  name.     In  1898-99  Maj.  Thomas  T.  Eekert.     In  this  connec- 

the  Filipino   insurgents   besieged  a   Span-  tion  T.  S.  C.  Lowe,  a  distinguished  aero- 

ish  garrison  here   for   nearly  a  year,   the  naut,   was   employed,   and   for   some   time 

Spanish  commander  declining  to  surrender  balloons   were   used   with   great   efficiency 

the  place  even  when  directed  to  do  so  by  in  reconnoitring,  but  later  in  the  progress 

orders   from   Madrid.     The   garrison   took  of  the  war  they  fell  into  disuse.     At  the 

possession  of  the  native   church,  fortified  height  of  500  feet  above  Arlington  House, 

it,  and  held  possession  till  their  supplies  opposite    Washington,    D.    C,    Mr.    Lowe 

gave  out,  when  they  surreiidered,  and,  in  telegraphed   to   President   Lincoln   as   fol- 

recognition   of   their  "  exceptional   heroism,  lows,  in  June,  1861 :   "  Sir,  from  this  point 

were   allowed   to   march  out   of  the   place  of  observation  we  command  an  extent  of 

with  all  the  honors  of  war,  July  2,  1899.  country  nearly   50   miles   in   diameter.     I 

The    town    was    occupied    and    garrison-  have    pleasure    in    sending    you    the    first 

ed    by    United    States    troops    in    March,  telegram   ever   despatched   from   an   aerial 

1900.  station,    and    acknowledging    indebtedness 

Balfour,   Nisbet,   British  military  offi-  to   your   encouragement   for   the   opporiu- 

cer;  born  in  Dunbog,  Scotland,  in  1743.  He  nity  of  demonstrating  the  availability  of 

was  a  son  of  an  auctioneer  and  bookseller  the   science   of  aeronautics   in   the   service 

in   Edinburgh;    entered  the   British   army  of  the  country."     After  sending  the  above 

as  an  ensign  in  1761 ;   commanded  a  com-  despatch,    Mr.    Lowe   was    invited    to    the 

pany  in  1770;  was  wounded  at  the  battle  Executive  Mansion  and  introduced  to  Gen- 

of  Bunker  Hill  in  June,  1775,  and  again  eral   Scott;    and  he  was   soon   afterwards 

in    the    battle    of    Long    Island.     He   was  employed   in  the  military  service.     When 

sent     home     with     despatches     after     the  in  use,  the  balloon  was  kept  under  control 


BALLOT  REFORM— BALL'S  BLUFF 


by  strong  cords  in  the  hands  of  men  on 
the  ground,  who,  when  the  reconnoissance 
was  ended,  drew  it  down  to 
the  place  of  departure. 

During    the    Franco-Prus- 
sian   War     (1870-71)     bal- 
loons   were    freely    used    by 
both  parties,  Gambetta  and 
other      French      authorities 
passed  successfully  over  the 
investing  lines  of  Germans; 
and  captive  or  observa- 
tion as  well  as  floating 
balloons   were   frequent 
targets     for    ambitious 
sharp-shooters.     In  the 
Santiago    campaign    in 
Cuba,    in     1898,    much 
was   expected   of   an 
observation    balloon, 
put      togethei      and 
opeiated  by  men  of 
the     United     States 


WAK    BALI.nON 


Signal  Service.  Several  successful  ascen- 
sions were  made,  and  messages  describing 
the  situation  of  the  Spaniards  were  trans- 
mitted to  General  Shafter's  headquarters. 
It  was  found  that  there  were  large  possi- 
bilities in  the  use  of  balloons  for  military 
purposes,  but  that  there  were  ever-present 
elements  of  danger.  The  Santiago  balloon 
rendered  good  service  at  a  critical  time, 
but  Avas  destroyed  by  a  Spanish  shot. 

Ballot  Reform.  The  agitation  in 
favor  of  a  system  of  election  laws  which 
should  prevent  corruption,  bribery,  and 
intimidation  at  the  polls  began  in  the 
United  States  in  1887.  Four  years  there- 
after twenty-eight  out  of  the  forty-eight 
State     and     Territorial     legislatures    had 


enacted  laws  providing  for  ballot  reform. 
The  method  of  voting  prescribed  by  most 
of  these  enactments  was  essentially  that 
known  as  the  Australian'  system,  from 
the  fact  of  its  having  originated  in  South 
Australia  some  thirty-five  years  previous- 
ly. It  was  adopted  in  England  in  1872. 
Its  primary  object  is  to  secure  absolute  se- 
crecy in  voting.  Its  peculiar  and  essential 
features  are,  first,  an  official  ballot,  and, 
second,  privacy  in  voting.  By  an  official 
ballot  is  meant  a  ticket  which  has  been 
printed  and  furnished  by  State  or  local 
authorities,  and  is  given  to  the  voter  by 
a  special  official.  Privacy  in  voting  is 
secured  by  different  means,  such  as  vot- 
ing booths,  enclosed  stalls,  and  other  de- 
vices for  concealing  the  voter  from  view. 
The  good  effects  of  this  system  were  im- 
mediately apparent  in  the  States  where 
it  was  adopted,  promoting  good  order  and 
decency  at  the  polls,  and  greatly  dimin- 
ishing the  opportunities  for  fraud  and  in- 
timidation. In  the  system  in  vogue  in 
most  States  the  names  of  all  candidates 
are  on  a  single  ticket,  and  the  voter  in- 
dicates his  choice  by  a  cross  (X).  This 
system  in  the  Presidential  election  of  189G 
was  used  in  thirty-six  States,  and  seems 
likely  to  be  universally  adopted.  Various 
voting  machines  have  been  tried  since  1890, 
but  none  have  as  yet  proven  sufficiently 
satisfactory  to  warrant  their  general  use. 

Ballou,  Matubin  Murray,  journalist; 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  April  14,  1820;  was 
educated  in  the  Boston  High  School.  In 
1838  he  entered  journalism  on  the  Olive 
Branch,  a  weekly.  Later  he  became  pro- 
prietor and  editor  of  Ballou's  Monthly  and 
Gleason's  Pictorial.  He  became  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Boston  Daily  Globe 
in  1872.  and  for  many  years  was  its 
chief  editor.  He  also  had  a  part  or 
whole  interest  in  Ballou's  Pictorial; 
The  Flag  of  Our  Union,  and  the  Bos- 
ton Sunday  Budget.  His  works  include 
Due  West;  Due  South;  Due  North; 
Under  the  Southern  Cross;  The  New  El 
Dorado;  Aztec  Land;  The  Story  of  Malta; 
Equatorial  America;  Biography  of  the 
Rev.  Hosea  Ballou.  He  died  in  Caii'o, 
Egypt.  March  27.  189.5. 

Ball's  Bluff,  Battle  at.  In  October, 
1861,  a  National  force,  commanded  by 
Gen.  Charles  P.  Stone,  was  encamped  be- 
tween Edward's  and  Conrad's  ferries,  on 


253 


BALL'S    BLUFF 


the  Maryland  side  of  the  upper  Potomac, 
while  the  left  wing  of  the  Confederate 
army,  under  General  Evans,  lay  at  Lees- 
burg,  in  Virginia.  Misinformation  had 
caused  a  belief  that  the  Confederates  had 
left  Leesburg  at  a  little  past  the  middle 
of  October,  when  General  McClellan  or- 
dered General  McCall,  who  commanded 
the  advance  of  the  right  of  the  National 
forces  in  Virginia,  to  move  forward  and 
occupy  Drainesville.  At  the  same  time 
he  ordered  General  Stone  to  co-operate 
with    General    McCall,    which    he    did    by 


pi'-'  ^,15  MASS 

^  |l7  MISS. 

'/^(in,  fe    \I3  MISS^' 

(-■vr   t"^  ('4,  <'5.5- 


MAP    OP    ball's    bluff. 

making  a  feint  of  crossing  the  river  at  the 
two  ferries  above  named  on  the  afternoon 
of  Sunday,  Oct.  20.  At  the  same  time  part 
of  a  Massachusetts  regiment,  under  Colo- 
nel Devens  (see  Devens,  Charles),  was 
ordered  to  take  post  upon  Harrison's  Isl- 
and, in  the  Potomac,  abreast  of  Ball's 
Bluff.  Devens  went  to  the  island  with 
four  companies  in  flat-boats  taken  from 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal.  About 
3,000  men,  under  Col.  Edwaed  D.  Baker 
(q.  V.) ,  of  the  national  Senate,  acting  as 
brigadier-general,  were  held  in  readiness 
as  a  reserve  in  case  of  a  battle.  With 
that  reserve  was  a  fine  body  of  Pennsyl- 
vanians  known  as  the  "  1st  California 
Eegiment."  These  movements  of  the  Na- 
tionals caused  an  opposing  one  on  the 
part  of  the  Confederates,  who  had  watched 
their  antagonists  with  keen  vigilance  at  a 
point  of  concealment  not  far  off  Misin- 
formed as  to  the  position  of  the  Confeder- 
ates and  supposing  McCall  to  be  near 
enough  to  give  aid  if  necessary.  Stone,  on 
the  morning  of  the  21st,  ordered  some 
Massachusetts  troops  under  Colonels  Lee 
and  Devens  to  cross  to  the  Virginia  shore 


from  Harrison's  Island  to  reconnoitre. 
They  did  not  find  the  foe  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

General  Evans,  unperceived,  lay  not  far 
off;  and  riflemen  and  cavalry  were  hover- 
ing near  and  waiting  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity to  strike  Devens,  who,  leaving  a 
part  of  Lee's  command  near  the  Bluff,  had 
advanced  to  near  Leesburg.  After  a  skir- 
mish, in  which  he  lost  one  man  killed  and 
nine  wounded,  he  fell  back  towards  the 
Bluff.  While  halting  in  an  open  fleld,  he 
received  orders  from  Stone  to  remain  there 
until  support  could  be  sent  him.  His  en- 
tire force  consisted  of  only  600  men.  They 
were  very  soon  attacked  by  the  Confeder- 
ates. It  was  a  little  past  noon.  Pressed 
by  overwhelming  numbers.  Devens  fell 
back  to  avoid  being  flanked.  Meanwhile 
Colonel  Baker  had  been  pressing  forward 
from  Conrad's  Ferry  to  the  relief,  of  the 
assailed  troops.  Ranking  Devens,  he  had 
been  ordered  to  Harrison's  Island,  with 
discretionary  powers  to  reinforce  the  party 
on  the  Virginia  main  or  to  withdraw  all 
the  troops  to  the  Maryland  side  of  the 
river.  He  concluded  to  go  forward,  sup- 
posing the  forces  of  McCall  and  others 
to  be  near.  He  was  ignorant  of  the  fa^ct 
that  General  McClellan  had  ordered  Mc- 
Call to  fall  back  from  Drainesville. 

On  reaching  the  field  of  conflict.  Baker 
took  the  chief  command  of  all  the  forces 
on  the  BlufT,  about  1,700  strong.  Very 
soon  afterwards,  while  he  was  in  the  thick- 
est of  the  fight  encouraging  his  men,  a 
bullet  pierced  his  brain  and  he  fell  dead. 
The  battle  had  lasted  two  hours.  His 
troops,  unsupported  by  others,  were 
crushed  by  superior  numbers.  Pressed 
back  to  the  verge  of  the  Bluff,  which  there 
rises  more  than  100  feet  above  the  river, 
they  fought  desperately  for  a  while  at  twi- 
light, for  they  had  no  means  for  crossing 
the  swollen  flood.  They  were  soon  over- 
powered. Some  had  been  pushed  down  the 
declivity.  Many  were  made  prisoners,  and 
many  perished  in  trying  to  escape  by 
swimming  in  the  dark.  Some  were  shot 
in  the  water,  and  others  were  drowned. 
A  flat-boat  laden  with  the  wounded  was 
riddled  with  bullets  and  sank.  In  this 
aff'air  the  Nationals  lost,  in  killed,  wound- 
ed, and  prisoners,  fully  1.000  men.  The 
Confederates  lost  153  killed.  The  num- 
ber of  their  wounded  is  unknown. 


254 


BALTIMORE 


Baltimore,  city,  port  of  entry,  commer- 
cial metropolis  of  Maryland,  and  sixth 
city  in  the  United  States  in  population  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1900;  on  the 
Patapsco  River ;  38  miles  northeast  of 
Washington,  D.  C.  The  city  covers  an  area 
of  28  square  miles;  has  an  admirable  har- 
bor, defended  by  Forts  McHenry,  Armis- 
tead,  Howard,  Smallwood,  and  Carroll, 
and  is  popularly  known  as  "  The  Monu- 
mental City."  Its  history  dates  back  to 
16fi2,  when  its  site  was  included  in  a  pat- 
ent for  a  tract  of  land  granted  to  Charles 
Gorsuch.      David    Jones,    the   first    settler 


ots.  The  Continental  Congress,  of  the 
courage  and  patriotism  of  which  there  was 
a  growing  distrust,  were  uneasy.  Leading 
republicans  hesitated  to  go  further,  and 
only  Washington  and  a  few  other  choice 
spirits  were  hopeful.  When  the  com- 
mander-in-chief was  asked  what  he  would 
do  if  Philadelphia  should  be  taken,  he  re- 
plied, "  We  will  retreat  beyond  the  Sus- 
quehanna Eiver,  and  thence,  if  necessary, 
to  the  Alleghany  Mountains."  The  great 
body  of  Quakers,  numerous  and  inflTien- 
tial  in  Pennsylvania,  were  opposed  to  the 
war,   and   loyalists   abounded   everywhere. 


C'^   ^ 


A   VIEW   OF   BALTIMORE   TO-DAT. 


on  the  site  of  Baltimore,  in  1682,  gave  his 
name  to  a  small  stream  that  runs  through 
the  city.  In  January,  1730,  a  town  was 
laid  out  on  the  west  .of  this  stream,  con- 
tained in  a  plot  of  sixty  acres,  and  was 
called  Baltimore,  in  honor  of  Cecil,  Lord 
Baltimore.  In  the  same  year  William 
Fell,  a  ship-carpenter,  purchased  a  tract 
east  of  the  stream  and  called  it  Fell's 
Point.  Fort  Mcl^enry  stands  opposite,  on 
Locust  Point.  In  1732  a  new  town  of  ten 
acres  was  laid  out  on  the  east  side  of  the 
stream,  and  called  Jonestown.  It  was 
united  to  Baltimore  in  1745,  dropping  its 
own  name.  In  1767  Baltimore  became  the 
county  town.  The  population  in  1890  was 
434,439;  in  1900,  508,9.57. 

When  the  British  army  approached  the 
Delaware  River  (December,  1776),  and  it 
was  feared  that  they  would  cross  into 
Pennsylvania  and  march  on  Philadelphia, 
there  was  much  anxiety  among  the  patri- 


MifHin,  who  was  a  disowned  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  and  had  witnessed  the 
sudden  growing  lukewarmness  of  the 
Congress,  fearing  the  effect  of  Howe's 
proclamation  upon  both,  strongly  recom- 
mended the  removal  of  that  body  from 
Philadelphia.  General  Putnam,  who  had 
been  sent  to  that  city  to  fortify  it,  earn- 
estly seconded  Mifflin's  proposition;  and 
the  Congress,  trembling  for  their  personal 
safety,  gladly  complied,  and  adjourned 
(Dec.  12),  to  meet  at  Baltimore,  Dec. 
20.  Putnam  was  invested  with  almost 
absolute  control  of  military  affairs 
in  Philadelphia,  and  the  Congress  dele- 
gated its  executive  powers  to  a  resident 
committee  composed  of  Robert  Morris, 
George  Clymer,  and  George  Walton,  to 
act  in  their  behalf  during  their  absence. 
In  Baltimore,  the  Congress  reassembled 
(Dec.  20,  1776)  in  a  spacious  brick  build- 
ing that  stood  until  within  a  few  years. 


255 


BALTIMORE 


with  fronts  on  Baltimore,  Sharpe,  and 
Liberty  streets,  and  where,  on  the  23d, 
Rev.  Patrick  Allison,  first  minister  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Baltimore,  and 
Rev.  William  White,  of  the  Ejjiscopal 
Church  in  Philadelphia,  were  appointed 
chaplains. 

On  June  18,  ISGO,  the  adjourned  con- 
vention of  Democratic  delegates  who  had 
assembled  in  Charleston  met  at  Baltimore, 
with    Mr.    Cushing    in    the    chair.      The 


MEETING-PLACE   OP   CONGRESS    IN   BALTIMORE   IN    1776, 


expression  of  opinion,  and  the  reopening 
of  the  slave  trade  was  advocated.     Finally, 
on   Friday,   the   22d,   the   majority   report 
was  adopted,  and  the  places  of  most  of  the 
seceders,   who   were   unseated,   were   filled 
by  Douglas  men.     Then  there  was  another 
secession  of  delegates  from  the  slave-labor 
States,  and  on  the  following  morning  Mr. 
Gushing  and  a  majority  of  the  Massachu- 
setts delegation  also  withdrew.     "  We  put 
our  withdrawal  before  you,"  said  Mr.  But- 
ler    (Benjamin    F. )     of 
that  delegation,  "  upon 
the      simple      ground, 
among     others,     that 
there  has  been  a  with- 
drawal,   in    part,    of    a 
majority  of  the  States, 
and,  further   (and  that, 
perhaps,  more  personal 
,     to    myself),    upon    the 
ground  that  I  will  not 
sit     in     a     convention 
where  the  African  slave 
trade — which  is  piracy 
by  the  laws  of  my  coun- 
try —  is        approvingly 
advocated."    Gov.  David 
Tod,  of  Ohio,  was  then 
called   to   the   chair   in 
place    of    Gushing,    re- 
tired,  and   the   conven- 


^&^j 


seceders  from  the  Charleston  Convention, 
who  had  been  in  session  at  Richmond,  had 
adjourned  to  Baltimore,  and  claimed  the 
right  to  sit  in  the  convention  from  which 
they  had  withdraAvn.  Mr.  Gushing  dcr 
clined  to  decide  the  delicate  question 
which  arose,  and  referred  the  whole  matter 
to  the  convention.  It  was  debated  for 
some  time,  when  it  was  jaroposed  that  no 
delegate  should  be  admitted  unless  he 
would  pledge  himself  to  abide  hj  the  ac- 
tion of  a  majority  of  the  convention  and 
support  its  nominees.  The  debates  were 
hot  and  acrimonious,  and  at  evening 
there  were  two  mass-meetings  of  the  De- 
mocracy in  Baltimore,  attended  by  tens 
of  thousands  of  citizens  and  strangers.  On 
the  morning  of  June  19  the  subject  of  con- 
testing delegates  was  referred  to  the  com- 
mittee on  credentials,  and  on  the  21st,  the 
committee  not  agreeing,  two  reports  Avere 
submitted.  Then  a  very  Avarm  debate  Avas 
had,  in  AA'hich  free  rein  Avas  given  to  the 

25 


tion  proceeded  to  bal- 
lot for  a  Presidential  candidate.  Some 
of  the  Southern  members  remained  in 
the  couA'ention;  and  the  speech  of  a 
delegate  from  Arkansas  (Mr.  Flour- 
noy),  a  slave-holder  and  friend  of  the 
system,  Avas  so  liberal  that  it  had  a 
poAverful  effect  upon  delegates  from  the 
free-labor  States  in  favor  of  Mr.  Douglas. 
Of  194  votes  cast  on  the  second  ballot,  Mr. 
Douglas  received  181,  and  he  AA^as  declared 
duly  nominated.  Mr.  Fitzpatrick,  of  Ala- 
bama, nominated  for  Vice-President,  de- 
clined tAvo  days  afterAvards,  and  Herschel 
V.  Johnson,  of  Georgia,  Avas  substituted. 
The  conA^ention  adjourned  June  23,  1860. 
Early  in  January,  1861,  Gov.  John  A. 
Andrew^  (g.  v.),  of  Massachusetts,  ten- 
dered troops  to  the  government  for  its 
protection.  Fort  Sumter  Avas  attacked, 
and  on  the  day  Avhen  the  President's  call 
for  troops  Avas  issued,  _  Senator  Wilson 
telegraphed  to  Governor  Andrew  to  de- 
spatch tAventy  companies  to  Washington 
0 


lALflMORU 


immediately.  The  formal  requisition  of 
the  Secretary  of  War  arrived  an  hour 
later,  calling  for  two  regiments  from 
Massachusetts,  and  before  sunset  the  same 
day  an  order  went  out  for  four  regiments 
to  muster  forthwith  on  Boston  Common. 
Benjamin  F.  Butler  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general,  and  these  regiments 
formed  his  brigade.  On  the  16th  Senator 
Wilson  telegraphed  for  four  regiments. 
They  were  ready,  and  the  6th  Regiment, 
Colonel  Jones,  was  sent  forward  immedi- 
ately, to  go  by  way  of  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, and  Baltimore.  The  regiment 
consisted  of  eleven  companies,  and  to 
these  were  added  two  more.  News  had 
reached  Baltimore  of  the  approach  of 
these  troops,  and  there  was  much  excite- 
ment there  on  the  morning  of  April  19,  for 
they  had  heard  of  the  destruction  of  the 
armory  and  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  the 
night  before.  At  near  noon  the  Massa- 
chusetts troops  arrived,  and  the  excitement 
was  intensified.  When  the  train  reached 
the  President  Street  station,  between 
which  and  Camden  Street  station  the  cars 
were  drawn  by  horses,  a  mob  of  about  500 
men  were  waiting  to  receive  them.  The 
number  rapidly  increased,  until,  when  the 
cars  started,  at  least  2,000  men  followed 
them,  with  yells,  to  the  Camden  Street  sta- 
tion, where  another  mob,  which  had  been 
gathering  all  the  morning,  met  them.  A 
mob  in  Pratt  Street  became  more  and  more 
unruly,  shouting  lustily  for  "  Jeflf  Davis 
and  the  Southern  Confederacy,"  and  at 
near  the  corner  of  Gay  Street,  where  lay 
a  heap  of  stones,  they  broke  loose  from 
all  restraint,  and  hurled  these  missiles 
ujjon  the  cars  loaded  with  soldiers  as  they 
were  passing.  Every  window  was  de- 
molished, and  several  soldiers  were  hurt. 
Then  the  cry  was  raised,  "  Tear  up  the 
track!"  That  could  not  easily  be  done, 
and  the  mob  barricaded  the  street  by  drag- 
ging anchors  upon  it  from  a  store  near 
by.  The  troops  back  of  the  barricade 
alighted  for  the  purpose  of  marching  to 
the  station.  They  consisted  of  four  com- 
panies. As  they  began  a  march  in  close 
order,  the  mob  fell  upon  them.  The  rioters 
were  led  by  a  man  with  a  Confederate  flag 
on  a  pole,  who  told  the  troops  they  should 
never  go  through  the  city — that  "  every 
nigger  of  'em  "  would  be  killed  before  they 
could  reach  the  other  station.  The  word 
I.— K  11 


March!  was  given  to  the  troops,  when  the 
mob  began  hurling  bricks  and  stones.  The 
missiles  filled  the  air  like  hail,  while  the 
troops  advanced  at  a  "  double-quick." 
Very  soon  the  attack  became  more  furious, 
and  several  of  the  soldiers  were  knocked 
down  by  stones  and  their  muskets  taken 
from  them.  Presently  some  shots  were 
fired  by  the  infuriated  populace.  Up  to 
this  time  the  troops  had  made  no  resist- 
ance. Now,  finding  the  mob  intent  upon 
murder,  the  troops  were  ordered  to  cap 
their  muskets  (already  loaded)  and  de- 
fend themselves.  They  had  now  reached 
Gay  Street,  and  the  mob  was  full  10,000 
strong,  hurling  stones  and  bricks.  Heavy 
pieces  of  iron  were  thrown  upon  them 
from  windows.  One  of  them  crushed  a 
man  to  the  earth.  Now  the  troops  turned 
and  fired  at  random  at  the  mob.  Shouts, 
stones,  musketry,  shrieks  of  women,  and 
the  carrying  of  wounded  men  into  stores 
made  an  appalling  tragedy.  The  severest 
of  the  fight  was  in  Pratt  Street,  between 
Gay  and  Bowley's  wharf,  near  Calvert 
Street.  The  mayor  of  Baltimore  tried  to 
quell  the  storm  of  passion,  but  in  vain, 
and  the  New  -  Englanders  were  left  to 
fight  their  way  through  to  the  Camden 
Street  station.  They  were  furiously  as- 
sailed at  Howard  Street,  where  about 
twenty  shots  Avere  fired.  At  a  little  past 
r.oon  the  troops  entered  the  ears  for 
Washington.  Three  of  their  number  had 
been  killed  outright,  one  mortally  wound- 
ed, and  eight  were  seriously  hurt  and  sev- 
eral slightly.  Nine  citizens  of  Baltimore 
were  killed  and  many — how  many  is  not 
known — were  wounded.  The  mob  followed 
the  cars  as  they  went  oflF  for  Washington, 
more  than  a  mile,  impeding  the  progress 
of  the  train  with  stones,  logs,  and  tele- 
graph-poles, which  the  accompanying  po- 
lice removed.  The  train  was  fired  into 
from  the  hills  on  the  way.  The  troops 
reached  the  Capitol  that  evening,  and 
were  quartered  in  the  Senate  Chamber. 

On  the  night  of  this  fearful  riot  Mar- 
shal Kane  and  ex-Governor  Lowe  went 
to  the  mayor  and  Governor  Hicks  for  au- 
thority to  destroy  railroad  bridges.  Kane 
said  he  had  information  that  other  Union 
troops  were  on  the  way  by  railroad  from 
Harrisburg  and  Philadelphia,  and  he  want- 
ed authority  to  destroy  the  bridges  on 
those  roads.  The  mayor  cheerfully  gave 
7 


BALTIMORE 


them  power  so  far  as  his  authority  ex- 
tended, but  the  governor  refused.  So, 
without  his  sanction,  Kane  and  the  mayor 
went  to  the  office  of  Charles  Howard,  pres- 
ident of  the  board  of  police,  and  received 
orders  for  the  destruction  of  bridges  on 
roads  entering  Baltimore.  A  gang  of 
men  was  sent  out  who  destroyed  the  Can- 
ton bridge,  a  short  distance  from  the  city. 
When  a  train  from  the  north  approached, 
it  was  stopped,  the  passengers  were  turned 
out,  the  cars  were  filled  by  the  mob,  and 
the  engineer  was  compelled  to  run  his 
train  back  to  the  long  bridges  over  the 
Gunpowder  and  Bush  creeks,  arms  of 
Chesapeake  Bay.  These  bridges  were 
fired  and  a  large  portion  of  them  con- 
sumed. Another  party  went  up  the  North- 
ern Central  Railway  from  Baltimore  to 
Cockeysville,  15  miles  north,  and  destroy- 
ed two  wooden  bridges  there,  and  smaller 
structures  on  the  road.  The  telegraph- 
wires  on  all  the  leading  lines  out  of  Bal- 
timoi-e,  excepting  the  one  that  kept  up  a 
communication  with  the  Confederates  at 
Harper's  Ferry,  were  destroyed,  and  thus 
all  communication  by  telegraph  and  rail- 
way between  Washington  and  the  loyal 
States  was  cut  ofi". 

Governor  Hicks  passed  the  night  of  April 
19  at  the  house  of  Mayor  Brown  in  Bal- 
timore. It  was  the  night  after  the  attack 
on  the  Massachusetts  troops  there.  At 
eleven  o'clock  the  mayor,  with  the  con- 
currence of  the  governor,  sent  a  commit- 
tee of  three  persons  to  President  Lincoln 
with  a  letter  in  which  he  assured  the  chief 
magistrate  that  the  people  of  Baltimore 
were  exasperated  to  the  highest  degree 
by  the  passage  of  troops  through  that  city, 
and  that  the  citizens  were  "  universally 
decided  in  the  opinion  that  no  more  should 
be  ordered  to  come."  He  gave  notice  of 
the  fearful  riot  the  day  before,  and  he 
requested  the  President  not  to  order  or 
permit  any  more  troops  to  pass  through 
the  city,  adding,  "  If  they  should  attempt 
it  the  responsibility  for  the  bloodshed  will 
not  rest  on  me."  The  committee  saw  the 
President  early  in  the  morning  (April 
20).  The  President  told  them  that  no 
more  should  come  through  the  city  if  they 
could  pass  peaceably  around  it.  This  an- 
swer did  not  satisfy  the  Confederates,  and 
they  pushed  forward  military  prepara- 
tions,   making   the    capital   more   isolated 

2,5 


from  the  loyal  people  every  hour.  The 
excitement  in  Washington  was  now  be- 
coming fearful,  and  at  three  o'clock  on 
Sunday  morning  (April  21)  the  Presi- 
dent sent  for  Governor  Hicks  and  Mayor 
Brown.  The  former,  with  two  others, 
hastened  to  Washington.  At  an  inter- 
view with  the  President  and  General  Scott, 
the  latter  proposed  to  bring  troops  by 
water  to  Annapolis,  and  march  them 
across  Maryland  to  the  capital,  a  distance 
of  about  40  miles.  The  Baltimore  Confed- 
erates were  not  satisfied.  The  "  soil  of 
Maryland  must  not  be  polluted  by  the  feet 
of  National  troops  anywhere."  On  the 
22d,  Governor  Hicks  was  induced  to  send 
a  message  to  the  President,  advising  him 
not  to  order  any  more  troops  across  the 
soil  of  Maryland,  and  to  send  away  some 
who  were  already  at  Annapolis.  The 
President  replied  kindly  but  firmly.  He 
reminded  his  Excellency  that  the  route 
of  the  troops  across  that  State  chosen 
by  the  general-in-chief  was  farthest  re- 
moved from  populous  towns,  and  said: 
"  The  President  cannot  but  remember  that 
there  has  been  a  time  in  the  history  of  our 
country  [1814]  when  a  general  [Winder, 
of  Maryland]  of  the  American  Union,  with 
forces  designed  for  the  defence  of  the  cap- 
ital, was  not  unwelcome  anywhere  in  the 
State  of  Maryland,  and  certainly  not  at 
Annapolis,  then,  as  now,  the  capital  of 
that  patriotic  State;  and  then,  also,  one 
of  the  capitals  of  the  Union."  Governor 
Hicks  had  also  unwisely  recommended  the 
President  to  refer  the  matter  in  dispute 
between  the  national  government  and 
Maryland  to  Lord  Lyons,  the  British  min- 
ister at  Washington.  To  this  proposition 
Mr.  Lincoln  replied:  "If  eighty  years 
could  have  obliterated  all  other  noble  sen- 
timents of  that  age  from  Maryland,  the 
President  would  be  hopeful,  nevertheless, 
that  there  is  one  that  would  ever  remain 
there,  as  elsewhere.  That  sentiment  is, 
that  no  domestic  contention  whatever  that 
may  arise  among  the  parties  of  this  re- 
public ought,  in  any  case,  to  be  referred 
to  any  foreign  arbitrament,  least  of  all 
to  the  arbitrament  of  a  European  mon- 
archy." This  rebuke  was  keenly  felt. 
Yet  still  another  embassy  in  the  interest 
of  the  Baltimore  Confederates  visited  the 
President.  Five  members  of  the  _  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  of  Baltimore, 


BALTIMORE 

with  Rev.  Dr.  Fulton,  of  the  Baptist  12,000  men  would  be  needed  for  the  enter- 
Church,  at  their  head,  waited  on  the  Pres-  prise.  They  were  not  at  hand,  for  10,000 
ident,  and  assured  him  that  if  he  would  troops  were  yet  needed  at  the  capital  for 
let  the  country  know  that  he  was  disposed  its  perfect  security.  The  time  for  the 
'■'  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  execution  of  the  plan  seemed  somewhat 
Southern  States,  that  they  had  formed  remote.  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  conceived  a 
a  government  of  their  own,  and  that  they  more  expeditious  and  less  cumbersome 
would  never  again  unite  with  the  North,"  plan.  He  was  satisfied  that  the  Confed- 
he  could  produce  peace.  When  Dr.  Ful-  erates  in  Baltimore  were  numerically 
ton  expressed  a  hope  that  no  more  troops  weak,  and  that  the  Unionists,  with  a 
would  be  allowed  to  cross  Maryland,  the  little  help,  could  easily  reverse  the  order 
President  replied,  substantially:  "I  must  of  things  there.  He  hastened  to  Wash- 
have  troops  for  the  defence  of  the  capital,  ington  to  consult  with  General  Scott,  and 
The  Carolinians  are  now  marching  across  simply  asked  permission  to  take  a  regi- 
Virginia  to  seize  the  capital  and  hang  ment  or  two  from  Annapolis,  march  them 
me.  What  am  I  to  do?  I  must  have  to  the  relay  house  on  the  Baltimore  and 
troops,  I  say;  and,  as  they  can  neither  Ohio  Railway  (9  miles  from  Baltimore) 
crawl  imder  Maryland  nor  fly  over  it,  they  and  hold  it,  so  as  to  cut  the  Confederates 
must  come  across  it."  With  this  signifi-  off  from  facile  communication  with  Har- 
cant  intimation  of  the  President  that  he  per's  Ferry.  The  permission  was  grant- 
should  take  measures  to  defend  the  re-  ed.  "  What  are  the  powers  of  a  general 
public  without  asking  the  consent  of  the  commanding  a  department?"  asked  But- 
authorities  or  inhabitants  of  any  State,  ler.  "  Absolute,"  responded  Scott.  But- 
the  deputation  retired,  and  none  other  ler  ascertained  that  Baltimore  was  in  his 
was  afterwards  sent  by  the  enemies  of  "  department,"  and  he  went  back  to  An- 
the  Union  in  Baltimore.  napolis  to  execute  a  bold  plan  which  he 
The  authorities  of  Baltimore,  civil  and  had  conceived.  At  the  close  of  April, 
military,  took  measures,  however,  to  pre-  1861,  he  had  fully  10,000  men  under  his 
vent  any  more  National  troops  from  pass-  command,  and  an  equal  .  number  were 
ing  through  the  city.  Armed  men  flocked  guarding  the  seat  of  government.  The 
into  the  town  from  the  country  with  all  Unionists  of  Maryland  were  already  as- 
sorts of  weapons.  Cannons  were  exercised  serting  their  rights  openly.  Governor 
openly  in  the  streets.  Marshal  Kane,  un-  Hicks  had  just  cast  a  damper  on  the 
der  the  direction  of  the  city  authorities.  Confederates  by  recommending,  in  a  mes- 
forbade  the  display  of  the  national  flag  sage  to  the  legislature,  a  neutral  policy 
for  thirty  days,  that  it  might  not  "  dis-  for  Maryland.  On  the  evening  of  May  4 
turb  the  public  peace."  The  exasperated  an  immense  Union  meeting  was  held  in 
people  of  the  free-labor  States  could  hard-  Baltimore.  These  proofs  of  the  latent 
ly  be  restrained  from  marching  on  Balti-  force  of  the  Unionists  of  Maryland  gave 
more  and  laying  it  in  ashes.  Measures  Butler  every  encouragement.  He  had  pro- 
were  soon  used  to  subdue  that  city  by  posed  to  do  himself,  with  a  few  men,  at 
force.  Steps  were  taken  to  repair  the  once,  what  Scott  proposed  to  do  with  12,- 
burned  railway  bridges,  and  a  singular  000  men  in  an  indefinite  time.  On  the 
railway  battery  was  constructed  in  Phila-  afternoon  of  May  4  he  issued  orders  for 
delphia  for  the  protection  of  the  men  the  8th  New  York  and  6th  Massachusetts 
engaged  in  the  work — a  car  made  of  boiler-  regiments,  with  a  battery  of  the  Boston 
iron,  musket-proof,  with  a  24-pound  can-  Light  Artillery,  to  proceed  from  Washing- 
non  mounted  at  one  end  to  fire  grape  ton,  D.  Ch,  to  the  relay  house  on  the 
and  chain  shot.  General  Scott  planned  a  morning  of  the  5th.  They  did  so,  in  thirty 
grand  campaign  against  Baltimore.  He  cars.  They  seized  the  railway  station  at 
proposed  to  move  simultaneously  upon  the  the  relay  house.  Butler  accompanied  them, 
city  four  columns  of  troops  of  3,000  men  and  remained  there  a  little  more  than  a 
each — one  from  Washington,  a  second  week.  From  Unionists  of  Baltimore  he 
from  New  York,  a  third  from  Perrysville,  obtained  all  desired  information.  Through 
or  Elkton,  by  land  or  water,  or  both,  and  Col.  Schuyler  Hamilton,  on  Scott's  staff, 
a  fourth  from  Annapolis.    It  was  thought  he   received   permission  to   arrest  Confed- 

259 


BALTIMOBE 


erates  in  and  out  of  Baltimore,  to  prevent 
armed  bodies  from  joining  those  at  Har- 
per's Ferry,  and  to  look  after  a  quantity 
of  gvmpovvder  said  to  be  stored  in  a  church 
in  Baltimore.  Towards  the  evening  of  the 
13th  the  entire  6th  Massachusetts  Regi- 
ment, a  part  of  the  New  York  8th,  with 
the  Boston  Light  Artillery  with  two  can- 
nons— about  1,000  men  in  all — were  put 
on  cars  headed  towards  Harper's  Ferry. 
The  train  moved  up  the  Patapsco  Valley 
about  2  miles,  and  then  backed  slowly 
to  the  relay  house  and  past  it.  At  dark 
it  was  in  the  Camden  Street  station  in 
Baltimore.  A  heavy  thunder-storm  was 
about  to  burst  upon  the  city,  and,  few  per- 
sons being  about,  little  was  known  of  this 
portentous  arrival.  Butler  marched  his 
troops  from  the  station  to  Federal  Hill 
in  a  drenching  shower.  He  sat  down  in 
his  wet  garments  at  past  midnight  and 
wrote  a  proclamation,  dated  "  Federal 
Hill,  Baltimore,  May  14,  1861,"  in  which 
it  was  announced  that  troops  under  his 
command  occupied  the  city  for  the  pur- 
pose of  enforcing  respect  and  obedience 
to  the  laws,  as  well  of  the  State  as  of  the 
United  States,  which  were  being  "  violated 
within  its  limits  by  some  malignant  and 
traitorous  men."  This  proclamation,  pub- 
lished in  the  Baltimore  Clipper  in  the 
morning,  was  the  first  intimation  to  the 
citizens  that  National  troops  were  in  pos- 
session of  their  town.  The  conquest  was 
complete,  and  the  hold  thus  taken  on  Bal- 
timore was  never  relinquished.  General 
Scott  was  offended  because  of  Butler's 
unauthorized  act,  and  requested  President 
Lincoln  to  remove  him  from  the  depart- 
ment. The  President  did  so,  but  gave 
Butler  the  commission  of  a  major-general 
and  the  command  of  a  much  more  extend- 
ed military  district — the  Department  of 
Virginia,  which  included  Fort  Monroe. 

The  chief  of  police  in  Baltimore  at  this 
exciting  period  was  George  P.  Kane,  with 
the  title  of  "  marshal."  He  was  a  lead- 
ing Confederate  in  that  city  and  an  active 
opposer  of  the  government  in  Maryland. 
In  Baltimore  he  was  the  head  of  the  Con- 
federate movements  in  Maryland ;  and  early 
in  June,  1861,  the  national  government 
was  satisfied  that  a  powerful  combination 
was  forming  there,  whose  purpose  was  to 
assist  the  army  of  Confederates  at  Ma- 
nassas, under  Beauregard,  to  seize  the  na- 


tional capital,  by  preventing  loyal  sol- 
diers passing  through  that  State,  and  aid- 
ing Marylanders  to  cross  into  Virginia 
and  swell  the  ranks  of  the  Confederate 
forces.  The  government  took  energetic 
steps  to  avert  this  threatened  danger.  N. 
P.  Banks  (g.  v.),  ex-governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, lately  commissioned  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers,  was  assigned  to  the 
command  of  the  Department  of  Annapolis, 
as  Butler's  successor,  with  his  headquar- 
ters at  Baltimore.  It  was  evident  to  Banks 
that  the  board  of  police  and  Marshal  Kane 
were  in  active  sympathy,  if  not  in  actual 
league,  with  the  leading  Confederates  of 
Maryland.  After  satisfying  himself  of 
the  complicity  of  certain  officials  in  the 
movement,  he  ordered  a  large  body  of  sol- 
diers, armed  and  equipped  with  ball  car- 
tridges, to  march  into  Baltimore  from 
Fort  McHenry  before  daybreak  on  June 
2,  and  to  arrest  Marshal  Kane  and  place 
him  a  prisoner  in  that  fort.  At  the  same 
time  Banks  issued  a  proclamation,  giving 
his  reasons  for  the  act.  He  did  not  in- 
tend to  interfere  with  the  lawful  acts  of 
the  civil  authority,  he  said,  but  as  it  was 
well  known  that  a  disloyal  combination  ex- 
isted in  his  department,  and  that  the  chief 
of  police,  "  in  contravention  of  his  duty 
and  in  violation  of  law,"  was  "by  direc- 
tion or  indirection  both  witness  and  pro- 
tector in  the  transactions  of  armed  par- 
ties engaged  therein,"  the  government 
could  not  "  regard  him  otherwise  than 
as  the  head  of  an  armed  force  hostile  to 
its  authority,  and  acting  in  concert  with 
its  avowed  enemies."  He  appointed  Brig.- 
Gen.  John  R.  Kenly,  a  citizen  of  Balti- 
more, provost-marshal  in  and  for  that 
city,  to  "  superintend  and  cavise  to  be  exe- 
cuted the  police  laws  "  of  Baltimore,  "  with 
the  aid  and  assistance  of  the  subordinate 
officers  of  the  police  department,"  assuring 
the  citizens  that  when  a  loyal  man  should 
be  appointed  chief  of  police  the  military 
would  at  once  yield  to  the  civil  authority. 
The  police  commissioners  met  and  protest- 
ed against  this  act  as  illegal,  and  dis- 
banded the  police.  Banks  soon  regulated 
the  matter  so  as  to  quiet  the  citizens,  and 
Kenly,  organizing  a  police  force  of  loyal 
men,  whom  he  could  trust,  250  strong, 
took  possession  of  the  quarters  of  the  late 
marshal  and  police  commissioners.  There 
he    found    ample    evidence   of   treacherous 


260 


BALl'IMORE 


designs.  Concealed  beneath  the  floors  in 
several  rooms  he  found  a  large  number 
of  small-arms,  of  every  description ;  and 
in  a  wood-yard  in  the  rear,  in  a  position 
to  command  an  alley,  were  four  iron  can- 
non with  suitable  cartridges  and  balls. 
The  old  police  commissioners  continuing 
to  hold  meetings,  they  were  arrested  and 
sent  to  Fort  Warren,  in  Boston  Harbor. 
At  the  suggestion  of  many  Union  citizens 
of  Baltimore,  George  R.  Dodge,  a  civilian 
and  citizen,  was  appointed  chief  of  police, 
and  Colonel  Kenly  joined  his  regiment — 
the  1st  Maryland  Volunteers.  See  North 
Point,  Battle  of. 

Baltimore,  Lords.  I.  George  Calvert, 
born  about  1580,  at  Kipling,  Yorkshire, 
Eng. ;  was  graduated  at  Oxford ;  travelled 
on  the  Continent;  became  secretary  of 
Robert  Cecil ;  married  Anne  Minne  in 
1604;  was  a  clerk  of  the  i^rivy  council; 
was  knighted  in  1617;  became  a  secretary 
of  state  soon  afterwards,  and  in  1620  was 
granted  a  pension  of  $5,000  a  year.  When, 
in  1624,  he  publicly  avowed  himself  a 
Roman  Catholic,  he  resigned  his  office,  but 
King  James  retained  him  in  the  privy 
council;  and  a  few  days  before  that  mon- 
arch's death  he  was  created  Baron  of  Bal- 
timore in  the  Irish  peerage.  Calvert  had 
already  entered  upon  a  colonizing  scheme. 
In  1620  he  purchased  a  part  of  Newfound- 
land, and  was  invested  with  the  privileges 
and  honors  of  a  count  -  palatine.  He 
called  his  new  domain  Avalon,  and,  after 
spending  about  $100,000  in  building  ware- 
houses there,  and  a  mansion  for  himself, 
he  went  thither  in  1627.  He  returned  to 
England  the  following  spring.  In  the 
spring  of  1629  he  went  again  to  Avalon, 
taking  with  him  his  wife  and  unmarried 
children.  The  following  winter  was  a 
severe  one,  and  he  began  to  contemplate 
a  desertion  of  the  domain  on  account  of 
the  rigorous  climate.  He  sent  his  children 
home.  In  the  autumn  he  actually  aban- 
doned Newfoundland,  and  with  his  wife 
and  retainers  sailed  to  Virginia,  where, 
because  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance, he  was  ordered  away  by  Governor 
Harvey.  His  wife  and  retainers  remained 
there  during  the  winter.  Going  from 
there  in  the  spring,  it  is  supposed  he  ex- 
plored the  shores  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and 
chose  that  region  for  a  settlement.  In 
1632,  Lord  Baltimore  obtained  a  charter 


from  Charles  I.  of  the  territory  on  the 
Chesapeake  now  forming  the  State  of 
Maryland.  "  What  will  you  call  the  coun- 
try?" asked  tlie  King.  Baltimore  referred 
the  matter  to  his  Majesty.  "  Then  let  us 
name  it  after  the  Queen"  (Henrietta 
Maria),  said  Charles,  "and  call  it  Mari- 
ana." The  expert  courtier  dissented,  be- 
cause that  was  the  name  of  a  Spanish  his- 
torian who  taught  that  "  the  will  of  the 
people  is  higher  than  the  law  of  tyrants." 
Still  disposed  to  compliment  the  Queen, 
the  King  said,  "  Let  it  be  Terra  Marice — 
Mary's  Land."  And  it  was  named  Mary- 
land. Before  the  great  seal  of  England 
was  affixed  to  the  charter.  Lord  Baltimore 
died,  April  15,  1632,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Cecil. 

II.  Cecilius  or  Cecil  Calvert,  second 
Lord  Baltimore,  was  born  about  1605. 
Very  little  is  known  of  his  early  life. 
When  he  was  about  twenty  years  of  age 


CECIL   CALVERT,  LORD   BALTIMORE. 

he  married  Anne,  the  beautiful  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  who  was  one  of 
the  most  influential  Roman  Catholics  in 
the  realm.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  the 
charter  for  Maryland  was  issued  to  Ce- 
cilius, his  eldest  son  and  heir,  June,  1632: 
and  he  immediately  prepared  to  sail  for 
the  Chesapeake  with-  a  colony.  When  he 
was  about  ready  to  depart,  he  changed  his 
mind,   and   sent   his   brother   Leonard,   as 


261 


BALTIMOBE 


governor,  with  his  brother  George,  and 
two  assistants  and  counsellors,  Jeremy 
Hawley  and  Thomas  Cornwallis,  both 
Protestants.  The  whole  company,  who 
sailed  in  two  vessels — the  Ark  and  Dove — 
numbered  over  300,  according  to  Lord 
Baltimore,  who  wrote  to  his  friend  Went- 
worth  (afterwards  the  unfortunate  Earl 
of  StraiTord:  "By the  help  of  some  of  your 
lordship's  good  friends  and  mine,  I  have 
sent  a  hopeful  colony  into  Maryland,  with 
a  fair  and  favorable  expectation  of  good 
success,  without  any  great  prejudice  to  my- 
self, in  respect  that  many  others  are  joined 
with  me  in  the  adventure.  There  are  two 
of  my  brothers,  with  very  near  twenty 
other  gentlemen  of  very  good  fashion,  and 
300  laboring  men."  As  most  of  the  latter 
took  the  oath  of  allegiance  before  sailing, 
they  were  probably  Protestants.  Father 
Andrew  White,  a  Jesuit  priest,  accom- 
panied the  expedition.  They  sailed  from 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  took  the  tedious 
southern  route  by  way  of  the  Canaries. 
The  vessels  were  separated  by  a  furious 
gale,  but  met  at  Bermuda,  whence  the 
emigrants  went  to  the  Chesapeake,  found- 
ed a  settlement,  and  established  a  govern- 
ment under  the  charter,  which  was  near- 
ly the  same  in  form  as  all  charters  then 
granted  (see  Maryland).  It  conferred 
on  the  proprietor  absolute  ownership  of 
the  territory,  and  also  the  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical power  of  a  feudal  nature.  En- 
tire exemption  from  taxation  was  con- 
ceded to  the  colonists.  As  an  acknowledg- 
ment that  the  original  title  to  the  land 
was  still  in  the  possession  of  the  crown, 
the  proprietor  was  required  to  pay  to  the 
King  the  tribute  of  two  Indian  arrows. 
Cecil  was  a  member  of  Parliament  in  1634, 
but  mingled  very  little  in  public  affairs 
afterwards.  He  never  came  to  America, 
but  managed  his  province  by  deputies 
forty-three  years.  His  course  towards  the 
colonists  was  generally  wise  and  concilia- 
tory, because  it  was  profitable  to  be  so.  In 
religion  and  politics  he  was  very  flexible, 
being  quite  indifferent  to  either,  and  he 
did  very  little  for  the  religious  and  intel- 
lectual cultivation  of  the  colonists.  Nega.- 
tively  good,  he  was  regarded  with  great  re- 
spect by  all  parties,  even  by  the  Indians. 
He  died  in  London,  Nov.  30,  1675. 

III.  Charles  Calvert,  third  Lord  Bal- 
timore, succeeded  his  father  as  lord  pro- 

2G 


prietor  of  Maryland  in  1675.  He  was  born 
in  London  in  1629;  appointed  governor  of 
Maryland  in  1661 ;  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Hon.  Henry  Sewall,  whose 
seat  was  on  the  Patuxent  river.  After  the 
death  of  his  father  he  visited  England, 
but  soon  returned.  In  1684  he  again  went 
to  England,  and  never  came  back.  He  was 
suspected  of  favoring  King  James  II.  after 
the  Eevolution,  and  was  outlawed  for 
treason  in  Ireland,  although  he  was  never 
in  that  country.  The  outlawry  was  re- 
versed by  William  and  Mary  in  1691. 
Charles  Lord  Baltimore  was  thrice  mar- 
ried, and  died  in  London,  Feb.  24,  1714. 

IV.  Benedict  Leonard  Calvert,  fourth 
Lord  Baltimore,  succeeded  his  fathei, 
Charles,  in  1714.  In  1698  he  married 
Lady  Charlotte  Lee,  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Lichfield  (granddaughter  of  the  notori- 
ous Duchess  of  Cleveland,  the  favorite 
mistress  of  Charles  II.),  from  whom  he 
was  divorced  in  1705.  Benedict  publicly 
abjured  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  1713, 
and  died  in  1715,  only  thirteen  months 
after  the  death  of  his  father. 

V.  Charles  Calvert  II.,  son  of  Bene- 
dict, and  the  fifth  Lord  Baltimore,  was 
born  Sept.  29,  1699,  and  was  an  infant  in 
law  when  he  succeeded  to  his  father's  title. 
In  July,  1730,  he  married  the  widow 
Mary  Janssen,  youngest  daughter  of  Gen. 
Theodore  Janssen.  His  life  was  spent 
chiefly  in  England.  In  1731  he  was  ap- 
pointed gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  to 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  soon  afterwards 
was  elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  was  in  Parliament  in  1734,  and  in 
1741  was  appointed  Junior  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  In  the  spring  of  1741  he  was 
appointed  cofferer  to  the  Prince  of  Wales 
and  surveyor-general  of  the  Duchy  lands 
in  Cornwall.  After  having  ruled  Mary- 
land in  person  and  by  deputy  more  than 
thirty  years,  he  died  April  24,  1751,  at  his 
home  in  London. 

VI.  Frederick  Calvert,  sixth  and  last 
Lord  Baltimore,  was  born  in  1731,  and 
succeeded  to  the  title  of  his  father,  Charles 
Calvert  II..  in  1751.  He  married  Lady  Di- 
iana  Egerton,  youngest  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewater,  in  1753.  He  led  a 
disreputable  life,  and  died  at  the  age  of 
forty,  at  Naples,  Sept.  14,  1771.  Yet  he 
was  a  patron  of  literature  and  a  friend 
pnd   companion   of   the   Earl   of  Chatham 


BANCROFT 


(Pitt).  In  1767  he  published  an  account 
of  his  Tour  in  the  East.  He  was  a  pre- 
tentious author  of  several  other  works, 
mostly  of  a  weak  character.  Lord  Fred- 
erick bequeathed  the  province  of  Mary- 
land, in  tail  male,  to  Henry  Harford,  then 
a  child,  and  the  remainder,  in  fee,  to  his 
sister,  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Norton.  He  left  an 
estate  valued  at  $5,000. 

The  last  representative  of  the  Baltimore 
family  was  found  in  a  debtors'  prison  in 
England,  in  1860,  by  Col.  Angus  McDon- 
ald, of  Virginia,  where  he  had  been  con- 
fined for  twenty  years.  Henry  Harford 
was  the  last  proprietor  of  Maryland.  See 
Calvi;rt,  Leonard. 

Bancroft,  Edward,  naturalist;  born  in 
Westfield,  Mass.,  Jan.  9,  1744;  was  a  pupil 
of  Silas  Deane  (g.  v.)  when  the  latter 
was  a  school-master.  His  early  education 
was  not  extensive.  Apprenticed  to  a  me- 
chanic, he  ran  away,  in  debt  to  his  master, 
and  went  to  sea;  but  returning  with 
means,  he  compensated  his  employer. 
Again  he  went  to  sea;  settled  in  Guiana, 
South  America,  as  a  physician,  in  1763, 
and  afterwards  made  his  residence  in  Lon- 
don, where,  in  1769,  he  published  a  Nat- 
ural History  of  Guiana.  He  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians, 
and  Fellow  of  the  Eoyal  Society.  While 
Franklin  was  in  England  on  a  diplomatic 


mission,  Dr.  Bancroft  became  intimate 
Avith  him;  and  through  the  influence  of 
the  philosopher  became  a  contributor  to 
the  Monthly  Review.  He  was  suspected 
by  the  British  government  of  participa- 
tion in  the  attempt  to  burn  the  Ports- 
mouth dock-yards,  and  he  fled  to  Passy, 
France.  Soon  afterwards  he  met  Silas 
Deane,  his  old  teacher,  in  Paris,  and  of- 
fered to  assist  him  in  his  labors  as  agent 
of  the  Continental  Congress.  His  ways 
were  sometimes  devious,  and  Mr.  Bancroft, 
the  historian,  accuses  him  of  being  a  spy 
in  the  pay  of  the  British  government,  and 
of  making  a  dupe  of  Deane.  After  the 
peace.  Dr.  Bancroft  obtained,  in  France,  a 
patent  for  the  exclusive  importation  of 
the  bark  of  the  yellow  oak,  for  the  dyers, 
and  afterwards  he  obtained  a  similar  pat- 
ent in  England.  Dr.  Bancroft  never  re- 
turned to  America.  He  died  in  England, 
Sept.  8,  1820. 

Bancroft,  Frederic,  historian;  born  in 
Galesburg,  111.,  Oct.  30,  1860;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Amherst  College  in  1882;  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Rolls  and 
Library,  Department  of  State,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  in  1888;  has  lectured  on  histor- 
ical and  diplomatic  subjects;  contributed 
many  articles  to  the  press ;  and  published 
Life  of  William  H.  Seward;  The  Negro 
in  Politics,  etc. 


BANCROFT,    GEORGE 

Bancroft,  George,  historian;  born  in  avidity  whatever  was  taught  in  them,  but 
Worcester,  Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1800;  son  of  made  history  a  specialty.  His  chief 
Rev.  Aaron  Bancroft,  a  distinguished  Uni-  tutors  there  were  Heeren,  Eichhorn,  and 
tarian  clergyman  and  pioneer  in  "liberal  Blumenbach.  At  Berlin  he  became  inti- 
Christianity."  He  graduated  at  Harvard  mate  with  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  and 
in  1817;  studied  at  the  German  univer-  other  eminent  scholars  and  philosophers, 
sities,  and  received,  at  Gottingen,  the  At  Heidelberg  he  spent  some  time  in  the 
honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  study  of  history  with  Schlosser;  and  in 
when  he  was  only  twenty  years  of  age."  He  Paris  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Alex- 
resided  some  time  in  Berlin  in  the  society  ander  von  Humboldt,  Cousin,  and  others, 
of  distinguished  scholars,  and  on  his  re-  At  Rome  he  formed  a  friendship  with 
turn  home,  in  1822,  he  became  a  tutor  of  Chevalier  Bilnsen;  he  also  knew  Niebuhr. 
Greek  in  Harvard  University.  He  pub-  While  engaged  in  the  Round  Hill  School, 
lished  a  volume  of  poems  in  1823,  and  in  Mr.  Bancroft  completed  the  first  volume 
1824  a  translation  of  Heeren's  Politics  of  of  his  History  of  the  United  States,  which 
Ancient  Greece.  In  1823,  in  conjunction  M^as  published  in  1834.  Ten  volumes  of 
with  J.  G.  Cogswell,  he  established  the  this  great  work  were  completed  and  pub- 
celebrated  "  Round  Hill  School,"  at  North-  lished  in  1874,  or  forty  years  from  the 
ompton,  Mass.  While  in  the  German  uni-  commencement  of  the  work.  The  tenth 
versities,     Mr.     Bancroft     studied     with  volume  brings  the  narrative  down  to  the 

203 


BANCROFT,    GEORGE 


conclusion  of  the  preliminary  treaty  of 
peace  in  1782.  In  1838  President  Van 
Buren  appointed  Mr.  Bancroft  collector 
of  the  port  of  Boston.  He  was  then  en- 
gaged in  delivering  frequent  political  ad- 
dresses, and  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
philosophical  movement  now  known  as 
"  transcendentalism."  He  was  a  Demo- 
crat in  politics,  and  in  1840  received  the 
nomination  for  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
but  was  not  elected.  In  1845  President 
Polk  called  Mr.  Bancroft  to  his  cabinet 
as    Secretary   of    the    Navy,    and    he    sig- 


GEORGE    BANCROFT,  LL.D. 

nalized  his  administration  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Naval  Academy  at  An- 
napolis. While  Secretary  of  the  Navy  he 
gave  the  order  to  take  possession  of  Cali- 
fornia, which  was  done  by  the  navy;  and 
while  acting  temporarily  as  Secretary  of 
War  he  gave  the  order  for  General  Tay- 
lor to  cross  the  Rio  Grande  and  invade 
the  territory  of  Mexico.  In  1846  Mr. 
Bancroft  was  sent  as  United  States  min- 
ister plenipotentiary  to  England,  and  in 
1849  the  University  of  Oxford  conferred 
upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Civil  Law.  During  this  residence  in 
Europe  he  perfected  his  collection  of  ma- 
teria,ls  for  his  history,  visiting  the  public 
archives  and  libraries  at  Paris.     Return- 

2 


ing  to  the  United  States  in  1849,  he  made 
his  residence  in  New  York  City,  where  he 
prosecuted  his  historical  labors.  He  was 
engaged  in  this  work  until  1867,  when  he 
was  appointed,  by  President  Johnson 
(May  14),  minister  to  Prussia,  and  ac- 
cepted the  office.  In  1868  he  was  accred- 
ited to  the  North  German  Confederation, 
and  in  1871  to  the  German  Empire.  In 
August,  1868,  Mr.  Bancroft  received  from 
the  University  of  Bonn  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  "Doctor  Juris";  and  in  1870  he 
celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
reception  of  his  first  degree  at  Got- 
tingen.  Mr.  Bancroft  was  a  contributor 
of  numerous  essays  to  the  'North  Amer- 
ican Review.  In  1889  he  published  Mar- 
tin Van  Buren  to  the  End  of  his  Public 
Career,  which  he  had  written  many  years 
before.  His  History  of  the  United  States 
has  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. In  1882  he  published  a  History 
of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitution  in 
2  volumes.  This  completed  his  great  work, 
in  accordance  with  his  original  plan.  He 
died  Jan.  17,  1891. 

The  Death  of  Lincoln. — On  April  25, 
1865,  Mr.  Bancroft  delivered  the  following 
oration  on  the  death  of  President  Lincoln, 
in  New  York  City,  at  a  great  gathering  in 
Union  Square,  after  the  remains  of  the 
ravirdered  President  had  started  for  Chi- 
cago: 

Ovir  grief  and  horror  at  the  crime 
which  has  clothed  the  continent  in  mourn- 
ing find  no  adequate  expression  in  words, 
and  no  relief  in  tears.  The  President  of 
the  United  States  of  America  has  fallen 
by  the  hands  of  an  assassin.  Neither  the 
office  with  which  he  was  invested  by  the 
approved  choice  of  a  mighty  people,  nor 
the  most  simple-hearted  kindliness  of  nat- 
ure, could  save  him  from  the  fiendish 
passions  of  relentless  fanaticism.  The 
wailings  of  the  millions  attend  his  remains 
as  they  are  borne  in  solemn  procession 
over  our  great  rivers,  along  the  seaside, 
beyond  the  mountains,  across  the  prairie, 
to  their  resting-place  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi.  His  funeral  knell  vibrates 
through  the  world,  and  the  friends  of  free- 
dom of  every  tongue  and  in  every  clime 
are  his  mourners. 

Too  few  days  have  passed  away  since 
Abraham  Lincoln  stood  in  the  fiush  of 
vigorous  manhood  to  permit  any  attempt 
64 


BANCROFT,    GEORGE 


at  an  analysis  of  his  character  or  an 
exposition  of  his  career.  We  find  it  hard 
to  believe  that  his  large  eyes,  which  in 
their  softness  and  beauty  expressed  noth- 
ing but  benevolence  and  gentleness,  are 
closed  in  death;  we  almost  look  for  the 
pleasant  smile  that  brought  out  more 
vividly  the  earnest  cast  of  his  features, 
which  were  serious  even  to  sadness.  A 
few  years  ago  he  was  a  village  attorney, 
engaged  in  the  support  of  a  rising  family, 
unknown  to  fame,  scarcely  named  beyond 
his  neighborhood;  his  administration 
made  him  the  most  conspicuous  man  in 
his  country,  and  drew  on  him  first  the 
astonished  gaze,  and  then  the  respect  and 
admiration  of  the  world. 

Those  who  come  after  us  will  decide 
how  much  of  the  wonderful  results  of  his 
public  career  is  due  to  his  own  good  com- 
mon-sense, his  shrewd  sagacity,  readiness 
of  wit,  quick  interpretation  of  the  public 
mind,  his  rare  combination  of  fixedness 
and  pliancy,  his  steady  tendency  of  pur- 
pose; how  much  to  the  American  people, 
who,  as  he  walked  with  them  side  by  side, 
inspired  him  with  their  own  wisdom  and 
energy;  and  how  much  to  the  overruling 
laws  of  the  moral  world,  by  which  the  self- 
ishness of  evil  is  made  to  defeat  itself. 
But  after  every  allowance,  it  will  remain 
that  members  of  the  government  which 
preceded  his  administration  opened  the 
gates  to  treason,  and  he  closed  them; 
that  when  he  went  to  Washington  the 
ground  on  which  he  trod  shook  under 
his  feet,  and  he  left  the  republic  on  a 
solid  foundation;  that  traitors  had  seized 
public  forts  and  arsenals, and  he  recovered 
them  for  the  United  States,  to  whom  they 
belonged;  that  the  capital,  which  he  found 
the  abode  of  slaves,  is  now  the  home  only 
of  the  free;  that  the  boundless  public  do- 
main which  was  grasped  at,  and,  in  a 
great  measure,  held,  for  the  diffusion  of 
slavery,  is  now  irrevocably  devoted  to  free- 
dom ;  that  then  men  talked  a  jargon  of  a 
balance  of  power  in  a  republic  between 
slave  States  and  free  States,  and  now  the 
foolish  words  are  blown  away  forever  by 
the  breath  of  Maryland,  Missouri,  and 
Tennessee;  that  a  terrible  cloud  of  politi- 
cal heresy  rose  from  the  abyss,  threaten- 
ing to  hide  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  under 
its  darkness  a  rebellion  was  growing  into 
indefinable   proportions ;    now   the   atmos- 


phere is  purer  than  ever  before,  and  the 
insurrection  is  vanishing  away;  the  coun- 
try is  cast  into  another  mould,  and  the 
gigantic  system  of  wrong,  which  has  been 
the  work  of  more  than  two  centuries,  is 
dashed  down,  we  hope,  forever.  And  as 
to  himself  personally,  he  was  then  scoifed 
at  by  the  proud  as  unfit  for  his  station, 
and  now  against  usage  of  later  years, 
and  in  spite  of  numerous  competitors,  he 
was  the  unbiased  and  undoubted  choice 
of  the  American  people  for  a  second  term 
of  service.  Through  all  the  mad  business 
of  treason  he  retained  the  sweetness  of  a 
most  placable  disposition;  and  the  slaugh- 
ter of  myriads  of  the  best  on  the  battle- 
field, and  the  more  terrible  destruction  of 
our  men  in  captivity  by  the  slow  torture 
of  exposure  and  starvation,  had  never  been 
able  to  provolve  him  into  harboring  one 
vengeful  feeling  or  one  purpose  of  cruelty. 

How  shall  the  nation  most  completely 
show  its  sorrow  at  Mr.  Lincoln's  death? 
How  shall  it  best  honor  his  memory? 
There  can  be  but  one  answer.  He  was 
struck  down  when  he  was  highest  in  its 
service,  and  in  strict  conformity  with  duty 
was  engaged  in  carrying  out  principles  af- 
fecting its  life,  its  good  name,  and  its  re- 
lations to  the  cause  of  freedom  and  the 
progress  of  mankind.  Grief  must  take  the 
character  of  action,  and  breathe  itself 
forth  in  the  assertion  of  the  policy  to 
which  he  fell  a  victim.  The  standard 
which  he  held  in  his  hand  must  be  uplift- 
ed again  higher  and  more  firmly  than  be- 
fore; and  must  be  carried  on  to  triumph. 
Above  everything  else,  his  proclamation 
of  the  first  day  of  January,  1863,  declar- 
ing, throughout  the  parts  of  the  country 
in  rebellion,  the  freedom  of  all  persons 
who  had  been  held  as  slaves,  must  be 
affirmed  and  maintained. 

Events,  as  they  rolled  onward,  have  re- 
moved every  doubt  of  the  legality  and 
binding  force  of  that  proclamation.  The 
country  and  the  rebel  government  have 
each  laid  claim  to  the  public  service 
of  the  slave,  and  yet  but  one  of  the  two 
can  have  a  rightful  claim  to  such  service. 
That  rightful  claim  belongs  to  the  United 
States,  because  every  one  born  on  their 
soil,  with  the  few  exceptions  of  the  chil- 
dren of  travellers  and  transient  residents, 
owes  them  a  primary  allegiance.  Every 
one  so  born  has  been  counted  among  those 


265 


BANCROFT,    GEORGE 


represented  in  Congress;  every  slave  has 
ever  been  represented  in  Congress;  im- 
perfectly and  wrongly  it  may  be — but  still 
has  been  counted  and  represented.  The 
slave  born  on  our  soil  always  owed  al- 
legiance to  the  general  government.  It 
may  in  time  past  have  been  a  qualified 
allegiance,  manifested  through  his  master, 
as  the  allegiance  of  a  ward  through  his 
guardian,  or  of  an  infant  through  its 
parent.  But  when  the  master  became 
false  to  his  allegiance,  the  slave  stood  face 
to  face  with  his  country;  and  his  allegi- 
ance, which  may  before  have  been  a  quali- 
fied one,  became  direct  and  immediate.  His 
chains  fell  off,  and  he  rose  at  once  in  the 
presence  of  the  nation,  bound,  like  the 
rest  of  us,  to  its  defence.  Mr.  Lincoln's 
proclamation  did  but  take  notice  of  the 
already  existing  right  of  the  bondman  to 
freedom.  The  treason  of  the  master  made 
it  a  public  crime  for  the  slave  to  continue 
his  obedience ; .  the  treason  of  a  State  set 
free  the  collective  bondmen  of  that  State. 

This  doctrine  is  supported  by  the 
analogy  of  precedents.  In  the  times  of 
feudalism  the  treason  of  the  lord  of  the 
manor  deprived  him  of  his  serfs;  the 
spurious  feudalism  that  existed  among  us 
differs  in  many  respects  from  the  feudal- 
ism of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  so  far  the 
precedent  runs  parallel  with  the  present 
case;  for  treason  the  master  then,  for 
treason  the  master  now,  loses  his  slaves. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  sovereign  ap- 
pointed another  lord  over  the  serfs  and 
the  land  which  they  cultivated ;  in  our  day 
the  sovereign  makes  them  masters  of  their 
own  persons,  lords  over  themselves. 

It  has  been  said  that  we  are  at  war, 
and  that  emancipation  is  not  a  belligerent 
right.  The  objection  disappears  before 
analysis.  In  a  war  between  independent 
powers  the  invading  foreigner  invites  to 
his  standard  all  who  will  give  him  aid, 
whether  bond  or  free,  and  he  rewards 
them  according  to  his  ability  and  his 
pleasure,  with  gifts  or  freedom ;  but  when, 
at  peace,  he  withdraws  from  the  invaded 
country,  he  must  take  his  aiders  and  com- 
forters with  him ;  or  if  he  leaves  them 
behind,  where  he  has  no  court  to  enforce 
his  decrees,  he  can  give  them  no  security, 
unless  it  be  the  stipulations  of  a  treaty. 
In  a  civil  war  it  is  altogether  differ- 
ent.   There,  when  rebellion  is  crushed,  the 


old  government  is  restored,  and  its  courts 
resume  their  jurisdiction.  So  it  is  with 
us;  the  United  States  have  courts  of  their 
own,  that  must  punish  the  guilt  of  trea- 
son and  vindicate  the  freedom  of  persons 
v/hom  the  fact  of  rebellion  has  set  free. 

Nor  may  it  be  said  that,  because  sla- 
very existed  in  most  of  the  States  when 
the  Union  was  formed,  it  cannot  rightfully 
be  interfered  with  now.  A  change  has 
taken  place,  such  as  Madison  foresaw,  and 
for  which  he  pointed  out  the  remedy.  The 
constitutions  of  States  had  been  trans- 
formed before  the  plotters  of  treason  car- 
ried them  away  into  rebellion.  When  the 
federal  Constitution  was  framed,  general 
emancipation  was  thought  to  be  near;  and 
everywhere  the  respective  legislatures  had 
authority,  in  the  exercise  of  their  or- 
dinary functions,  to  do  away  with  slavery. 
Since  that  time  the  attempt  has  been 
made,  in  what  are  called  slave  States,  to 
render  the  condition  of  slavery  perpetual; 
and  events  have  proved,  with  the  clear- 
ness of  demonstration,  that  a  constitution 
which  seeks  to  continue  a  caste  of  heredi- 
tary bondmen  through  endless  generations 
is  inconsistent  with  the  existence  of  re- 
publican institutions. 

So,  then,  the  new  President  and  the 
people  of  the  United  States  must  insist 
that  the  proclamation  of  freedom  shall 
stand  as  a  reality.  And,  moreover,  the 
people  must  never  cease  to  insist  that  the 
Constitution  shall  be  so  amended  as  ut- 
terly to  prohibit  slavery  on  any  part  of 
our  soil  forevermore. 

Alas !  that  a  State  in  our  vicinity 
should  withhold  its  assent  to  this  last 
beneficent  measure;  its  refusal  was  an  en- 
couragement to  our  enemies  equal  to  the 
gain  of  a  pitched  battle,  and  delays  the 
only  hopeful  method  of  pacification.  The 
removal  of  the  cause  of  the  rebellion  is 
not  only  demanded  by  justice;  it  is  the 
policy  of  mercy  making  room  for  a  wider 
clemency;  it  is  the  part  of  order  against 
a  chaos  of  controversy;  its  success  brings 
with  it  true  reconcilement,  a  lasting 
peace,  a  continuous  growth  of  confidence 
through  an  assimilation  of  the  social  con- 
dition. 

Here  is  the  fitting  expression  of  the 
mourning  of  to-day. 

And  let  no  lover  of  his  country  say 
that  this  warning  is  uncalled  for.    The  cry 


266 


BANCBOFT,    GEORGE 

is    delusive    that    slavery   is   dead.      Even  Heaven  has  willed   it   that   the  United 

now  it  is  nerving  itself  for  a  fresh  strug-  States    shall    live.     The    nations    of    the 

gle  for  continuance.     The  last  winds  from  earth  cannot  spare  them.     All  the  worn- 

the  South  waft  to  us  the  sad  intelligence  out   aristocracies    of    Europe   saw   in   the 

that  a  man  who  had  surrounded  himself  spurious  feudalism  of  slave-holding  their 

with  the  glory  of  the  most  brilliant  and  strongest     outpost,     and     banded     them- 

niost    varied    achievements,    who    but    a  selves   together   with   the   deadly   enemies 

week   ago   was    counted   with   affectionate  of   our   national   life.      If   the   Old   World 

pride  among  the  greatest  benefactors  of  his  will   discuss  the  respective  advantages  of 

country    and  \h.e    ablest    generals    of    all  oligarchy    or    equality;    of    the    union    of 

time,   has   initiated   the   exercise   of   more  Church   and    State,   or   the   rightful   free- 

than   the   whole   power    of    the    executive,  dom  of  religion;  of  land  accessible  to  the 

and  under  the  name  of  peace  has,  perhaps  many,   or    land   monopolized   by   an   ever- 

unconsciously,  revived  slavery,   and  given  decreasing  number  of  the  few,  the  United 

the  hope  of  security  and  political  power  States   must   live   to   control   the   decision 

to   traitors,   from   the   Chesapeake   to   the  i)y   their   quiet   and  unobtrusive   example. 

Eio  Grande.     Why  could  he  not  remember  It    has    often    and    truly    been    observed 

the  dying  advice  of  Washington,  never  to  that  the  truth  and  affection  of  the  masses 

draw   the    sword   but    for    self-defence    or  gather    naturally    round    an    individual; 

the    rights    of    his     country,    and    when  if  the  inquiry  is  made,  whether  the  man 

drawn,  never  to   sheathe  it  till  its  work  so   trusted   and  beloved   shall   elicit   from 

should  be  accomplished?     And  yet,  from  the    reason    of    the    people,    enduring    in- 

this   ill-considered   act,   which   the   people  stitutions  of  their  o^^^l,  or  shall  sequester 

with  one  iinited  voice  condemn,  no  great  political   power   for   a   superintending  dy- 

evil  will   follow   save   the   shadow   on   his  nasty,    the    United    States    must    live    to 

own  fame,   and  that,   also,  we  hope,  will  solve  the  problem.     If  a  question  is  raised 

pass  away.     The  individual,   even   in   the  on   the  respective  merits  of  Timoleon,  or 

greatness    of    military    glory,    sinks    into  Julius    Csesar,    or    Washington,    or    Napo- 

insignificance   before   the   resistless   move-  leon,  the  United  States  must  be  there  to 

ments    of    ideas    in    the    history   of    man.  call    to    mind    that    there    were    twelve 

No  one  can  turn  back  or  stay  the  march  Caesars,  most  of  them  the  opprobrium  of 

of  Providence.  the    human    race,    and    to    contrast    with 

No  sentiment  of  despair  may  mix  with  them  the  line  of  American  Presidents, 

our  sorrow.     We  owe  it  to  the  memory  of  The    duty    of    the    hour    is    incomplete, 

the  dead,  we  owe  it  to  the  cause  of  popu-  our   mourning   is   insincere,    if,   while   we 

lar  liberty  throughout  the  world,  that  the  exjjress    unwavering    trust    in    the    great 

sudden  crime  which  has  taken  the  life  of  principles   that   tmderlie   our   government, 

the  President  of  the  United   States  shall  wo   do  not  also  give   our   support  to   the 

not  produce  the  least  impediment  in  the  man   to  whom   the  people  have  intrusted 

smooth    surface    of    public    affairs.      This  its   administration. 

great  city,  in  the  midst  of  unexampled  Andrew  Johnson  is  now,  by  the  Con- 
emblems  of  deeply  seated  grief,  has  sus-  stitution,  the  President  of  the  United 
tained  itself  with  composure  and  mag-  States,  and  he  stands  before  the  world  as 
nanimity.  It  has  nobly  done  its  part  in  the  most*  conspicuous  representative  of 
guarding  against  the  derangement  of  the  industrial  classes.  Left  an  orphan 
business  or  the  slightest  shock  to  public  at  four  years  old,  poverty  and  toil  were 
credit.  The  enemies  of  the  republic  put  his  steps  to  honor.  His  youth  was  not 
it  to  the  severest  trial;  but  the  voice  of  passed  in  the  halls  of  colleges;  neverthe- 
f action  has  not  been  heard:  doubt  and  less  he  has  received  a  thorough  political 
despondency  have  been  unknown.  In  education  in  statesmanship,  in  the  school 
serene  majesty  the  country  rises  in  the  of  the  people,  and  by  long  experience  of 
beauty  and  strength  and  hope  of  youth,  public  life.  A  village  functionary;  mem- 
and  proves  to  the  world  the  quiet  energy  ber  successively  of  each  branch  of  the  Ten- 
and  the  durability  of  institutions  grow-  nessee  legislature,  hearing  with  a  thrill 
ing  out  of  the  reason  and  affections  of  of  joy  the  words,  "  the  Union,  it  must 
the  people.  be   preserved  " ;    a   representative   in   Con- 

267 


BANCROFT— BAlSfK    OF  THE    UNITED    STATES 

gress  for  successive  years;  governor  of  Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  historian; 
the  great  State  of  Tennessee,  approved  born  in  Granville,  0.,  May  5,  1832.  He  en- 
as  its  governor  by  re-election ;  he  was  gaged  in  the  book  business  in  California, 
at  the  opening  of  the  rebellion  a  Senator  and,  after  retiring,  continued  to  develop 
from  that  State  in  Congress.  Then  at  his  large  and  valuable  library.  He  made 
the  Capitol,  when  Senators,  unrebuked  a.  specialty  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North 
by  the  government,  sent  word  by  tele-  America.  Books,  manuscripts,  maps,  nar- 
gram  to  seize  forts  and  arsenals,  he  ratives  personally  related  by  Californian 
alone  from  that  Southern  region  told  pioneers,  all  formed  the  sources  of  his 
them  what  the  government  did  not  vast  series  of  histories  of  the  Pacific  re- 
dare  to  tell  them,  that  they  were  trai-  gions.  In  the  labor  of  indexing,  collect- 
tors,  and  deserved  the  punishment  of  ing,  and  writing,  Mr.  Bancroft  employed 
treason.  Undismayed  by  a  perpetual  collaborators  to  a  greater  extent  than  is 
purpose  of  public  enemies  to  take  his  usual.  Up  to  1900  he  had  published  39 
life,  bearing  up  against  the  still  greater  volumes  in  his  historical  series,  covering 
trial  of  the  persecution  of  his  wife  the  western  part  of  North  America.  His 
and  children,  in  due  time  he  went  back  working  library  comprised  60,000  vol- 
to  his   State,  determined  to  restore  it  to  umes. 

the  Union,  or  die  with  the  American  flag  Bangor.     See  Hampden,  Action  at. 

for  his  winding  sheet.     And  now,  at  the  Bang's,   John   Kendrick,  author;   born 

call  of  the  United  States,  he  has  returned  in    Yonkers,    N.    Y.,    May   27,    1862;    was 

to  Washington  as  a  conqueror,  with  Ten-  graduated     at     Columbia     University     in 

nessee  as  a  free  State  for  his  trophy.     It  1883;   studied  law;   became  associate  edi- 

remains  for  him  to  consummate  the  vin-  tor  of  Z/ife  in  1884 ;  editor  of  "  Drawer  "  in 

dication  of  the  Union.  1888,  and  of  "  Literary  Notes  "  in  Harper's 

To    that    Union    Abraham    Lincoln    has  Magazine  in  1898;  and  editor  of  Harper's 

fallen   a  martyr.     His   death,   which   was  Weekly  in  1900. 

meant  to  sever  it  beyond  repair,  binds  Bank  of  North.  America.  It  was  soon 
it  more  closely  and  more  firmly  than  ever,  perceived  that  under  the  new  government, 
The  blow  aimed  at  him  was  aimed,  not  at  based  on  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
the  native  of  Kentucky,  not  at  the  citizen  (see  Confederation,  Articles  of),  the 
of  Illinois,  but  at  the  man  who,  as  Presi-  Congress  had  no  power,  independent  of  the 
dent,  in  the  executive  branch  of  the  gov-  several  States,  to  enforce  taxation.  Rob- 
ernment,  stood  as  the  representative  of  ert  Morris,  then  Superintendent  of  Fi- 
every  man  in  the  United  States.  The  nance  (Secretary  of  the  Treasury),  pro- 
object  of  the  crime  was  the  life  of  the  posed  the  establishment  of  a  bank  at  Phil- 
whole  people,  and  it  wounds  the  affec-  adelphia,  to  supply  the  government  with 
tions  of  the  whole  people.  From  Maine  to  money,  with  a  capital  of  $400,000.  The 
the  southwest  boundary  of  the  Pacific,  it  promissory  notes  of  the  bank  were  to  be 
makes  us  one.  The  "country  may  have  a  legal-tender  currency,  to  be  received  in 
needed  an  imperishable  grief  to  touch  its  payment  of  all  taxes,  duties,  and  debts 
inmost  feeling.  The  grave  that  receives  due  the  United  States.  The  plan  was  ap- 
the  remains  of  Lincoln  receives  the  cost-  proved  by  the  Congress  (May  26,  1781), 
ly  sacrifice  to  the  Union;  the  monument  and  this  financial  agent  of  the  government 
which  will  rise  over  his  body  will  bear  was  chartered  by  the  Congress  Dec.  31. 
witness  to  the  Union;  his  enduring  mem-  The  capital  stock  was  divided  into  shares 
ory  will  assist  during  countless  ages  to  of  $400  each,  in  money  of  gold  or  silver, 
bind  the  States  together,  and  to  incite  to  be  procured  by  subscriptions.  Twelve 
to  the  love  of  our  one  undivided,  indivis-  directors  were  appointed  to  manage  the 
ible  country.  Peace  to  the  ashes  of  our  affairs  of  the  bank,  which  was  entitled 
departed  friend,  the  friend  of  his  coun-  by  the  Congress  "The  President,  Direc- 
try  and  of  his  race.  He  was  happy  in  tors,  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of  North 
his  life,  for  he  was  the  restorer  of  the  re-  America."  That  corporation  furnished  ade- 
public;  he  was  happy  in  his  death,  for  his  quate  means  for  saving  the  Continental 
martyrdom  will  plead  forever  for  the  union  army  from  disbanding, 
of  the  States  and  the  freedom  of  man.  Bank  of  the  United  States.    Alexander 

268 


BANK    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


Hamilton,  observing  the  prosperity  and 
usefulness  to  the  commercial  community 
and  the  financial  operations  of  the  govern- 
ment, of  the  Bank  of  North  America, 
Bank  of  New  York,  and  Bank  of  Massa- 
chusetts, which  held  the  entire  banking 
capital  of  the  country  before  1791,  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  a  govern- 
ment bank  in  his  famous  report  on  the 
finances  (1790),  as  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury. His  suggestion  was  speedily  acted 
upon,  and  an  act  for  the  purpose  was 
adopted  Feb.  8,  1791.  President  Wash- 
ington asked  the  written  opinion  of  his 
cabinet  concerning  its  constitutionality. 
They  were  equally  divided.  The  Presi- 
dent, believing  it  to  be  legal,  signed  the 
bill,  and  so  made  it  a, law.  The  bank  re- 
ceived a  charter,  the  existence  of  which 
was  limited  to  twenty  years.  It  soon 
went  into  operation,  with  a  capital  of 
$10,000,000,  of  which  amount  the  govern- 


ers   8 1/2   per   cent,   premium  over   the  par 
value. 

The  finances  of  the  country  were  in  a 
wretched  state  at  the  close  of  the  war, 
in  1815.  The  local  banks  had  all  suspend- 
ed specie  payments,  and  there  was  very 
little  of  other  currency  than  depreciated 
bank-notes.  There  was  universal  dissatis- 
faction, and  the  people  clamored  for  an- 
other United  States  Bank  as  a  cure  for 
financial  evils.  One  was  chartered  in  the 
spring  of  1816  (April  .3).  A  bill  to  that 
efi'ect  had  been  vetoed  by  President  Madi- 
son in  January,  1815:  now^  it  received 
his  willing  signature.  Its  charter  was 
for  twenty  years,  and  its  capital  was 
$35,000,000,  of  which  amount  the  United 
States  subscribed  $7,000,000,  and  the  re- 
maining $28,000,000  by  individuals.  The 
creation  of  this  bank  compelled  the  State 
banks  to  resume  specie  payments  or  wind 
up.     Many  of  them  were  aided  in  resump- 


ment  subscribed  $2,000,000  in  specie  and    tion  by  the  great  bank,  but  many,  after  a 


$6,000,000  in  stocks  of  the  United  States. 
The  measure  was  very  popular.  The 
shares  of  the  bank  rose  to  25  and  45 
per  cent,  premium,  and  it  paid  an  av- 
erage dividend  of  8 14  per  cent,  on  its 
capital.  The  shares  were  $400  each.  The 
bank  was  established  at  Philadelphia, 
with  branches  at  difi'erent  points.  In 
1808 — or  three  years  before  the  char- 
ter would  expire— application  was  made 
to  Congress  for  its  renewal.  A  sort  of 
bank  mania  had  succeeded  the  original 
establishment  of  the  institution,  and  local 
banks  rapidly  increased.  They  became 
favorites  of  the  people,  for  they  furnished 
business  facilities  that  were  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  whole  commercial  com- 
munity. This  local  bank  interest  combined 
to  prevent  a  reneAval  of  the  charter  of  the 
United  States  Bank,  on  the  grounds,  first, 
that  it  was  unconstitutional :  second,  that 
too  much  of  the  stock  was  owned  by  for- 
eigners; and,  third,  that  the  local  banks 
better  accommodated  the  public.  Though 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (Gallatin) 
reported  in  favor  of  a  renewal  of  the  char- 
ter, nothing  was  done  by  Congress  until 
within  a  few  weeks  before  the  time  when 
the  bank  would  cease  to  exist.  The  bill 
for  its  reeharter  was  defeated  by  the 
casting  vote  of  the  Vice-President  (George 
Clinton)  in  the  Senate,  and  the  bank 
closed  its  affairs,  giving  to  the  stockhold- 


struggle  more  or  less  prolonged,  closed 
their  doors.  Of  the  246  State  banks,  with 
an  aggregate  capital  of  about  $90,000,000 
in  1816,  a  very  large  number  were  com- 
pelled to  go  into  liquidation.  From  1811 
to  1830  165  banks,  with  a  capital  of 
$30,000,000,  closed  their  business,  and 
the  loss  of  the  government  and  of  individ- 
uals by  these  banks  was  estimated  at 
$5,000,000,  or  one-sixth  of  their  capital. 
The  second  United  States  Bank  went  into 
operation  in  Philadelphia,  in  1817,  to  con- 
tinue until  ]\Iarch,  1836.  In  it  were  de- 
posited the  funds  of  the  government,  the 
use  of  which  gave  the  bank  great  facilities 
for  discounting,  and  so  aiding  the  commer- 
cial community.  It  soon  controlled  the 
monetary  affairs  of  the  country ;  and  when 
General  Jackson  became  President  of  the 
United  States,  in  1829,  he  expressed  his 
decided  hostility  to  the  government  bank, 
as  a  dangerous  institution.  He  began  a 
war  upon  it,  which  ended  in  its  destruc- 
tion. In  his  first  annual  message  to  Con- 
gress (December,  1829),  he  took  strong 
ground  against  a  renewal  of  the  charter, 
which  would  expire  in  1836.  His  reasons 
were  that  it  had  failed  in  the  fulfilment 
of  the  promises  of  its  creation — namely, 
to  establish  a  uniform  and  sound  cur- 
rency for  the  whole  nation ;  and,  also, 
that  such  an  institution  was  not  author- 
ized by  the  national  Constitution.     Again, 


269 


BANKRUPTCY   LAWS 


in  his  annual  messages  in  1830  and  1831, 
he  attacked  the  bank,  and  renewed  his  ob- 
jections. At  the  close  of  1831  the  proper 
officers  of  the  bank  petitioned,  for  the  first 
time,  for  the  renewal  of  its  charter.  The 
petition  was  presented  in  the  Senate  Jan. 
9,  1832,  and  on  March  13  a  select  com- 
mittee, to  whom  it  was  referred,  reported 
in  favor  of  renewing  the  charter  for  fifteen 
years.  Long  debates  ensued,  and  finally 
a  bill  for  rechartering  the  bank  passed 
both  Houses  of  Congress — the  Senate  on 
June  11,  by  28  against  20,  and  the  House 
of  Representatives,  July  3,  by  a  vote  of 
107  against  85.  The  President  vetoed  it, 
and  as  it  failed  to  receive  the  constitution- 
al vote  of  two-thirds  of  both  Houses,  the 
bank  charter  expired  by  limitation  in 
1836. 

The  commercial  community,  regarding 
such  an  institution  as  essential  to  their 
prosperity,  were  alarmed,  and  prophecies 
of  panics  and  business  revulsions,  every- 
where uttered,  helped  to  accomplish  their 
own  speedy  fulfilment.  Again,  in  his  an- 
nual message  (December,  1832),  Jack- 
son's hostility  to  the  bank  was  manifested 
by  a  recommendation  to  remove  the  public 
funds  in  its  custody,  and  a  sale  of  the 
stock  of  the  bank  belonging  to  the  United 
States.  Congress,  by  a  decided  vote,  re- 
fused to  authorize  the  measure;  but  after 
the  adjournment  of  that  body  the  Presi- 
dent assumed  the  responsibility  of  per- 
forming the  act.  He  directed  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  (William  Duane) 
to  withdraw  the  government  funds — about 
$10,000,000— from   the   bank,   and   deposit 


them  in  certain  State  banks.  The  Sec- 
retary would  only  consent  to  appoint  an 
agent  to  inquire  upon  what  terms  the  local 
banks  would  receive  the  funds  on  deposit. 
Then  the  President  gave  him  a  peremp- 
tory order  to  remove  them  from  the  bank. 
Duane  refused  compliance,  and  was  dis- 
missed from  office.  His  successor,  Roger 
B.  Taney  (afterwards  Chief- Justice  of  the 
United  States),  obeyed  the  President,  and 
in  October,  1833,  the  removal  was  accom- 
plished. The  effect  produced  was  wide- 
spread commercial  embarrassments  and 
distress.  The  business  of  the  counti-y  was 
plunged  from  a  height  of  prosperity  to 
the  depths  of  adversity,  because  its  in- 
timate connection  with  the  national  bank 
rendered  any  paralysis  of  the  operations 
of  that  institution  fatal  to  commercial 
activity.  The  vital  connection  of  the 
bank  with  the  business  of  the  country, 
evidenced  by  the  confusion,  confirmed  the 
President's  conviction  of  the  danger  to 
be  apprehended  from  such  an  enormous 
moneyed    institution. 

Failing  to  have  its  charter  renewed,  the 
operations  of  the  bank  expired  by  limita- 
tion in  March,  1836.  It  was  rechartered 
the  same  year  by  the  legislature  of  Penn- 
sylvania, with  the  same  capital.  It  was 
compelled  to  suspend  specie  payments, 
with  all  the  local  banks,  in  1837,  and 
again  in  1839;  and  in  February,  1840,  it 
made  a  final  suspension,  and  closed  up  its 
affairs.  There  remained  nothing  for  the 
stockholders.  The  entire  capital  had  been 
spent,  and  widespread  distress  was  the 
consequence. 


BANKRUPTCY   LAWS,  PAST   AND    PRESENT 

Bankruptcy  Lavp-s,  Past  and  Present,  held   the   boards   for   a   goodly   season   in 

—William    H.    Hotciikiss     {q.    v.)    con-  Congress  in  1897-98.    The  voluntaries  had 

tributes  the  following  article  on  the  sub-  rather  the  best  of  it.     But  the  law  as  a 

ject  of  bankruptcy:  whole  must  be  accepted  as  a  reasonable  ex- 

pression    of    the    sentiments    of    the    en- 

The  passage  of  the  bankruptcy  law,  ap-  tire  people.  It  surely  is  a  proclamation, 
proved  July  1,  1898,  was  effected  by  a  vote  as  vigorous  as  it  is  emphatic,  that  in  this 
of  43  to  13  in  the  Senate,  and  134  to  53  day  and  generation  it  is  not  only  the 
in  the  House.  It  was,  necessarily,  a  com-  debtor  that  dies  who  is  relieved  of  all 
promise,  since  it  was  the  result  of  agita-  debts,  but  that  the  unfortunate  and  the 
tion  which  had  been  continuous  since  the  unwise  may  win  surcease  of  their  busi- 
repeal,  twenty  years  before,  of  its  discredit-  ness  sorrows  and  begin  again  on  this  side 
ed  and  unpopular  predecessor.  The  "  in-  of  the  grave.  It  calls  to  mind  that  human- 
voluntaries  "    against    the    "voluntaries"  itarian  provision  of  the  Mosaic  law  which 

270 


BANKRUPTCY   LAWS 


commanded  a  release  of  debtors  every 
seventh  year. 

For  more  than  twenty-five  centuries  the 
law-makers  of  the  world  have  been  legis- 
lating on  bankruptcy.  Draco,  the  pioneer, 
made  it,  -with  laziness  and  murder,  pun- 
ishable by  death.  Quite  naturally  there 
followed  an  age  of  the  absconding  debtor. 
Solon,  not  wishing  to  depopulate  Athens, 
mollified  these  ancient  blue  law^s,  and  even 
abolished  enslavement  for  debt;  but  the 
bankrupt  and  the  bankrupt's  heirs  for- 
feited their  rights  of  citizenship.  The 
noble  Eoman  and  his  Twelve  Tables  were 
more  draconic  than  Draco.  Gibbon  tells 
us  that: 

"  At  the  expiration  of  sixty  days  the 
debt  was  discharged  by  the  loss  of  liberty 
or  life;  the  insolvent  debtor  was  either 
put  to  death,  or  sold  in  foreign  slavery 
beyond  the  Tiber;  but  if  several  credit- 
ors were  alike  obstinate  and  unrelenting, 
they  might  legally  dismember  his  body, 
and  satiate  their  revenge  by  this  horrid 
partition." 

In  the  time  of  Csesar  Roman  juris- 
prudence and  civilization  had  so  develop- 
ed that  the  debtor,  by  the  famous  cessio 
honorum,  might  at  least  escape  slavery, 
and  in  most  cases  retain  his  civil  rights ; 
and  about  a  century  later  our  modern 
idea  of  a  discharge  to  the  honest  debtor 
who  gives  up  his  all  was  graven  on 
their  laws. 

Shylock's  savage  rights  may  well  speak 
for  the  laws  of  the  Middle  Ages,  whose 
statutes  were  little  better  than  a  trans- 
parent palimpsest  of  the  Twelve  Tables 
of  Eome.  French  laws  have  followed  the 
Latin  model,  and,  while  somewhat  modern- 
ized, even  yet  visit  a  degree  of  disgrace 
upon  the  unfortunate  trader  which  would 
not  long  be  tolerated  by  an  Anglo-Saxon 
legislature. 

Since  1542  about  forty  bankruptcy 
laws  and  a  number  of  insolvent  debtor 
acts  have  been  passed  in  England.  In 
the  United  States  the  statute  of  1898  is 
the  fourth  of .  a  series  of  national  laws, 
the  others  being  named  from  the  years 
1800,  1841,  and  1867;  while,  in  many  of 
the  States,  and  from  their  very  beginning, 
insolvency  statutes  of  local  application 
and  vastly  divergent  provisions  have  been 
on  the  books. 

In  view  of  the  interest  in  the  subject, 

2-i 


the  following  chronology  may  be  valu- 
able. We  take  the  English  statutes 
first : 

1.  The  statute  of  1542  was  aimed  at 
absconding  or  concealed  debtors  only. 
It  made  them  criminals,  deprived  them  of 
their  property  without  giving  them  a  dis- 
charge, and  left  them  to  the  tender  mer- 
cies of  their  creditors.  It  was  followed 
by  a  number  of  similar  laws,  enlarging 
its   scope  and   changing  its  procedure. 

2.  The  statute  of  1706,  in  the  fifth 
year  of  Queen  Anne,  marks  the  next  great 
step  in  advance.  Debt  was  no  longer  treat- 
ed as  a  crime,  and  provision  was  for  the 
first  time  made  for  a  discharge. 

3.  The  statute  of  1825,  in  the  reign 
of  George  IV.,  for  the  first  time  recog- 
nized voluntary  bankruptcies. 

4.  The  statute  of  18.30  abolished  com- 
missioners in  bankruptcy,  put  the  admin- 
istration of  estates  into  the  hands  of  the 
court,  and  created  the  official  assignee  or 
receiver. 

5.  The  statute  of  1861  made  it  pos- 
sible for  the  non-trader,  who  had  been 
protected  by  the  insolvent  debtor  acts  for 
about  fifty  years,  to  take  advantage  of  or 
to  be  proceeded  against  under  the  general 
bankruptcy  laws. 

6.  The  statute  of  1869  introduced  in 
England  the  now  well-understood  prin- 
ciple of  fraudulent  preferences;  but,  the 
law  being  easily  evaded,  it  proved  a  fail- 
ure. 

7.  The  statute  of  1883,  as  amended 
by  that  of  1890,  carries  the  pendulum 
backward  again,  and  while  for  the  first 
time  distinguishing  between  a  fraudulent 
bankruptcy  and  one  due  solely  to  mis- 
fortune, is  drastic  in  its  penalties  and 
intolerable,  at  least  from  an  American 
stand-point,  in  its  limitations  on  the  grant- 
ing of  a  discharge. 

Turning  to  the  United  States,  we  find 
that: 

1.  The  statute  of  1800  was  copied 
from  the  English  law  of  that  time,  and 
did  not  provide  either  for  voluntary  bank- 
ruptcy or  for  non-traders  coming  within 
its  terms.  It  was  repealed  in  December, 
1803. 

2.  The  statute  of  1841,  said  to  have 
been  largely  the  work  of  Daniel  Webster, 
introduced  the  idea  of  voluntary  bank- 
ruptcy into  our  national  jurisprudence. 
1 


Bankruptcy  laws 


It  was  in  force  but  eighteen  months,  being 
repealed  by  the  Congress  that  passed 
it. 

3.  The  statute  of  1867  was  framed 
largely  on  the  Massachusetts  insolvency 
law  of  1838.  It  provided  for  both  volun- 
tary and  involuntary  bankruptcy,  and 
went  almost  to  the  extreme  in  its  enu- 
meration of  acts  of  bankrviptcy  and  in  its 
restrictions  on  the  granting  of  discharges. 
This  law  permitted  tedious  delays  and  ex- 
cessive fees.  It  remained  in  force  until 
September,    1878. 

4.  The  statute  of  1898  swings  back 
towards  mercy  again.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered as  the  first  of  our  statutes  to  omit 
that  anciently  all-important  act  of  bank- 
ruptcy, "  the  suddenly  fleeing  to  parts 
unknown,"  and  as  establishing  a  new 
meaning  for  "  insolvency." 

The  animated  and  often  acrimonious 
discussion  of  bankruptcy  legislation  has 
turned  on  a  half-dozen  disputed  principles 
and  matters  of  detail.  Nowhere,  save  in 
the  United  States,  where  local  insolvency 
laws  have  temporarily  filled  the  gap,  has 
the  necessity  of  such  legislation  been  de- 
nied. All  civilized  and  many  semi-civil- 
ized countries  enforce  such  laws.  France  has 
not  been  without  a  bankruptcy  law  for 
400  years,  nor  England  for  a  period  nearly 
as  long.  It  is  settled,  too,  that  such 
laws  should  have  three  purposes:  1. 
The  surrender  of  the  debtor's  estate  with' 
out  preferences;  2.  Its  cheap  and  expe- 
ditious distribution  pro  rata  among  all 
creditors ;  and  3.  The  discharge  of  the 
debtor  from  liability  to  pay  provable  debts 
with  property  which  he  may  afterwards 
acquire. 

Each  statute  has  sought  the  common 
goal  by  different  ways,  but  always  by  or 
near  definite  landmarks.  It  will  assist  to 
a  better  understanding  of  the  law  of  1898, 
if  we  note  these  landmarks.  1.  Who 
may  become  a  bankrupt?  2.  What  are 
acts  of  bankruptcy?  3.  What  is  a  pref- 
erence? 4.  When  may  a  discharge  be 
refused?  5.  What  is  the  procedure 
which  will  prove  least  expensive  and  most 
expeditious?  This  classification  includes 
two  elements  born  since  Blackstone's  time. 

WJio  May  Become  a  Bankrupt? — The 
limitation  to  traders  has  already  been 
mentioned.  Indeed,  so  late  as  1817,  in 
this    country,    Judge    Livingston    doubted 

27 


whether  an  act  of  Congress  subjecting 
to  such  a  law  every  description  of  per- 
sons within  the  United  States  would  be 
constitutional.  Yet  our  law  of  1841  ex- 
tended the  meaning  of  the  term  "  trader  " 
so  that,  in  involuntary  bankruptcies,  it 
included  bankers,  brokers,  factors,  under- 
writers and  marine  insurers.  All  classes 
of  persons  could  become  bankrupts  in  Eng- 
land after  1861 ;  and  the  like  broad  rule 
received  expression  in  our  law  of  1867, 
with  the  single  exception  that,  when  the 
act  of  bankruptcy  consisted  in  failure  to 
pay  commercial  paper,  it  applied  only  to 
merchants,  bankers,  and  the  business  com- 
munity. The  new  law  of  1898,  however, 
goes  backward  to  the  time  of  George  II., 
and  prohibits,  as  did  one  of  the  laws 
passed  in  his  reign,  involuntary  proceed- 
ings against  farmers  and  wage-earners. 

Its  provisions  relative  to  corporations 
are  equally  indicative  of  prevailing  con- 
ditions. For  some  decades  English  cor- 
porations have  been  liable  to  proceedings 
in  bankruptcy.  Our  law  of  1841  was  lim- 
ited to  natural  persons.  That  of  1867 
was  made  expressly  applicable  to  all 
moneyed,  business,  and  commercial  corpo- 
rations. Yet  the  lawmakers  of  1898,  fear- 
ful lest,  by  collusion  with  stockholders, 
the  controlling  officers  might  force  such 
semi-public  corporations  as  railroads  and 
transportation  companies  into  bankrupt- 
cy, limited  the  operation  of  the  law  to 
corporations  engaged  principally  in  manu- 
facturing, trading,  printing,  publishing, 
or  mercantile  pursuits.  Pending  politi- 
cal passions  have  swimg  us  backward  in 
these  two  particulars.  These  provisions, 
however,  can  prove  of  little  or  no  prac- 
tical importance,  and  to  the  future  his- 
torian they  will  seem  as  curious  as  do 
to  us  those  ancient  acts  of  bankruptcy, 
"  keeping  his  house "  and  the  "  fleeing 
to  the  Abbey." 

What  Are  Acts  of  Bankruptcy? — In  the 
United  States  this  has  been  the  kernel  of 
the  controversy.  Our  laws  have  answered 
the  question  in  widely  diflferent  ways.  Not 
so  in  England.  That  original  act  of  bank- 
ruptcy, absconding  the  realm,  is  in  every 
English  statute  for  350  years,  and  ap- 
pears in  the  last  law  in  almost  the  very 
words  used  in  the  first.  Our  laws,  down 
to  and  including  that  of  1867,  have  been 
equally  mindful  of  the  commercial  run- 
2 


BANKRITPTCY  LAWS 


away.  The  new  law,  however,  omits  this 
cause  entirely.  The  welcher  in  business 
can  be  punished  in  other  ways;  our  chief 
concern  is — indeed,  should  be — with  the 
stay-at-home  cheat. 

The  English  catalogue  of  interdicted 
acts  in  business  has  grown  long.  Two 
hundred  years  ago  involuntary  bankrupt- 
cy was  even  worse  than  imprisonment  for 
debt,  for  it  involved  that;  and,  prior  to 
the  evolution  of  the  idea  of  a  discharge, 
it  practically  was  civil  death.  The  con- 
dition of  the  English  law  at  that  time 
may  be  imagined  from  this  decision  of  a 
court  of  the  period: 

"  If  a  man  is  taken  in  execution  and  lies 
in  prison  for  debt,  neither  the  plaintiff 
at  whose  suit  he  is  arrested,  nor  the 
sheriff  who  took  him,  is  bound  to  find 
him  meat,  drink,  or  clothes;  but  he  must 
live  on  his  own  or  on  the  charity  of  others, 
and  if  no  one  will  relieve  him,  let  him 
die  in  the  name  of  God,  says  the  law;  and 
so  say  I." 

Freedom  from  imprisonment  for  debt 
has,  of  course  changed  this ;  but  in  the 
latest  English  statutes  there  are  relics 
of  this  old-time  savagery  towards  debt- 
ors, happily  not  included  in  our  laws. 

The  present  bankruptcy  law  of  England 
gives  eight  acts  of  bankruptcy,  three  predi- 
cated on  fraud  coupled  with  insolvency, 
three  of  a  voluntary  character  showing  in- 
solvency, and  two  others  which  are  relics 
of  the  old  rules  against  fleeing  the  realm 
or  concealing  property.  A  debtor  who  does 
not  lift  a  levy  on  his  goods  within  twenty- 
one  days,  or  who  does  not  within  seven 
days  after  judgment  comply  with  a  credit- 
or's demand  that  he  pay,  compound,  or 
secure  the  debt,  commits  an  act  of  bank- 
ruptcy. The  older  laws  put  default  in 
payment  of  demand  obligations  in  the 
same  category,  thus  extending  a  rule 
rightfully  enforced  against  banks  and 
bankers  to  the  entire  business  commu- 
nity. 

Our  law  of  1841  defined  but  five  acts 
of  bankruptcy,  all  predicated  on  fraud. 
The  law  of  1867  went  much  further  and, 
in  addition  to  the  customary  grounds, 
specified  as  one  of  its  ten  acts  of  bank- 
ruptcy, fraudulent  default  in  payment 
of  commercial  paper  by  merchants,  trad- 
ers, and  manufacturers.  The  law  just 
passed,  however,  goes  back  to  the  side 
I.— s  27 


of  leniency  again.  It  enumerates  five  acts 
of  bankruptcy,  two  of  them  involving 
fraud  on  the  part  of  the  bankrupt  (fraud- 
ulent conveyances  and  voluntary  prefer- 
ences ) ,  one  constructive  fraud,  and  two 
which  are  expressed  by  the  paradox  that 
by  them  a  debtor  may  go  into  involuntary 
bankruptcy  voluntarily.  The  Torrey  bill 
enumerated  nine  acts  of  bankruptcy,  going 
further  even  than  the  English  law  and  in- 
cluding default  for  thirty  days  in  the 
payment  of  commercial  paper,  a  rule 
which  would  have  upset  our  entire  credit 
system.  The  Nelson  bill  went  to  the 
other  extreme  and  made  fraudulent  trans- 
fers and  voluntary  preferences  while  in- 
solvent the  only  acts  of  bankruptcy.  The 
law  as  passed  is  perhaps  a  fair  compro- 
mise, though  in  extreme  cases  we  may 
wish  for  the  more  complete  and  far- 
reaching  definition  of  the  English  statute. 

But,  whatever  the  effect,  lawyers  and 
laymen  alike  will  quickly  understand 
that  insolvency  has  a  new  meaning.  The 
English  statute  defines  it  as  inability  on 
the  debtor's  part  to  pay  from  his  own 
moneys  his  debts  as  they  become  due. 
The  American  law  declares  that  he  only 
is  insolvent  the  aggregate  of  whose  prop- 
erty shall  not,  at  a  fair "  valuation,  be 
sufficient  in  amount  to  pay  his  debts.  In 
short,  in  the  United  States  hereafter,  he 
who  has  uncontrovertible  property  in 
plenty  but  little  cash  on  hand — as,  for 
example,  he  who  is  land  poor — may  yet 
be  solvent  and  entitled  to  the  time  to  re- 
alize and  pay  his  creditors. 

At  first  blush  this  seems  broadly  equi- 
table, but  what  will  be  the  result  in  actual 
practice?  Perhaps,  had  it  been  in  force, 
the  author  of  Waverley,  with  his  vast 
genius  as  his  property,  would  not  have 
been  insolvent,  and  that  other  Scotchman, 
Anderson  by  name,  who  possessed,  yet 
would  not  surrender,  the  secret  formula 
for  a  popular  nostrum,  might  have 
proved  it  overworth  his  debts,  and  escaped 
the  penalties  of  the  law.  On  the  other 
hand,  into  what  dangerous  controversies 
will  it  lead  us!  Hitherto  the  proof  of  in- 
solvency has  been  simple  and  easy.  Now 
it  never  can  be.  The  expei't  on  values  has 
a  new  field  open  to  him,  as  creditors  and 
debtors,  not  to  speak  of  lawyers  and 
courts,  may  quickly  learn. 

In  practice,  the  law  will,  therefore, 
3 


BA]SfKB,trI>TCY  LAWS 


prove  little  more  than  a  voluntary  law. 
Its  sponsors  claim  that  it  will  accomplish 
all  that  it  was  intended  to  do  by  the  mere 
threat  of  possible  procedure.  Therein  is 
its  chief  merit  to  the  business  world.  Ex- 
perience will  prove  whether  it  is  a  boon 
or  bane.  But  our  hysterical  Congressmen 
shall  be  able  now  to  sleep  o'  nights;  for 
under  this  law  there  can  be  by  the  rich 
no  "  grinding  the  face  of  the  poor." 

What  Is  a  Preference? — This  is  a  com- 
paratively recent  development  of  the  law 
of  bankruptcy.  The  earliest  regulation  is 
that  of  1690,  in  Scotland,  which  annulled 
preferences  made  within  two  months  of 
bankruptcy.  The  common  law  permitted 
preferences,  and  debts  in  favor  of  wives 
and  female  relatives  in  general  were  a 
refuge  frequently  found  by  the  failing 
debtor.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  chattel 
mortgage  method  of  preference  was  then 
understood;  that  is  the  product  of  our 
higher  civilization.  But,  for  centuries, 
scandals  without  number  and  frauds  on 
creditors  by  the  multitude  have  flowed 
from  the  too  gentle  policy  of  the  law  in 
this  regard.  Our  State  insolvency  laws, 
most  of  them  sanctioning  limited  prefer- 
ences, have  proved  but  invitations  to  de- 
fraud. The  preferring  debtor  has  become 
one  of  the  evils  of  our  civilization,  as  was 
the  absconding  debtor  of  that  of  two  cen- 
turies ago. 

Beginning  in  1849,  in  England,  and  in 
1841,  in  the  United  States,  preferences 
have  been  interdicted  by  law.  The  Eng- 
lish statute  made  them  void  if  intended 
to  defeat  or  delay  creditors.  The  present 
law  of  England  provides  that,  to  consti- 
tute a  preference,  it  must  be  made  within 
three  months  of  the  commencement  of  pro- 
ceedings in  bankruptcy;  while,  if  made 
when  the  debtor  is  insolvent  and  with  a 
view  of  giving  the  creditor  a  preference 
over  other  creditors,  it  declares  them  abso- 
lutely void. 

Our  statutes,  again,  evidence  the  swing- 
ing of  the  pendulum.  That  of  1800  did 
not  inhibit  such  transactions;  that  of 
1841  made  the  giving  of  preferences  ground 
for  refusing  a  discharge.  The  law  of  1867, 
copying  the  Massachusetts  insolvency  act 
of  1838,  compelled  creditors  to  prove,  in 
addition  to  the  facts  required  by  the  pres- 
ent English  law,  knowledge  on  the  part  of 
the  person  preferred  that  the  act  was  in 

27 


fraud  of  the  bankruptcy  law;  in  short, 
it  practically  required  proof  of  collusion 
by  the  creditor.  Under  the  new  law,  a 
preference  seems  to  be'  one  thing  if  assert- 
ed in  a  voluntary  proceeding,  and  another 
if  alleged  as  an  act  of  bankruptcy  on 
which  an  involuntary  proceeding  is  to 
stand.  In  both  cases,  the  preference  must 
have  been  made  within  four  months  of  the 
filing  of  the  bankrupt's  petition.  But,  in 
the  former,  the  proof  need  not  go  further, 
in  any  but  exceptional  cases,  than  to  show 
that  the  act  will  result  in  giving  one 
creditor  more  than  others,  and  that  such 
creditor  had  reasonable  cause  to  believe 
that  by  the  act  the  debtor  intended  to 
prefer  him;  while,  in  the  latter,  not  only 
insolvency — which,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
difficult  of  proof — but  intent  to  prefer, 
must  be  shown. 

Therein  lies  the  weakness  of  the  new 
law,  as  a  permanent  relief  to  creditors. 
Family  reunions  at  creditors'  meetings  in 
courts  of  bankruptcy  are  still  both  pos- 
sible and  probable.  The  cheat  and  the 
cozener,  unless  checked  by  the  vigilance  of 
judges  and  referees,  may  become  as  notori- 
ous as  they  were  in  other  days,  and  a  con- 
venient relative  or  willing  friend  may 
still  continue  to  be  the  ready  safe-deposit 
for  the  plunder  of  the  mercantile  rogue. 

When  May  a  Discharge  Be  Refused? — 
In  nothing  else  does  the  English  bank- 
ruptcy system  differ  from  our  own  as 
much  as  in  this.  No  discharge  was  grant- 
ed a  debtor  until  the  reign  of  Anne.  A 
little  later,  not  only  a  discharge,  but  al- 
lowances on  dividends,  varying  from  3 
to  10  per  cent.,  were  granted  to  the  bank- 
rupt in  order  that  he  might  get  a  fresh 
start;  a  provision  which  also  appears  in 
our  bankruptcy  law  of  1800.  Until  a 
comparatively  recent  period,  the  discharge 
was  of  no  value  unless  signed  by  a  speci- 
fied number  of  creditors,  which  rule  seems 
still  to  prevail  in  France.  Since  1832 
discharges  in  England  have  been  in  the 
discretion  of  the  court,  subject  to  some 
rather  drastic  limitations  of  a  punitive 
character.  This  discretion  has  been 
abused ;  and  yet  the  present  English  law 
permits  discharges  to  be  refused  for  nu- 
merous reasons,  such  as  the  debtor's  con- 
tinuance in  business  after  knowing  him- 
self to  be  insolvent,  failure  to  pay  divi- 
dends of  at  least  50  per  cent.,  rash  and 
4 


BANKRUPTCY   LAWS 


hazardous  speculations,  unjustifiable  ex- 
travagance in  living,  culpable  neglect  of 
business  affairs,  and  failure  to  account 
satisfactorily  for  losses. 

Englishmen,  too,  have  been  prone  to 
classify  discharges.  By  the  laws  of  1849, 
there  were  three  kinds,  with  correspond- 
ing effects:  those  given  when  the  bank- 
ruptcy was  wholly  unavoidable,  those 
when  it  was  partly  unavoidable,  and  those 
belonging  to  neither  of  the  latter  classes. 
The  present  English  law  permits  the  court 
to  refuse  a>  discharge  outright,  to  with- 
hold it  for  not  less  than  two  years,  to 
withhold  it  until  the  estate  shall  pay  50 
per  cent.,  or  to  require  the  bankrupt  to  al- 
low judgment  against  himself  for  the  dif- 
ference between  the  required  50  per  cent, 
and  the  amount  of  dividends  actually  paid. 
It  seems  curious  that  this  latter  is  the 
usual  method,  and  yet  that  the  present 
law  of  England  is  far  and  away  the  most 
successful  and  the  fairest  bankruptcy  law 
yet  enforced  in  that  country. 

While  the  list  of  objections  to  discharges 
in  England  is  on  the  increase,  here  it  is 
growing  smaller  and  smaller.  In  1800, 
among  other  restrictions,  the  bankrupt 
was  not  entitled  to  a  discharge  unless  he 
paid  75  cents  on  a  dollar.  In  1841  a 
majority  of  creditors  in  number  and  value 
might  prevent  the  discharge  by  filing  a 
written  dissent  thereto.  The  law  of  1867, 
as  amended  in  1874,  refused  a  discharge 
to  voluntary  bankrupts  who  did  not  pay 
30  per  cent,  on  claims  proved,  except 
with  the  assent  of  one-fourth  of  their 
creditors  in  number  and  one  -  third  in 
value;  and,  copying  the  English  model, 
it  enumerated  ten  acts,  the  commission 
of  which  might  deprive  him  of  his  dis- 
charge. 

The  new  law  goes  to  the  antipodes  of 
the  present  English  statute  and  not  only 
wipes  out  the  necessity  of  paying  any  per- 
centage in  dividends,  a  very  poor  change, 
but  abolishes  the  semi-control  of  creditors 
over  discharges,  and  allows  a  certificate 
to  be  withheld  only  when  the  debtor  has 
committed  one  of  the  felonies  enumerated 
in  the  law,  or  when  he  has  fraudulently 
failed  to  keep,  or  in  contemplation  of 
bankruptcy  has  destroyed  or  concealed,  his 
books  of  account.  Not  even  a  fraudulent 
preference  is  objection  to  a  discharge. 
"  Life   tenure "   and   "  government   by   in- 


junction "  have  thus  their  legitimate  off- 
spring in  this  sugar-coated  section  of  our 
law.  The  Delilah  of  Populism  has  shorn 
the  federal  judiciary  of  its  power.  The 
buzzards,  to  use  Senator  Stewart's  pict- 
uresque designation  for  creditors,  have 
been  deprived  of  their  prey.  What  mat- 
ter, then,  if  the  commercial  rascal  and 
the  business  pickpocket  be  free  again! 

What  Is  the  Least  Expensive  and  Most 
Expeditious  Procedure? — Probably  nine- 
tenths  of  the  criticism  of  bankruptcy  leg- 
islation has  been  directed  to  details  of 
procedure.  In  England,  for  more  than 
half  a  century,  the  lines  were  drawn  for 
or  against  officialism.  Prior  to  1831 
bankrupt  estates  were  administered  by 
three  commissioners,  largely  controlled  by 
the  creditors.  From  that  time  down  to 
1869  the  courts  administered  through 
their  assignees.  Then,  for  a  decade  or 
more,  creditors  took  hold  again  and  made 
a  mess  of  it.  The  present  law  is  a  com- 
promise, an  official  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
being  in  charge  until  the  creditors  get  to- 
gether and  determine  on  action.  It  seems 
to  have  made  little  difference  which  sys- 
tem prevailed,  as,  so  it  is  said,  in  the 
one  the  la^vyers  preyed  on  the  estates  and 
in  the  other  the  courts  and  their  ap- 
pointees did  so. 

The  English  procedure  has  always  been 
complicated.  It  has  provided  elaborately 
for  compositions  and  arrangements,  with 
the  result  that,  until  the  present  law, 
debtors  have  more  often  compounded  and 
compromised  than  gone  through  the  courts 
and  obtained  their  discharge.  From  1870 
to  1877  there  were  but  8,275  bankruptcies, 
these  nearly  all  involuntary,  to  31,651 
liquidations  and  20,270  compositions.  Even 
under  the  present  English  law,  the  actual 
official  bankruptcies  are  in  number  hardly 
more  than  the  so-called  deeds  of  arrange- 
ment. On  the  other  hand,  the  rigid  public 
examination  which  is  now  required  oper- 
ates both  as  a  threat  to  the  fraudulent 
bankrupt  and  as  a  protection  and  vindica- 
tion to  the  honest  or  unfortunate  debtor. 
It  stimulates  the  co-operation  of  negligent 
creditors  and  prevents  much  fraud. 

In  the  United  States  the  administration 
of  bankruptcy  laws  has  too  often  been 
odorous  from  nepotism  and  onerous  with 
costs.  In  the  lurid  rhetoric  of  the  con- 
gressional   debates,    it   was    "  the   rodents 


275 


BANKRUPTCY   LAWS 


who  burrow  around  the  places  of  justice  " 
and  "  pillage  by  the  fee-fiend  "  which  dis- 
credited the  law  of  1867  and  led  to  its  re- 
peal. The  present  lo.w  is  intended  to  avoid 
these  criticisms.  Rapidity  in  administra- 
tion is  commanded  in  words  and  compelled 
in  practice,  by  making  the  payment  of 
fees  contemporaneous  with  the  Avinding 
up  of  the  estate.  The  fees  themselves  are 
small,  so  small  indeed  as,  in  the  minds  of 
some,  to  jeopardize  the  proper  administra- 
tion of  the  law;  while  but  one  reasonable 
bill  of  costs  can  be  allowed  the  bankrupt's 
lawyers,  no  matter  how  many  are  em- 
ployed, and  any  payments  made  to  them 
by  way  of  advances  for  legal  services  are 
subject  to  scrutiny.  Bankruptcy  courts, 
presided  over  by  referees  having  broad 
judicial  powers,  a.re  established  in  every 
county.  Indeed,  bankrupts  aiad  creditors 
could  not  well  have  a  procedure  which  is 
simpler,  less  expensive,  or  more  favorable 
to  themselves. 

Such  is  the  latest  product  of  bank- 
ruptcy legislation,  genealogically  ex- 
amined. Starting  with  the  Torrey  bill, 
notable  for  its  too  harsh  provisions,  pro- 
ceeding through  the  Nelson  bill,  as  inade- 
quate in  procedure  as  it  was  lacking  in  a 
broad  grasp  of  the  dangers  to  commer- 
cial morality,  which  had  to  be  avoided, 
and  finally  developing  into  a  compromise 
between  the  latter  and  the  Henderson  sub- 
stitute, a  measure  which  seemed  to  find 
the  golden  mean,  it  goes  on  the  books  as 
a  law  for  temporary  relief,  not  for  per- 
manent control.  Many  assert  that  this 
is  as  it  should  be.  The  crying  need  for 
its  passage  was  that  the  unfortunates,  who 
have  been  in  bondage  to  debts  and  judg- 
ments born  of  the  late  period  of  depres- 
sion, might  be  free  again ;  and  the  country 
will  quickly  feel  the  effects  of  the  restored 
energy  of  the  tens  of  thousands  who  have 
gone  down  in  recent  wrecks.  So  far  the 
law  is  expressive,  not  only  of  our  human- 
ity, but  of  our  commercial  common-sense. 
The  honest  bankrupt  is  needed  back  in  the 
ranks  of  business.  There  are,  however, 
others  who  "  will  pay  you  some,  and,  as 
most  debtors  do,  promise  you  infinitely." 
And  there  are  yet  others  who,  in  spirit,  if 
not  in  deed,  would  in  these  times  of  preju- 
dice and  passion  listen  willingly  to  ancient 
Timon's  exhortation  to  his  brother  debt- 
ors within  the  walls  of  Athens : 

27 


"  Bankrupts,   hold  fast ; 
Rather    than    render    back,     out    with    your 

knives. 
And    cut   your   trusters'    throats." 

We  might  have  gone  further  and  enact- 
ed a  law  which  w^ould  prove  valuable  in 
times  of  prosperity,  as  well  as  in  times  of 
depression.  Just  now  the  law-giver  can 
well  be  a  philanthropist.  Year  in  and 
year  out  he  must  be  a  policeman,  too. 
Our  law  of  1898  is  philanthropic  to  a  de- 
gree; but  as  a  discourager  of  commercial 
dishonesty,  it  is  like  a  peace-officer  without 
a  warrant,  or  a  policeman  with  unloaded 
revolver.  The  majesty  and  the  threat  of 
the  law  are  there,  but,  unless  its  officer 
is  keen-eyed  and  a  good  runner,  the  fraud- 
ulent bankrupt  will  usually  escape.  It 
may  be  that  in  practice  creditors  will 
boldly  risk  defeat  and  damages  to  force 
the  mercantile  fraud  into  the  hands  of  the 
court;  but  it  is  not  likely.  At  any  rate, 
the  bankrupt  need  no  longer  fear  the  dili- 
gent creditor,  but  rather  the  daring  one. 

There  is,  of  course,  in  many  quarters 
another  view  of  the  law  and  its  purpose. 
It  is  thought  typical  of  man's  increasing 
humanity  to  man.  The  bankrupt  will  al- 
ways be  with  us ;  so  will  the  creditor.  The 
former  needs  protection  against  the  lat- 
ter; the  creditor  can  take  care  of  himself. 
Thus  many  a  good  citizen  may  find  comfort 
in  the  reflection  that,  if  we  have  gone  far 
towards  preventing  involuntary  bank- 
ruptcy, it  has  been  that  our  laws  might  be 
just  rather  than  severe,  and  expressive  of 
the  principle  that  a  score  of  rascals  had 
better  go  unpimished  rather  than  that  one 
honest  man  should  suflfer  oppression.  This 
is  the  spirit  of  the  age. 

Nearly  a  century  and  a  half  ago  Black- 
stone  declared  that  the  bankruptcy  laws  of 
his  time  were  "  founded  on  principles  of 
humanity  as  well  as  justice."  Modern 
jurists  would  not  now  assure  us  that  such 
was  the  case;  else  to  what  purpose  did 
John  Howard  live,  or  how  came  it  that 
Dickens  moved  a  sympathetic  world  with 
his  story  of  Little  Dorrit  and  the  debt- 
deadened  prisoners  of  Marshalsea.  Now, 
even  the  day  seems  passing  when,  in  the 
words  of  the  gentle  Autocrat. 

'•  The   ghostly   dun   shall   worry   his   sleep, 

And    constables   cluster   around    him : 
And  he  shall   creep  from  the  wood-hole  deep 
When  their  spectre  eyes  have  found  him." 

6 


BANKS,    NATIONAL 


Old  things  are  passing  away.    Sympathy    the  Senate  by  Mr.  Sherman,  and  referred 


sits  where  sternness  sat.  The  nimble 
debtor  is  no  longer  part  of  a  tragedy. 
He  belongs  to  a  serio-comic  drama  in- 
stead. Bankruptcy  is  not  a  crime,  but 
a  condition;  not  always  a  disgrace,  but 
rather  a  disease;  and  present  laws,  while 
providing  relief  for  him  who  owes,  seem 
but  negatively  valuable  to  him  who 
owns. 

Banks,  National.  The  plan  of  the 
national  banks  is  believed  to  have  orig- 
inated with  Salmon  P.  Chase,  when  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury.  In  his  report  for 
December,  1861,  he  recommended  the 
gradual  issue  of  national  bank-notes,  se- 
cured by  the  pledge  of  United  States 
bonds,  in  preference  to  the  further  issue 
of  United  States  notes,  $50,000,000  of 
which  had  been  issued  during  the  previous 
year.  A  bill  was  soon  after  prepared  in 
accordance  with  the  Secretary's  views,  and 
printed  for  the  use  of  the  committee  of 
ways  and  means,  but  it  was  not  reported, 
and  on  July  8  following,  Thaddeus  Ste- 
vens, the  chairmen  of  the  committee,  sub- 
mitted the  bill  with  an  adverse  report. 
The  immediate  necessities  of  the  govern- 
ment compelled  the  further  issue  of  legal- 
tender  notes,  and  the  consideration  of  the 
bank  act  was  deferred.  In  his  report  for 
1862,  Mr.  Chase  again  urged  the  passage 
of  the  national  bank  bill,  and  President 
Lincoln  also  recommended  it  in  his  mes- 
sage. The  principal  reason  why  Mr.  Chase 
advocated  this  system  was  because  he 
thought  it  would  greatly  facilitate  the 
negotiation  of  the  United  States  bonds ; 
in  other  words,  make  it  much  easier  for 
the  government  to  borrow  money.  It  was 
also  claimed  that  it  would  secure  for  the 
people  in  all  parts  of  the  country  a  cur- 
rency of  uniform  security  and  value,  and 
protect  them  from  loss  in  discounts  and 
exchanges — advantages  which  were  regard- 
ed as  of  much  importance  then,  after  the 
experience  people  had  had  with  State 
banks  whose  issue  was  good  in  Pittsburg 
and  worthless  in  Cleveland,  and  vice  versa, 
and  might  be  stable  in  either  place  one 
day  and  worthless  the  next,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  annoyance  of  carrying  $100  as 
many  miles  and  finding  it  only  rated  at 
$40.  Still,  there  was  much  opposition  to 
the  national  bank  bill. 

Early   in    1863   it   was   introduced   into 


to  the  finance  committee,  from  which  it 
was  reported  by  him  Feb.  2,  and  ten  days 
later  passed  by  a  vote  of  23  to  21.  On 
the  20th  of  the  same  month  it  also  passed 
the  House  of  Representatives  by  a  vote  of 
78  to  64.  When  the  bill  was  revised  and 
again  brought  before  Congress  for  passage, 
in  June,  1864,  the  vote  in  the  Senate  was 
30  in  favor  and  9  against  the  bill.  It  was 
claimed  at  the  time  this  bill  was  under 
discussion,  and  has  been  even  more  strong- 
ly urged  since  by  certain  classes,  that  all 
the  advantages  of  stability  and  uniformity 
of  currency  could  be  even  better  secured 
through  a  government  issue  of  notes,  with- 
out the  danger  of  the  creation  of  a  great 
money  monopoly.  There  was  a  strong  ob- 
jection, however,  on  the  part  of  many 
whose  opinions  had  great  influence  against 
thus  making  the  government,  as  it  were, 
the  one  bank  of  issue  for  the  country. 
Secretary  Chase  issued  legal-tender  notes, 
it  is  true,  and  thus  saved  the  govern- 
ment at  a  most  critical  time  fi-om  seri- 
ous financial  embarrassment.  He  de- 
fended the  act  as  one  required  by  the 
grave  exigency  existing  rather  than  as 
the  inauguration  of  a  sound  financial 
policy. 

In  January,  1875,  Congress  passed  an 
act  providing  for  the  resumption  of  spe- 
cie payments  on  Jan.  1,  1879.  As  that 
time  approached  there  were  preliminary 
movements  towards  that  end,  such  as  re- 
deeming the  fractional  curency  with  silver 
(1876),  by  which  a  large  amount  of  the 
latter  coin  was  put  into  circulation. 
There  was  a  very  strong  opposition  to  re- 
sumption at  that  time,  and  prophets  of 
evil  foretold  infinite  disasters  to  the  busi- 
ness of  the  country.  It  was  declared  that 
the  demand  for  gold  would  be  greater 
than  the  supply;  but  when  the  day  came, 
and  the  clerical  force  of  the  Sub-Treasury 
in  New  York  was  increased  in  order  to  fa- 
cilitate the  paying  out  of  gold  for  "  green- 
backs "  presented,  they  had  nothing  to  do. 
There  was  actually  more  gold  paid  in  than 
was  paid  out.  From  that  hour  the  busi- 
ness of  the  country  permanently  revived 
for  the  first  time  since  the  great  revulsion 
of   1873. 

By  act  of  Congress,  March  3,  1883,  the 
taxes  on  capital  and  deposits  of  banks, 
bankers,    and    national    banking    associa- 


277 


BANKS,    SAVINGS— BANKS,    N.    P. 


tions,  excepting  such  as  were  already  due, 
were  repealed,  and  also  the  stamp  tax  on 
bank-checks,  drafts,  orders,  and  vouchers, 
the  latter  provision  to  take  effect  on 
July  1,  1883.  The  act  of  Feb.  25,  1863, 
limited  the  period  of  existence  of  the 
national  banks  to  twenty  years;  but  an 
act  of  July  10,  1882,  provided  for  the  ex- 
tension of  the  charters  of  all  national 
banks  under  prescribed  conditions  for 
twenty  years  more,  and  under  this  act 
many  banks  reorganized  for  the  longer 
period.  In  the  war  revenue  act  of  1898 
a  stamp  tax  of  two  cents  was  imposed 
on  every  bank-check,  and  in  March,  1900, 
the  President  approved  a  new  currency 
act  which  established  the  gold  dollar  as 
the  standard  unit  of  value,  permitted 
national  banks  to  be  organized  in  places 
of  3,000  population  or  less  with  a  capital 
of  $25,000,  instead  of  $50,000,  the  previous 
minimum,  and  provided  that  banks  might 
issue  circulation  on  all  classes  of  bonds 
deposited  up  to  the  par  value  of  the  bonds, 
instead  of  to  90  per  cent,  of  their  face 
value  as  before. 

National  banking  statistics  for  the  year 
ending  Oct.  31,  1900,  as  officially  reported, 
contained  returns  from  3,871  such  banks. 
These  reported  an  aggregate  capital  of 
$630,299,030;  loans  and  discounts,  $2,686,- 
759,642;  outstanding  circulation,  $331,- 
613,268;  individual  deposits,  $2,508,248,- 
557 ;  and  combined  resources  exceeding 
$5,000,000,000,  the  largest  amount  ever 
reported.  See  Circulation,  Monetary; 
Coinage;  Currency;  U.  S.  Banks. 

Banks,  Savings.  The  savings  banks  in 
the  United  States  are  divided  into  two 
classes — the  mutual  and  the  stock.  In 
1900  the  mutual  savings  banks  numbered 
652,  and  had  5,370,109  depositors,  and 
$2,336,460,239  in  resources,  and  held  sav- 
ings deposits  aggregating  $2,134,471,130. 
The  stock  savings  banks  numbered  350, 
and  had  an  aggregate  capital  of  $19,892,- 
294;  527,982  depo'sitors,  and  $288,413,395 
in  resources,  and  held  $250,299,719  in  de- 
posits. The  aggregate  of  the  two  kinds 
of  savings  banks  were:  Total  number, 
1,002;  depositors,  5,898,091;  resources, 
$2,624,873,634;  and  combined  deposits, 
$2,384,770,849.  In  several  of  the  States, 
particularly  in  Massachusetts,  organiza- 
tions called  co-operative  banks  to  a  large 
extent  take  the  place  of  the  ordinary  sav- 


ings banks  elsewhere,  and  building  and 
loan  associations,  as  well  as  loan  and 
trust  companies,  also  act  practically  as 
savings    banks. 

Banks,  State.  Official  reports  cover- 
ing the  various  banks  organized  under 
State  and  Territorial  charters  for  the 
banking  year  ending  at  various  periods  in 
1900,  gave  the  following  summaries :  Num- 
ber of  banks,  4,369;  capital,  $237,004,340; 
deposits,  $1,266,735,282;  surplus,  $91,381,- 
666;  and  resources,  $1,759,835,802.  Sec- 
tionally,  the  largest  number  of  such  banks 
were  in  the  Middle  States,  1,658;  the 
Western  States  ranked  second,  with  1,158; 
the  Southern  States  third,  with  917;  the 
Eastern  States  fourth,  with  343;  the 
Pacific  States  fifth,  with  270;  and  the 
New  England  States  sixth,  with  21. 

Banks,  Wild-Cat,  a  designation  of  a 
class  of  banks  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  especially  in  the  Western  States, 
founded  prior  to  the  enactment  of  the  na- 
tional banking  law.  This  peculiar  desig- 
nation was  originally  applied  to  a  number 
of  banks  organized  under  State  charters 
in  Michigan,  because  their  notes  of  cir- 
culation contained  upon  their  face  the 
picture  of  a  panther.  Many  of  these  banks 
very  soon  became  unsound,  and  when  it 
was  found  that  their  notes  were  worthless 
these  banks  became  the  type  of  a  worth- 
less currency,  and  all  money  and  banks 
of  doubtful  value  became  known  as  wild- 
cats. This  designation  in  time  was  ex- 
tended to  a  large  number  of  insurance 
companies,  especially  in  Illinois.  See 
Bank  of  the  United  States;  Gra\t:- 
YARD  Insurance. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  military 
officer;  born  in  Waltham,  Mass.,  Jan.  30, 
1816.  His  early  education  was  obtained 
at  a  common  school.  He  became  a  lawyer 
and  Democratic  orator ;  edited  a  newspa- 
per in  Waltham  and  Lowell;  and  during 
the  administration  of  President  Polk  held 
office  in  the  Boston  Custom-house.  In 
1849  he  was  a  member  of  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature,  and  speaker  of  the 
Lower  House  in  1851-52.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  State  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion in  1853,  and  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1853-57,  separating  from  the  Demo- 
cratic party  on  the  question  of  slavery; 
and,  after  a  long  contest,  was  elected 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
78 


BANNEKER— BAPTIST    CHURCH 


in  1855.     Mr.  Banks  was  chosen  governor        Bannock    Indians,    a    tribe    of    North 


of  Massachusetts  in  1858,  and  served  until 
1861.     When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he 


American  Indians,  sometimes  called  the 
"  Robber  Indians."  It  was  divided  into 
two  distinct  branches:  the  first  inhabited 
the  region  between  lat.  42°  and  45°  and 
reacliing  from  long.  113°  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  the  second  claimed  all  of  the 
southwestern  part  of  Montana.  The  first 
branch  was  the  more  numerous.  In  1869 
the  Bannocks  of  the  Salmon  River  num- 
bered only  350,  having  been  reduced  by 
small-pox  and  invasions  of  the  Blackfeet. 
In  that  year  about  600  of  the  Southern 
tribe  were  settled  on  the  Wind  River  reser- 
vation, and  in  the  same  year  600  more 
were  sent  to  the  Fort  Hall  reservation. 
Most  of  the  latter  afterwards  left  the  res- 
ervation, but  returned  with  the  Shoshones 
and  the  scattered  Bannocks  of  the  south- 
ern part  of  Idaho  in  1874.  In  1900  the 
Bannocks  were  reduced  to  430  at  the  Fort 
NATHANIEL  PRENTISS  BANKS.  Hall  ageucy,  and  eighty-five  at  the  Lemhi 

agency,  both  in  Idaho, 
was  president  of  the  Illinois  Central  Rail-  Baptist  Church,  a  flourishing  denomi- 
road.  Offering  his  services  to  President  nation  of  evangelical  Christians  who  differ 
liincoln,  he  was  made  a  major-general  of  from  others  in  respect  to  the  mode  of 
volunteers  May  16,  1861,  and  appointed  to  administering  the  rite  of  baptism.  They 
command  the  Annapolis  military  district,  reject  sprinkling,  and  hold  that  immersion 
General  Banks  was  an  active  and  skilful  of  the  whole  body  is  the  only  valid  mode 
leader  in  various  battles  during  the  war  of  baptism,  and  essential  to  its  specific 
in  Virginia  and  in  the  region  of  the  lower  spiritual  purpose;  a  mode,  they  claim, 
Mississippi   and   Red  rivers.     In   186.5-73,    that    was    universally    practised    through- 


1S75-77,  and  1889-91  he  was  a  Represent- 
ative in  Congress,  and  subsequently  he  was 
United  States  marshal.  He  died  in  Wal- 
tham,  Sept.  1,  1894. 

Banneker,   Benjamin,  a  negro  mathe- 
matician; born  in  Maryland,  Nov.  9,  1731. 


out  Christendom  for  1,300  years.  Their 
Church  government  is  democratic.  Their 
writers  trace  their  origin  to  the  third 
century;  and  they  have  ever  been  the 
champions  of  civil  and  religious  liberty. 
Until  the  Quakers  arose,  at  the  middle  of 


He  taught  himself  mathematics ;  and  for  the  seventeenth  century,  they  stood  alone 
many  years,  while  engaged  in  daily  labor,  in  the  advocacy  of  "  soul-liberty."  There 
made  the  necessary  calculations  for  and  were  none  in  America  when  Roger  Will- 
published  an  almanac  for  Maryland  and  iams  founded  Providence.  Before  he  left 
the  adjoining  States.  Mr.  Jefferson  pre-  England  he  had  been  under  the  teachings 
sented  one  of  his  almanacs  to  the  French  of  Baptists  there,  some  of  whom  had  been 
Academy  of  Sciences,  where  it  excited  refugees  from  persecution  in  Holland, 
wonder  and  admiration,  and  the  African  These  had  instituted  baptism  among  them- 
Ahnanac  became  well  known  to  the  scien-  selves  by  authorizing  certain  of  their  mem- 
tific  circles  of  Europe.  In  1790  he  was  bers  to  be  administrators  of  the  rite.  Cast 
employed  by  the  commissioners  in  the  sur-  out  from  the  Congregational  churches  in 
vey  of  the  boundaries  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts,  Williams  conceived  the 
Columbia.  His  grandmother  was  an  Eng-  idea  of  forming  a  Baptist  Church  in  his 
lishwoman,  who  purchased  a  small  plan-  new  home  in  Providence,  after  the  man- 
tation  in  Maryland,  bought  two  slaves  ner  of  the  refugees  in  Holland,  but  in  a 
from  a  ship  just  from  Africa,  and  married  more  simple  form.  In  March,  1639,  Eze- 
one  of  them.  He  died  in  Baltimore,  in  kiel  Holliman.  a  layman,  first  baptized 
October,  1806.  Williams,    and    then    Williams    baptized 

279 


BARAGA— BARCLAY 


Holliman    and    "  some   ten   more."     These  books,   hymn-books,   catechisms,   etc.,   into 

men  then  foi'med  a  Baptist  Church  there,  the  Indian  language,  he  wrote  in  German 

But   Williams   did  not  remain   a   Baptist  the     History,     Character,     Manners,     and 

long.     He  very  early  doubted  the  validity  Customs  of  the  North  American  Indians. 

of   Holliman's   baptism,   and   consequently  He    died    in    Marquette,    Mich.,    Jan.    19, 

of  his  own.     He  believed  "  a  visible   sue-  1868. 

Barbary  States. 


cession  of  authorized  administrators  of 
baptism "  to  be  necessary  to  insure  its 
validity,  and  in  the  course  of  two  months 
he  withdrew  from  the  Church,  and  never 
rejoined  it.     But  the  Church  and  its  prin 


See  Algiers. 
Barber,  Francis,  military  officer;  born 
in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  1751;   was  gradu- 
ated at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1767, 
and  became  rector  of  an  academv  at  Eliza- 


ciples  remained,  and  the  colony  embodied    heth,  N.  J.,  and  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 


in  its  first  code  of  laws  (1637)  a  provision 
for  perfect  toleration  in  matters  of  re- 
ligion. In  1764,  when  numbering  only 
about  5,000  members  in  all  America,  the 
Baptists  established  their  first  college  in 
Rhode  Island  (see  Brown  University). 
With  one  exception,  the  Baptists  are  the 
largest  denomination  of  evangelical  Chris- 
tians in  the  United  States.  It  is  said 
that  the  first  article  of  the  amendments  to 
the  national  Constituti'^n,  guaranteeing 
religious  liberty  (ofTered  in  1789),  was  in- 


Church  there  in  1769.  Leaving  these  posts, 
he  joined  the  New  Jersey  line  in  the  Con- 
tinental army  as  major,  in  February, 
1776.  In  November  he  was  made  a  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, and  ^^"as  afterwards  assist- 
ant inspector-general  under  Baron  Steu- 
ben. He  was  active  in  several  battles,  and 
was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Newtown. 
In  1781  he  was  successful  in  quelling  the 
mutiny  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey 
troops.  He  was  with  the  army  at  New- 
burg  in  1783,  where  he  died,  Feb.  11,  the 


troduced  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  same  year. 

the  Baptist  denomination.  Barber,  John  Warner,  historian;  born 

The  Baptist  Church  in  1900  was  divided  in    Windsor,    Conn.,    Feb.    2,    1798;    wrote 

into  the  Regular  Baptist,  North;  Regular  many   books,    including   Historical    Collec- 

Baptist,     South ;     and     Regular     Baptist,  tions  of  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jer- 

Colored.     Besides    these    there    were    ten  seij,     Virginia,    and    Ohio;    History    and 

other  Church  organizations  so  closely  al-  Antiquities   of  New  England,   Neio   York, 

lied  with  the  Regular  Baptist  Church  as  and  New  Jersey,  etc.     Much  of  his  work 

to  be  officially  grouped  with  the  Regular  was    done    in    co  -  operation    with    Henry 

Church.     Reports   for    1899   gave   the   fol-  Howe    (q.   v.).     He   died   in   New   Haven, 


in  June,  1885. 

Barbour,  James,  statesman;  born  in 
Orange  county,  Va.,  June  10,  1775;  mem- 
ber of  the  Virginia  board  of  delegates, 
1796-1812;  governor,  1812;  United  States 
Senator,    1815;    Secretary   of   War,    1825; 

died   in 


lowing  summaries  for  the  thirteen  Bap- 
tist bodies:  Ministers,  33,088;  churches, 
49,721;  and  members,  4,443,628.  The 
Northern  and  Southern  branches  of  the 
Regular  Baptist  Church  had  14,409  min- 
isters,    27,893     churches,     and     2,586,671 

members;      and      the      Regular      Baptist  minister   to   England,    1828.      He 

Church,  Colored,  had  14,000  ministers,  15,-  Orange  county,  Va.,  June  8,  1842. 
000  chiirches,  and  1,555,324  members.    The        Barbour,     Philip    Pendleton,    jurist; 

largest  of  the  other  bodies  Avas  the  Primi-  born  in  Orange  county,  Va.,  May  25,  1783; 

tive  Baptist  Church,  which  reported  2,130  member   of   Congress   from    1814   to    1825 

ministers,     3,530    churches,     and     126,000  and  1827  to  1830;   speaker  of  the  House, 

members.     The    Freewill    Baptist    Church  1821;   judge  of  the  United   States  circuit 

followed,     with     1,312     ministers,      1,517  court  of  the  eastern  district  of  Virginia, 

churches,  and  85,242  members.  1830  to  1836;  justice  of  the  United  States 

Baraga,  Frederick,  clergyman;  born  in  Supreme    Court,     1836-41.      He    died    in 

Carniola,  Austria,  June  29,  1797;  in  1830  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  24,  1841. 
determined  to  devote  his  life  to  the  con-        Barclay,  Robert,  author ;  born  in  Gor- 

version  of  Indians  in  the  United   States;  donston,  Scotland,  Dec.  23,  1648.     Barclay 

settled   among  the   Ottawas   in  Michigan,  made  journeys  in   England,  Holland,   and 

In  1856  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Mar-  Germany  with  William  Penn.     He  was  one 

quette.     In  addition  to  translating  prayer-  of  the  proprietors  of  east  Jersey,  and  in 

280 


BARD— BARKER 


1682  he  was  appointed  its  governor  (see  Captain  Carlsen,  after  a  lapse  of  274 
New  Jersey)  ;  but  he  exercised  the  office  years,  found  Barentz's  winter  quarters 
by  a  deputy.  He  died  in  Ury,  Oct.  13,  undisturbed  in  1871;  and  some  of  the 
1690.  navigator's    journals    were    recovered    in 

Bard,  John,  physician;  born  in  Bur-  1876. 
lington,  N.  J.,  Feb.  1,  1716;  was  of  a  ^  Barker,  Albert  Smith,  naval  officer; 
Huguenot  family,  and  was  for  seven  years  born  in  Massachusetts;  entered  the  navy 
a  surgeon's  apprentice  in  Philadelphia,  in  1859;  served  under  Farragut  in  the 
Establishing  himself  in  New  York,  he  soon  bombardment  and  passage  of  Forts  Jack- 
ranked  among  the  first  physicians  and  son  and  St.  Philip ;  and  in  an  attempted 
surgeons  in  America.  In  1750  he  assisted  passage  of  Port  Hudson  his  vessel  was 
Dr.  Middleton  in  the  first  recorded  dissec-  blown  up,  after  which  he  took  part  in 
tion  in  America.  In  1788  he  became  the  the  siege  of  that  post  on  the  Blononga- 
first  president  of  the  New  York  Medical  hela.  He  was  actively  employed  through- 
Society;  ajid  when,  in  1795,  the  yellow  out  the  Civil  War;  was  promoted  to 
fever  raged  in  New  York,  he  remained  at  captain  in  1892;  commanded  the  cruiser 
his  post,  though  then  nearly  eighty  years  Neivark  in  the  American-Spanish  War 
of  age.  He  died  in  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.,  (1898);  succeeded  Capt.  Charles  Edgar 
March  30,  1799.  Clark    (q.  v.)    as   commander  of   the   fa- 

Bard,  Samuel,  physician;  born  in  mous  battle-ship  Oregon  after  the  close  of 
Philadelphia,  April  1,  1742;  son  of  Dr.  the  war;  and  became  a  rear-admiral  in 
John  Bard;   studied  at  the  University  of    1899. 

Edinburgh,  where  he  passed  about  three  Barker,  .Jacob,  financier;  born  on  Swan 
years,  and  was  an  inmate  of  the  family  Island,  Kennebec  co.,  Me.,  Dec.  7,  1779; 
of  Dr.  Robertson,  the  historian.  Having  was  of  a  Quaker .  family,  and  related  by 
graduated  as  M.D.  in  1765,  he  returned  blood  to  the  mother  of  Dr.  Franklin.  He 
home,  and  began  the  practice  of  medicine  began  trade  in  New  York  when  quite 
in  New  York  City  with  his  father.  He 
organized  a  medical  school,  which  was 
connected  with  King's  (Columbia)  Col- 
lege, in  which  he  took  the  chair  of 
physic  in  1769.  In  1772  he  purchased  his 
father's  business.  He  caused  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  public  hospital  in  the  city 
of  New  York  in  1791,  and,  while  the  seat 
of  the  national  government  was  at  New 
York,  he  Avas  the  physician  of  President 
Washington.  He  was  also  appointed 
president  of  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  1813.  While  combating 
yellow  fever  in  New  York  in  1798,  he 
took  the  disease,  but  by  the  faithful  nurs- 
ing of  his  wife  he  recovered.  Dr.  Bard 
was  a  skilful  hoi'ticulturist  as  well  as 
an  eminent  physician.  He  died  May  24, 
1821. 

Barentz,  Willem,  navigator;  born  in 
Holland;  commanded  exploring  expedi- 
tions to  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitzbergen  in 
1594-97.  His  first  expedition  was  an 
attempt  to  find  a  passage  through  the 
Arctic     Ocean     to     China,     in    which    he 

reached  lat.  78°  N.  On  his  third  and  last  young,  and  at  twenty-one  he  OAATied  four 
expedition,  in  1596-97,  he  reached  lat.  ships  and  a  brig,  and  was  largely  engaged 
80°  IV  N.,  and  discovered  Spitzbergen.  in  commercial  transactions.  As  a  State 
He  died  near  Nova  Zembla,  June  20,  1597.    Senator,   and  while   sitting  in  the   Court 

281 


JACOB   BARKER. 


BARKER— BARLOW 


of  Errors,  he  gave  an   opinion  in  an  in-    the  Peninsula  in   1862.     In  the  battle  of 
surance  case  in  opposition  to  Judge  Kent,    Antietam     he     captured     two     stands     of 


and  was  sustained  by  the  court.  During 
the  War  of  1812  his  ships  were  all  capt- 
ured. Being  in  Washington,  D.  C,  dur- 
ing its  sack  by  the  British  (August, 
1814),  he  assisted  Mrs.  Madison  in  sav- 
ing Stuart's  portrait  of  Washington,  then 
hanging  in  the  President's  house,  which 
was  set  on  fire  a  few  hours  later.  Barker 
was  a  banker,  a  dealer  in  stocks,  and  a 
general  and  shrewd  financier  for  many 
years.  He  finally  established  himself  in 
New  Orleans  in  1834,  where  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  as  a  lawyer,  and  soon 
became  a  political  and  business  leader 
there.  He  made  and  lost  several  fortunes 
during  his  long  life.  The  Civil  War 
wrought  his  financial  ruin,  and  late  in 
1867  he  was  again  in  bankruptcy,  at  the 
age  of  eighty-eight  years.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Dec'.  26,"^  1871. 

Barker,    Josiah,    shipbuilder ;    born   in 
Marshfield,  Mass.,   Nov.    16,   1763;    served 


colors  and  300  men,  and  was  soon 
afterwards  wounded  and  carried  off  the 
field  for  dead.  He  was  made  brigadier- 
general  in  September,  and  he  commanded 
a  division  in  the  battle  of  Chancellors- 
ville  in  May,  1863.  He  was  wounded  at 
Gettysburg,  and  was  also  distinguished 
in  the  Richmond  campaign  in  1864.  He 
rendered  essential  service  in  the  final 
struggle  that  ended  with  the  surrender  of 
Lee;  was  mustered  out  of  the  service 
in  1865  with  the  rank  of  major-general ; 
was  secretary  of  state  of  New  York  in 
1865-68;  United  States  marshal  in  1868- 
69 ;  and  attorney-general  of  New  York  in 
1871-73.  He  died  in  New  York  City,  Jan. 
11,  1896. 

Barlow,  Joel,  poet;  born  in  Reading, 
Conn.,  March  24,  1754;  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1778;  studied  theology  and 
was  licensed  a  Congregational  minister; 
and  from  1778  to  1783  was  a  chaplain  in 


at  intervals  throughout  the  Revolution  in    the  army,  writing  patriotic  songs  and  ad- 


both  the  army  and  the  navy.  He  estab- 
lished a  ship-yard  in  1795  in  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  where  he  built,  as  United 
States  naval  constructor,  the  Virginia, 
Warren,  Cumherland,  and  other  men-of- 
war,  and  rebuilt  the  Constitution.  He 
died  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Sept.  23,  1843. 

Barker,  Wharton,  banker;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  1,  1846;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1866,  after  having  served  in  the 
Union  army  in  the  Civil  War;  founded 
the  banking  firm  of  Barker  Brothers  & 
Co.,  which  in  1878  was  appointed  finan- 
cial agent  lin  the  United  States  of  the 
Russian  government,  and  supervisor  of 
the  building  of  four  cruisers  for  its  navy; 
and  was  the  Presidential  nominee  of  the 
Middle-of-the-Road  or  Anti-Fusion  Peo- 
ple's party,  in  1900. 

Barlow,  Akthur,  navigator;  born 
about  1550;  died  about  1620.  See 
Amidas. 

Barlow,  Francis  Channing,  military 
officer;  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  19, 
1834;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Univer- 


dresses  to  keep  up  the  spirits  of  the  sol- 
diers. When  the  army  was  disbanded 
(1783)  he  settled  at  Hartford,  where  he 
began  to  study  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in   1785.     He  had  tried  book-sell- 


JOEL   BARLOW. 


ing;  and,  in  1792,  he  established  a  weekly 
newspaper,  entitled  the  American  Mercury, 


sity  in  1855.  After  serving  as  a  three  published  at  Westford.  His  poetic  talents 
months'  man,  at  the  beginning  of  the  becoming  widely  known,  he  was  requested 
Civil  War,  he  became  a  lieutenant-colonel  by  several  Congi'egational  ministers  to  re- 
of  a  New  York  regiment,  and  as  colonel  vise  the  phraseology  of  Watts's  hymns, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  on    He  also  attempted  to  revise  the  Bible  in 

282 


BARLOW— BARNARD 


the  same  way.  A  cousin  of  Benedict  Ar- 
nold, who  would  talk  in  doggerel  rhyme, 
was  asked  by  Barlow  to  give  him  a  speci- 
men of  his  poetic  talent.  Arnold  looked 
the  poet  sharply  in  the  face,  and  said,  in- 
stantly : 

"  You've  proved  yourself  a  sinful  cretur, 
You've    murdered     Watts     and     spiled     the 

metre, 
You've  tried  the  Word  of  God  to  alter, 
And  for  your  pains  deserve  a  halter." 

With  Trumbull,  Dwight,  Humphreys,  and 
others,  Barlow  published  a  satirical  poem 
entitled  The  Anarchiad.  In  1787  he  pub- 
lished his  Vision  of  Columius,  a  poem 
which  obtained  great  popularity.  Visiting 
Europe  in  1788  as  agent  for  the  Scioto 
Land  Company,  he  published,  in  aid  of 
the  French  Revolution,  Advice  to  the 
Privileged  Orders.  To  this  he  added,  in 
1791,  a  Letter  to  the  National  Convention, 
and  the  Conspiracy  of  Kings.  As  deputy 
of  the  London  Constitutional  Society,  he 
presented  an  address  to  the  French  Na- 
tional Convention,  and  took  up  his  abode 
in  Paris,  where  he  became  a  French  citi- 
zen. Barlow  was  given  employment  in 
Savoy,  where  he  wrote  his  mock-heroic 
poem.  Hasty  Pudding.  He  was  United 
States  consul  at  Algiers  in  1795-97,  where 
he  negotiated  treaties  with  the  ruler  of 
that  state,  and  also  with  the  Bey  of  Tunis. 
He  took  sides  with  the  J^ench  Directory 
in  their  controversy  with  the  American 
envoys.  (See  Directory,  The  French.) 
Having  made  a  large  fortune  by  specula- 
tions in  France,  Mr.  Barlow  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1805,  and  built  him- 
self an  elegant  mansion  in  the  vicinity  of 
Washington,  and  called  his  seat  there 
"  Kalorama."  In  1807  he  published  the 
Columbiad,  an  epic  poem.  It  was  illus- 
trated with  engravings,  some  of  them 
from  designs  by  Robert  Fulton,  and  pub- 
lished in  a  quarto  volume  in  a  style  more 
sumptuous  than  any  book  that  had  then 
been  issued  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
an  enlargement  of  his  Vision  of  Columbus. 
In  1811  he  commenced  the  preparation 
of  a  History  of  the  United  States,  when 
President  Madison  appointed  him  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  the  French  Court.  The 
next  year  he  was  invited  to  a  conference 
with  Napoleon  at  Wilna,  for  the  nominal 
object  of  completing  a  commercial  treaty 
with  the  United  States.     It  was  believed 


by  the  war  party  that  some  arrangements 
would  be  made  by  which  French  ships, 
manned  by  Americans,  might  be  employed 
against  Great  Britain.  But  such  hopes 
were  soon  extinguished.  Barlow  set  out 
from  Paris  immediately,  and,  as  the  call 
was  urgent,  he  travelled  day  and  night, 
without  rest.  The  fatigue  and  exposure 
brought  on  a  disease  of  the  lungs,  and, 
in  the  cottage  of  a 'Polish  Jew  at  Zarno- 
wice,  near  Cracow,  he  suddenly  expired, 
Dec.  24,  1812,  from  the  effects  of  a  violent 
congestion  of  the  pulmonary  organs.  What 
the  real  object  of  Napoleon's  call  was  may 
never  be  known. 

Barnard,  Frederick  Augustus  Por- 
ter, educator;  born  in  Sheffield,  Mass., 
May  5,  1809;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1828;  president  of  the  University 
of  Mississippi  in  1856-58,  and  chancellor 
in  1858-61.  In  1861,  on  account  of  the 
Civil  War,  he  resigned  his  offices  in  the 
university.     He  was  president  of   Colum- 


F.    A.    P.    BERNARD. 

bia  College,  New  York  City,  in  1864-88. 
At  various  times  he  held  responsible  ap- 
pointments under  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment, and  was  a  member  of  many  scien- 
tific and  literary  societies.  He  was  a 
strong  advocate  of  the  higher  education 
of  women,  and  was  instrumental  in  found- 
ing the  women's  "  Annex "  to  Columbia 
College,  which  afterwards  was  given  his 
name,  and  in  1900  Avas  made  a  part  of 
Columbia  University.  Among  his  works 
are  Letters  on  College  Government;  Re- 
port on  Collegiate  Education;  Art  Cult- 
ure; History  of  the  American  Coast  Sur- 
vey;   University    Education;    Undulatory 


283 


BARNARD— BAKNES 


Theory  of  Light;  Machinery  and  Process-  general  of  volunteers  in  18G1 ;  lieutenant- 

es  of  the  Industrial  Arts,  and  Apparatus  colonel  of  regulars  in  1863;  brevet  major- 

of  the  Exact  Sciences;  Metric  System  of  general  of  volunteers  in  1864;  brevet  brig- 

Weights  and  Measures.     He  died  in  New  adier-general  and  brevet  major-general  of 

York,  April  27,  1889.  regulars,    March,    1865;     and    colonel    of 

Barnard,    Henry,    educator;     born    in  the  corps  of  engineers,  regular  army,  Dec. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  Jan.  24,  1811;  was  grad-  28,  the  same  year.     During  the  vi^ar  with 


uated  at  Yale  College  in  1830;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1835,  and  elected  to  a  seat 
in  the  State  legislature  in  1837.  He  was 
twice  re-elected.  In  that  body  he  effect- 
ed a  reorganization  of  the  Connecticut 
State  school  system,  and  was  for  four 
years  secretary  of  the  board  of  school 
commissioners,  during  which  he  wrote  a 
number  of  able  reports  on  the  public 
schools.  His  first  report  (1839)  was  pro- 
nounced by  Chancellor  Kent  a  "  bold  and 
startling  document,  founded  on  the  most 
painstaking  and  critical  inquiry."  He 
edited  and  published  the  Connecticut 
School  Journal.     From    1843   to    1849   he 


Mexico  he  fortified  Tampico,  and  made 
surveys  of  the  battle-fields  around  the 
capital.  In  1850-51  he  was  chief  engineer 
of  the  projected  Tehuantepec  Railroad; 
and  in  1855-56  he  was  superintendent 
of  the  United  States  Military  Academy. 
He  was  chief  engineer  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  1861-62;  also  chief  engineer  of 
the  construction  of  the  defences  of  the  na- 
tional capital  from  September,  1862,  to 
May,  1864.  He  was  chief  engineer  of  the. 
armies  in  the  field  on  General  Grant's 
staff,  from  May,  1864,  until  Lee's  surren- 
der at  Appomattox  in  April,  1865.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  was  brevetted  ma- 


had  charge  of  the  public  schools  of  Rhode    jor  -  general,  U.  S.  A.     He  published  The 


Island,  where  he  established  a  model  sys- 
tem of  popular  education.  Dr.  Barnard 
took  great  interest  in  the  subject  of 
school-house  architecture;  and  from  1850 
to  1854  he  was  State  superintendent 
of  public  schools  of  Connecticut.  In  1855 
he  began  the  publication  of  the  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Education.    The  same  year 


Gyroscope  and  Problems  in  Rotary  Mo- 
tions, which  evince  profound  mathemati- 
cal investigation ;  also  other  works  con- 
cerning the  Civil  War  and  its  operations. 
The  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  upon 
him  by  Yale  College.  He  died  in  Detroit, 
Mich.,  May  14,   1882. 

Barnburners,   a  name  given  to  radical 


he  became  president  of  the  American  or  progressive  politicians  in  the  United 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Edu-  States,  and  opposed  to  Hunkers  (g.  v.). 
cation,  and  was  offered  the  presidency  It  was  given  to  the  anti-slavery  section  of 
of  two  State  universities.  When  the  Bu-  the  Democratic  party,  especially  in  New 
reau  of  Education  was  established  at  Y^ork,  which  separated  from  the  rest  of 
Washington,  he  was  appointed  the  first  the  Democratic  National  ConA^ention  in 
commissioner  (March,  1867).  He  resign-  1846.  They  were  opposed  to  certain  cor- 
ed this  office  in  1870.  Dr.  Barnard  wrote  porations,  and  they  desired  to  do  away 
much  and  well  on  the  subject  of  popular  with  all  corporations.  They  received  their 
education.     A    London    review,    speaking  name   from   the   story   of   the   man   whose 


of  his  work  on  National  Education  in 
Europe  (1854),  said:  "He  has  collected 
and  arranged  more  valuable  information 
and  statistics  than  can  be  found  in  any 
one    volume    in    the    English    language." 


Dr.     Barnard     received     the 

LL.D.    from    Harvard,    Yale, 

colleges.      He    died    in   Hartford,    July   5, 

1900. 

Barnard,  John  Gross,  military  engi- 
neer; born  in  .Shefiield,  Mass.,  May  19, 
1815;  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1833,  and  entered 
the  engineer  corps.  He  was  made  captain 
in  1838;  major  in  1858;  brevet  brigadier 


house  was  infested  with  rats,  and  who 
burned  it  to  the  ground  to  get  rid  of  the 
vermin.  At  about  that  time  anti-rent  out- 
rages were  committed,  such  as  burning 
barns,  etc.  The  radical  Democrats  sym- 
degree"  of  pathized  with  the  Anti-Renters,  and  the 
and  Union  Hunkers  called  them  "  barnburners."  See 
x\nti  -  Rent  Party;  Free  -  Soil  Party; 
Hunkers. 

Barnes,  James,  author;  born  in  An- 
napolis, Md.,  Sept.  19,  1866;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  College  in  1891;  author 
of  Naval  Actions  of  1812;  For  King  or 
Country;  A  Loyal  Traitor;  Midshipman 
Farragut,  etc. 


284 


BARNES— BAKNEY 


Barnes,  James,  military  officer;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  about  1809;  was  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1829,  and  resigned 
in  1836.  He  became  colonel  of  a  Massa- 
chusetts volunteer  regiment  in  1861,  and 
in  November  of  that  year  was  made  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
participating  in  its  most  exciting  opera- 
tions. He  commanded  a  division  at  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg,  and  was  severely 
wounded.  He  was  brevetted  major-general 
of  volunteers  in  March,  1865,  and  was 
mustered  out  of  the  service  Jan.  15,  1866. 
He  died  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  12, 
1869. 

Barnes,  Joseph  K.,  medical  officer ;  born 
in  Philadelphia.,  Pa.,  July  21,  1817;  was 
appointed  an  assistant  surgeon  in  the  army 
in  1840;  assigned  to  duty  in  the  office  of 
the  surgeon-general  in  1861;  became  sur- 
geon-general in  1863 ;  attended  Presidents 
Lincoln  and  Garfield;  brevetted  major- 
general  in  1865.  At  his  suggestion  the 
Army  Medical  Museum  and  the  Surgeon- 
General's  Library  were  established.  He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  April  5,  1883. 

Barney,  Joshua,  naval  officer;  born  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  July  6,  1759.  Inclined 
to  a  seafaring  life,  he  went  to  sea  in  his 
early  youth;  and  when  he  Avas  only  six- 
teen years  of  age,  an  accident  caused  the 
care  of  his  ship  to  devolve  upon  him.  He 
met  the  exigency  with  courage  and  skill. 
He  entered  the  Continental  navy,  at  its 
first  organization  in  1775,  as  master's 
mate,  in  the  sloop  Hornet,  and  joined 
Commodore  Hopkins.  In  an  action  be- 
tween the  Continental  schooner  Wasp  and 
British  brig  Tender,  in  Delaware  Bay,  be- 
fore he  was  seventeen  years  of  age,  his 
conduct  was  so  gallant  that  he  was  made 
a  lieutenant.  In  that  capacity  he  served 
in  the  Sachem  (Capt.  I.  Robinson),  and 
after  a  severe  action  with  a  British  brig, 
in  which  his  commander  was  wounded, 
young  Barney  brought  her  into  port.  Soon 
afterwards  he  was  made  a  prisoner,  but 
was  speedily  released,  and  in  the  Andrea 
Doria  he  was  engaged  in  the  defence  of 
the  Delaware  Pviver  in  1777.  He  was  again 
made  prisoner,  and  was  ^exchanged  in  Au- 
gust, 1778.  A  third  time  he  was  made 
captive  (1779),  and  after  his  exchange 
was  a  fourth  time  made  a  prisoner,  while 
serving  in  the  Saratoga,  16,  was  sent  to 
England,  and  confined  in  the  famous  Mill 

28 


prison,    from   which   he   escaped    in   May, 

1781.  He  was  retaken,  and  again  escaped, 
and    arrived    in    Philadelphia    in    March, 

1782,  where  he  took  command  of  the  Hyder 
Ali,  16,  in  which  he  captured  the  General 
Monk,  of  heavier  force  and  metal.  For 
this  exploit  the  legislature  of  Maryland 
presented  him  with  a  sword.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  engaged  in  business  on 
shore,  but  very  soon  took  to  the  sea  again. 
At  Cape  Frangois,  W.  I.,  he  received  on 
his  ship  (1792)  a  large  number  of  wom- 
en and  children  who  had  escaped  mas- 
sacre by  the  blackl  His  vessel  was  capt- 
ured by  an  English  cruiser,  but  Barney 
recaptured  her  from  the  prize  crew.  He 
was  again  captured  by  an  English  cruiser 
(1793),  and  imprisoned  as  a  pirate.  His 
ship  and  cargo  were  condemned.  In  1794 
he  went  with  Monroe  to  France,  and  bore 


^# 


f 


JOSHDA    BARNEY. 

the  American  flag  to  the  National  Con- 
vention ( see  Monroe,  James  ) .  He  was 
a  warm  partisan  of  the  French,  and  en- 
tered their  navy  as  commander  of  a  squad- 
ron, but  resigned  his  commission  in 
1802.  When  the  War  of  1812-15  broke 
out,  he  engaged  in  privateering  with  much 
success.  He  was  appointed  captain  in 
the   United    States   navy   in   April,    1814, 


BABNUM— BARRE 


and  placed  in  command  of  a  flotilla  of 
small  vessels  for  the  defence  of  the  coasts 
of  the  Chesapeake.  Driven  up  the  Patux- 
ent  by  a  British  fleet,  he  destroyed  his 
vessels,  and  with  over  500  men  he  joined 
General  Winder  in  the  defence  of  Wash- 
ington (see  Bladensburg,  Battle  at). 
Barney  was  severely  wounded  (Aug.  24, 
1814)  near  Bladensburg,  and  made  a  pris- 
oner. Too  much  hurt  to  be  removed  as  a 
prisoner,  he  was  paroled  and  sent  to 
Bladensburg,  near  by,  on  a  litter.  There 
he  was  joined  by  his  wife  and  son  and  his 
own  surgeon,  and  was  conveyed  to  his 
farm  at  Elkridge,  Md.  The  bullet  that 
gave  him  the  wound,  from  which  he  never 
fairly  recovered,  is  preserved  in  the  Navy 
Department.  The  corporation  of  Washing- 
ton voted  him  a  sword,  and  the  legislat- 
ure of  Georgia  their  thanks.  In  May, 
1815,  Barney  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Europe,  but  suffering  from  his  wound 
caused  him  to  return  in  the  fall.  Just 
as  he  was  about,  to  depart  from  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  with  his  family,  to  Kentucky, 
where  he  had  bought  land,  he  died,  Dec.  1, 
1818. 

Barnum,  Phineas  Taylor,  showman; 
born  in  Bethel,  Conn.,  July  5,  1810.  In 
1834  he  began  his  career  as  a  showman 
by  exhibiting  an  old  negress  called  Joyce 
Heth  as  the  nurse  of  George  Washington. 
He  brought  Jenny  Lind  to  America  in 
1849,  exhibited  Tom  Thumb,  etc.  He 
died  in  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  April  7,  1891. 

Barnum,  William  H.,  statesman;  born 
in  Boston  Corners,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  17,  1818; 
elected  to  the  State  legislature  in  1852; 
member  of  Congress,  1866-76;  United 
States  Senatoi',  1876-79 ;  chairman  of  the 
national  Democratic  executive  committee, 
1880  and  1884.  He  died  in  Lime  Rock, 
Conn.,  April  30,  1889. 

Barnwell,  John,  military  officer;  born 
in  Ireland,  about  1671;  in  1712,  with  a 
regiment  of  600  Carolinians  and  several 
hundred  friendly  Indians,  killed  300  of  the 
warring  Tuscaroras  in  the  first  engage- 
ment and  drove  the  survivors  into  their 
fortified  town,  where  they  were  finally  re- 
duced to  submission.  Over  1,000  of  them 
were  killed  or  captured,  and  the  remnant 
joined  the  Five  Nations  of  New  York.  He 
died  in  Beaufort,  S.  C,  in  1724. 

Barnwell,  Robert  Woodward,  states- 
man;   born  in  Beaufort,  S.   C,  Aug.    10, 


1801;  member  of  Congress,  1829-33; 
United  States  Senator,  1850-51;  commis- 
sioner from  South  Carolina  to  Washing- 
ton, December,  1860;  gave  the  casting  vote 
that  elected  Jeff'erson  Davis  President  of 
the  Confederate  States.  He  died  in  Colum- 
bia, S.  C,  Nov.  25,  1882. 

Barras,  Count  Louis  de,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Provence,  France;  was  one  of  the 
chief  officers  of  the  Marquis  de  Ternay, 
commander  of  the  French  squadron  sent 
to  aid  the  Americans  in  1781.  He  was 
designated  to  represent  the  navy  in  the 
conference  between  Washington  and  Ro- 
chambeau  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  May  23, 
1781,  but  was  unable  to  be  present  on 
account  of  the  sudden  appearance  of  the 
British  squadron  off'  Block  Island.  In 
September  following  he  effected  a  junction 
with  the  squadron  of  De  Grasse  in  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  and  the  enlarged  French  fleet 
prevented  the  British  fleet  from  going  to 
the  rescue  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  and  so  made 
certain  the  surrender  of  the  British  at 
Yorktown.     He  died  about  1800. 

Barre,  Antoine  le  Fevre  de  la, 
French  general  and  author;  born  about 
1605;  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of 
the  army  in  1667,  and  sent  against  the 
English  in  the  West  Indies.  After  a  suc- 
cessful campaign  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Canada  in  1682,  and  held  the 
office  for  three  years.  In  1684  he  pre- 
pared for  an  expedition  from  Canada  to 
the  country  of  the  Five  Nations  (g.  v.). 
His  forces  consisted  of  700  Canadians,  130 
regular  soldiers,  and  200  Indians.  De- 
tained by  an  epidemic  disease  among  the 
French  soldiers  at  Fort  Frontenac  for  six 
weeks,  he  was  compelled  to  conclude  the 
campaign  with  a  treatj^  He  crossed  Lake 
Ontario  for  that  purpose,  and  at  a  desig- 
nated place  was  met  by  Oneidas,  Onon- 
dagas,  and  Cayugas,  the  Mohawks  and 
Seneeas  refusing  to  attend.  Barre  as- 
sumed much  dignity.  Seated  on  a  chair 
of  state,  with  his  French  and  Indian 
officers  forming  a  circle  around  him,  he 
addressed  himself  to  Garangula,  the 
Onondaga  chief,  in  a  very  haughty  speech, 
which  he  concluded  with  a  threat  of  burn- 
ing the  castles  of  the  Five  Nations  and 
destroying  the  Indians  themselves  unless 
the  satisfaction  which  he  demanded  was 
given.  To  this  address  Garangula  made 
a    cool    but   bold   and   decisive   speech   in 


286 


BARRE— BARRON 


reply.  It  made  the  haughty  Barre  very 
angry,  and  he  retired  to  his  tent,  where, 
after  deliberation,  he  prudently  suspend- 
ed his  menaces.  A  treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded;  and  two  days  afterwards 
Barre  and  his  retinue  departed  for 
Canada.    He  died  in  Paris,  May  4,  1688. 

Barre,  Isaac,  military  officer;  born  in 
Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1726.  His  parents 
were  French,  his  father  being  a  small 
tradesman  in  Dublin.  Isaac  entered  the 
British  army  at  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
and  participated  in  the  expedition  against 


ISAAC   BARRE 

Louisburg  in  1758.  Wolfe  was  his  friend, 
and  appointed  him  major  of  brigade ;  and 
in  May,  1759,  he  was  made  adjutant-gen- 
eral of  Wolfe's  army  that  assailed  Que- 
bec. He  was  severely  wounded  in  the  bat- 
tle on  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  by  which  he 
lost  the  sight  of  one  eye.  Barre  served 
under  Amherst  in  1760;  and  was  the  offi- 
cial bearer  of  the  news  of  the  surrender 
of  Montreal  to  England.  In  1761  he  was 
promoted  to  lieutenant-colonel,  and  the 
same  year  he  obtained  a  seat  in  Parlia- 
ment, where  he  found  himself  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  ministry.  For  this  offence  he 
was  deprived  of  his  offices,  given  him  as 
a  reward  for  his  services  in  America.  He 
was  the  warm  friend  of  the  colonies,  and 
made  able  speeches  in  Parliament  in  their 


favor.  Barre  was  one  of  the  supposed 
authors  of  the  Letters  of  Junius.  Strong 
in  person,  vigorous  in  mind,  independent 
in  thought  and  action,  he  was  a  dreaded 
opponent.  During  the  last  twenty  years 
of  his  life  he  was  blind.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, July  20,  1802. 

Barren  Hill,  near  Valley  Forge,  Pa. 
General  Washington  detached  General 
Lafayette,  May  18,  1778,  with  about  2,100 
men,  to  watch  the  British.  He  occupied 
Barren  Hill,  where  he  was  approached  by 
about  5,000  British  troops  on  May  20, 
intending  a  surprise.  Lafayette,  assuming 
to  be  preparing  to  meet  the  attack,  skil- 
fully passed  the  enemy,  retreated  across 
the  Schuylkill,  and  occupied  a  strong  posi- 
tion, whereupon  the  British  retired. 

Barrett,  John,  diplomatist;  born  in 
Grafton,  Vt.,  Nov.  28,  1866;  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  1889,  and  en- 
gaged in  journalism.  He  was  minister 
to  Siam  in  1894-98,  and  represented  sev- 
eral United  States  newspapers  during  the 
Philippine  campaign  in  1898. 

Barriger,  John  Walker,  military  of- 
ficer; born  in  Shelby  county,  Ky.,  July 
9,  1832;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1856; 
brevet  captain  for  services  at  Bull  Run; 
served  in  the  commissary  department. 
He  wrote  the  legislative  history  of  the 
subsistence  department  of  the  United 
States  army,  1876. 

Barron,  James,  naval  officer;  boi-n  in 
Virginia  in  1769.  On  the  formation  of 
the  United  States  navy  in  1798,  Barron 
(who  had  begun  his  naval  career  under 
his  father,  commander  of  the  Virginia 
navy  during  the  Revolutionary  War) 
was  made  a  lieutenant,  and  served  under 
Barry  in  the  brief  naval  war  with  France. 
In  1799  he  was  made  a  captain  and  sent 
to  the  Mediterranean,  under  the  command 
of  his  elder  brother.  Com.  Samuel  Barron, 
one  of  the  best  disciplinarians  in  the  ser- 
vice. James  was  in  command  of  the 
frigate  Chesapeake  in  1807,  and  surren- 
dered her  to  the  Leopard,  a  British  ship- 
of-war,  for  which  he  was  court-martialled 
and  sentenced  to  be  suspended  from  ser- 
vice for  five  years  without  pay  or  emolu- 
ments. During  that  suspension  he  en- 
tered the  merchant  service,  and  remained 
abroad  until  1818,  when  an  attempt  was 
made  to  restore  him  to  duty  in  the  naval 
service.      Commodore   Decatur   and   other 


287 


BARRON— BAEEY 


officers   resisted  this,   and  a   bitter   corre 
spondence  between  Barron  and  Decatur  en 


JAMES    BARRON. 


born  in  Medina,  Mich.,  July  11,  1847; 
was  graduated  at  Olivet  College,  Mich., 
in  1867,  and  studied  at  Yale,  Union,  and 
Andover  theological  seminaries,  and  at 
Gottingen,  Germany.  After  two  short 
pastorates  in  Lawrence  and  Boston,  Mass., 
he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church,  Chicago,  and  remained  there  more 
than  fourteen  years.  In  1893  he  organized 
and  was  the  president  of  the  World's  Par- 
liament of  Religions.  In  1896  he  resigned 
his  Chicago  pastorate  and  went  to  India> 
where  he  lectured  in  an  institution  en- 
dowed by  Mrs.  Caroline  E.  Haskell.  Re- 
turning to  the  United  States,  he  lectured 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in 
1898,  and  in  November  of  that  year  be- 
came president  of  Oberlin  College.  He 
is  author  of  History  of  the  Parliament  of 
Religions ;.  Life  of  Henry  Ward'  Beecher; 
Christianity  the  World  Religion;  The 
World  Pilgrimage,  etc. 

Barry,  John,  naval  officer;  born 
in  Tacumshane,  Wexford  co.,  Ireland,  in 
1745.  He  went  to  sea  while  he  was  very 
young,  became  the  commander  of  a  ship, 
and  gained  considerable  wealth.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1776,  he  was  appointed  by  Con- 
gress to  command  the  Lexington,  fourteen 

sued.     Barron    challenged    his    antagonist    guns,  which,  after  a  sharp  action,  captured 

to  fight  a  duel.     They  met  near  Bladens-    the    tender    Edioard.     This   was   the   first 

burg   (March  22,  1820),  and  Decatur  was 

mortally  wounded.      Barron  was   severely 

hurt,  but  recovered  after  several  months 

of  suffering.     During  the  latter  years  of 

his    long    life    Barron    held    several    im- 
portant commands  on  shore.     He  became 

senior   officer    of   the   navy   in    1839,    and 

died  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  April  21,  1851. 
Barron,     Samuel,    naval    officer;     was 

born  in  Hampton,  Va.,  about  1763;  broth- 
er of  James.     He,  like  his  brother,  had  a 

training    in    the   navy    under    his    father. 

In  1798  he  commanded  the  Augusta,  pre- 
pared by  the  citizens  of  Norfolk  to  resist 

the  aggressions  of  the  French.     He  took  a 

conspicuous  part  in  the  war  with  Tripoli, 

and   in    1805   he   commanded   a    squadron 

of  ten  vessels,  with  the  President  as  the 

flag-ship.  He  assisted  in  the  capture  of  the 

Tripolitan  town  of  Derng,  April  27,  1805. 

Barron   soon   afterwards   relinquished   his 

command    to    Capt.    John    Rodgers,    and 

on     account    of    ill  -  health    returned     to 

the  United  States.     He  died  Oct.  29,  1810.    vessel    captured    by    a    commissioned    offi- 
Barrows,     John     Henry,     clergyman;    cer    of    the    United    States    navy.     Barry 

288 


JOHN    BARRY. 


BABBY— BARTHOLDI 


COMMODORE  BARRy'S  MONPMENT. 


was  transferred  to  the  frigate  Effingham ;  navy  in  1794,  Barry  was  named  the  sen- 
and  in  the  Delaware,  at  the  head  of  four  ior  officer.  He  superintended  the  build- 
boats,   he   captured   an   English   schooner,    ing  of  the  frigate   United  States,  to  the 

command  of  which  he  was  assigned,  but 
never  entered  upon  the  duty.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Sept.   13,  1803. 

Bartholdi,  FREbEPjc  Auguste,  French 
sculptor;  born  in  Colmar,  Alsace,  April 
2,  1834;  received  the  Cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  in  1865,  and  is  best  known  in  the 
United  States  by  his  colossal  statue  in 
New  York  Harbor,  entitled  Liberty  En- 
lightening the  World.  His  other  works  in- 
clude a  statue  of  Lafayette  in  Union 
Square,  New  York,  and  a  bronze  group  of 
Lafayette  and  Washington,  presented  by 
American  citizens  to  the  city  of  Paris, 
and  unveiled  Dec.  1,  1895. 

Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  re- 
public of  France,  in  1870,  a  movement  was 
inaugurated  in  that  country  for  the  pres- 
entation to  the  United  States  of  some 
suitable  memorial  to  testify  to  the  fra- 
in  1777,  without  the  loss  of  a  man.  He  ternal  feeling  existing  between  the  two 
was  publicly  thanked  by  Washington,  countries.  In  1874  an  association,  known 
When  Howe  took  Philadelphia,  late  in  as  the  French- American  Union,  was  form- 
1777,  Barry  took  the  Effing- 
ham up  the  Delaware  with 
the  hope  of  saving  her,  but 
she  was  burned  by  the  Brit- 
ish. Howe  had  offered  him 
a  large  bribe  if  he  would 
deliver  the  ship  to  him  at 
Philadelphia,  but  it  was 
scornfully  rejected.  Barry 
took  command  of  the  Ra- 
leigh, 32,  in  September,  1778, 
but  British  cruisers  com- 
pelled him  to  run  her  ashore 
in  Penobscot  Bay.  In  the 
frigate  Alliance,  in  1781,  he 
sailed  for  France  with  Col. 
John  Laurens,  who  was  sent 
on  a  special  mission;  and 
afterwards  he  cruised  suc- 
cessfully with  that  ship. 
At  the  close  of  May  he  capt- 
ured the  Atlanta  and  Ti^es- 
pass,  after  a  severe  fight. 
Returning  in  October,  the 
Alliance  was  refitted,  and, 
after  taking  Lafayette  and 
the    Count    de    Noailles    to 

France,  Barry  cruised  in  the  West  Indies    ed  for  the  furtherance  of  this  object,  and 
very  successfully  until  May,  1782.     After    most  of  the  foremost  men  of  France  lent 
the   reorganization   of   the   United   States    it  their   aid.     It   was   decided   to   present 
I.— T  289 


FREDERIC  AUGUSTE  BARTHOLDI. 


BABTHOLDI 


to  the  United  States  a  colossal  statue  of 
Liberty  Enlightening  the  World,  and  more 
than  1,000,000  francs  were  raised  by  popu- 
lar subscription  for  that  purpose.  Of  the 
various  models  submitted  to 
the  committee  having  the  mat- 
ter in  charge,  tliat  of  M.  Bar- 
tholdi  was  selected  as  the  best, 
and  the  statue  was  construct- 
ed by  him. 

It  is  the  largest  statue  ever 
made,  and  the  most  conspicu- 
ous example  of  repousse  work 
—that  is,  thin  sheets  of  ham- 
mered brass  laid  over  a  frame- 


in  sections,  OA^er  a  wooden  frame-work. 
The  most  accurate  measurements  were 
necessary  in  making  these  statues  in  order 
to  preserve  accurate  proportions.  Then 
came  the  work  of  copying  the 
full-size  statue  in  wooden  mod- 
els. These  were  all  carefully 
made  by  hand,  each  piece  ex- 
actly fitting  every  curve  or  ir- 
regularity of  surface  in  some 
part  of  the  figure.  Into  these 
moulds  the  sheets  of  brass  were 
laid  and  beaten  down  until  they 
exactly  fitted  them.  There  were 
300  sheets  of  brass  used,  each 


'^=:d^^^^'&^ 


BARTHOLDl'S    STATUE    OP   LIBERTY   IN   NEW   YORK    HARBOR. 


work    of    iron.     First,    a    life  -  size    clay  from    one    to    three    yards    square,    and 

statue   after   the   design   was   made,   then  weighing  in  all  88  tons.     These  form  the 

three    plaster    statues,    the    first    one-six-  outside    of    the    statue.     When    this    was 

teenth,    the    second    one  -  fourth    the    size  complete,    the   iron   frame  -  work   or    skel- 

of    the    complete    work,    and    the    third  eton    was    formed    on    which    the    outer 

its   full   size,   the  last-named   being  made  copper  shell  could  be  fastened.     The  right 

290 


BARTLETT 


hand  and  torch  of  this  remarkable  statue  elaborate  scientific  observations;  but, 
were  shown  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  owing  to  a  failure  of  Congress  to  make 
at  Philadelphia  in  1876.  The  head  was  the  necessary  appropriations,  he  did  not 
shown  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1879.  complete  his  work.     He  published  a  per- 

On  July  4,  1880,  the  statue  was  formal-  sonal  narrative  of  his  experience  in  that 
ly  delivered  to  the  United  States  through  region  in  1854.  In  May,  1855,  he  was 
its  representative,  the  American  minis-  chosen  secretary  of  state  of  Rhode  Isl- 
ter  at  Paris.  Bedloe's  Island,  in  New  and,  which  post  he  held  until  1872,  a 
York  Harbor,  but  lying  within  the  boun-  period  of  seventeen  years.  He  edited  and 
daries  of  New  Jersey,  was  selected  by  published  the  Records  of  the  Colony  of 
the  government  as  a  suitable  place  for  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations, 
its  erection,  and  money  was  raised  in  10  volumes;  also  an  Index  to  the  Acts 
by  means  of  subscriptions,  concerts,  etc.,  and  Resolves  of  the  General  Assembly  of 
to  build  a  pedestal  for  it  to  rest  upon.  Rhode  Island  from  1758  to  1862.  In  1847 
On  Oct.  28,  1886,  the  statue  was  unveiled  Mr.  Bartlett  published  a  little  volume  on 
in  the  presence  of  distinguished  represent-  the  Progress  of  Ethnology;  and  in  1848  a 
atives  of  France  and  the  United  States,  Dictionary  of  Americanism,s,  since  revised 
and  was  formally  dedicated  with  imposing  and  enlarged.  He  also  published  a  Bihli- 
ceremonies.  The  statue  represents  the  ography  of  Rhode  Island;  Literature  of 
Goddess  of  Liberty  holding  aloft  a  torch  the  Rebellion;  Memoirs  of  Rhode  Island 
with  which  she  enlightens  the  world.  Me7i;  Primeval  Man,  and  several  other 
The  height  of  the  statue  from  the  base  works.  He  died  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  May 
to  the  torch  is  151  feet  1  inch.     From  the    28,  1886. 

foundation  of  the  pedestal  to  the  torch  Bartlett,  JosiAii,  a  signer  of  the  Dec- 
it  is  305  feet  6  inches.  The  figure  weighs  laration  of  Independence;  born  in  Ames- 
450,000  pounds,  or  225  tons,  and  con-  bury,  Mass.,  Nov.  21,  1729;  educated  in 
tains  100  tons  of  bronze.  Forty  persons  a  common  school  and  taught  the  science 
can  stand  comfortably  in  the  head,  and  of  medicine  by  a  practitioner  in  his  native 
the  torch  will  hold  twelve  people.  town,  he  began  practice  in  Kingston,  N.  H., 

Bartlett,  John,  author;  born  in  Plym-  in  1750,  and  soon  became  eminent.  He 
outh,  Mass.,  June  14,  1820;  became  a  pub-  was  a  member  of  the  New  Hampshire 
lisher  in  Cambridge.  In  1862-63  he  was  legislature  from  1765  until  the  break- 
a  volunteer  paymaster  in  the  United  ing  out  of  the  War  of  the  Revolution.  In 
States  navy.  He  is  best  known  for  his  1770  he  was  appointed  by  the  royal  gov- 
Familiar  Quotations;  The  Shakspeare  In-  ernor  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  militia, 
dex;  and  The  Complete  Concordance  to  but  on  account  of  his  patriotic  tendencies 
Shakspeare.  he  was  deprived  of  the  office  in  1775.     He 

Bartlett,  John  Rtjssell,  author;  born  was  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct.  23,  1805.  He  safety,  upon  whom  for  a  time  devolved 
was  for  six  years  cashier  of  the  Globe  the  whole  executive  power  of  the  govern- 
Bank  in  Providence,  and  an  active  mem-  ment  of  the  State.  A  delegate  to  Congress 
ber  of  the  Franklin  Society  for  the  Cul-  in  1775-76.  he  was  the  first  to  give  his 
tivation  of  Science.  He  was  also  one  vote  for  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
of  the  projectors  of  the  Athenaeum  in  and  its  first  signer  after  the  President 
Providence,  and  for  some  time  correspond-  of  Congress.  He  was  with  Stark  in  the 
ing  secretary  of  the  New  York  Historical  Bennington  campaism  (see  Bennington, 
Society.  Mr.  Bartlett  was  associated  with  Battle  of),  in  1777,  as  agent  of  the 
Albert  Gallatin  as  a  projector  and  founder  State  to  provide  medicine  and  other  neces- 
of  the  American  Ethnological  Society.  In  saries  for  the  New  Hampshire  troops.  In 
1850  he  was  appointed  by  President  Tay-  Congress  again  in  1778,  he  was  active  in 
lor  a  commissioner,  under  the  treaty  of  committee  duties:  and  in  1779  he  was 
peace  with  Mexico  in  1848,  to  settle  the  appointed  chief-justice  of  the  Common 
boundary  -  line  between  that  coimtry  and  Pleas  in  his  State.  In  1782  he  was  a 
the  United  States.  He  was  engaged  in  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  New 
that  service  until  Jan.  7,  1853,  making  Hampshire,  and  chief- justice  in  1788. 
extensive  surveys  and  explorations,  with    Judge   Bartlett   retired    from    public    life 

291 


BARTLETT— BABTON 


in  1794,  on  account  of  feeble  health,  hav- 
ing been  president  of  the  State  from  1790 
to  1793,  and,  under  the  new  constitution, 
governor  in  1793.  He  was  the  chief 
founder  and  the  president  of  the  New 
Hampshire  Medical  Society,  and  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  M.D.  from  Dart- 
mouth College.     He  died  May  19,  1795. 

Bartlett,  William  Francis,  military 
officer;  born  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Jan.  6, 
1840;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1862. 
He  entered  the  volunteer  army  as  cap- 
tain in  the  summer  of  1861;  was  engaged 
in  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff  (q.  v.), 
and  lost  a  leg  in  the  siege  of  Yorktown  in 
1862.  He  was  made  colonel  of  a  Massa- 
chusetts regiment  in  November,  1862,  and 
took  part  in  the  capture  of  Port  Hudson 
in  1863.  In  the  siege  of  Petersburg 
(1864)  he  commanded  a  division  of  the 
Gth  Corps,  and  at  the  explosion  of  the 
mine  there  he  was  made  prisoner,  but 
exchanged  in  September.  In  1865  he  was 
brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  died  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Dec.  17, 
1876. 

Barton,  Clara,  philanthropist;  born 
in  Oxford,  Mass.,  in  1830;  was  educated 
in  Clinton,  N.  Y.  Her  early  life  was  de- 
voted to  teaching.  In  1854  she  became  a 
clerk  in  the  Patent  Office  in  Washington, 
resigning    in    1861,    and    undertaking    the 


CLARA  BARTON. 


nursing  of  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  of 
the  army.  In  1864  General  Butler  made 
her  head  nurse  of  the  hospitals  in  the 
i^rmv  of  the  James.     Later  she  was  given 


cliarge  by  President  Lincoln  of  the  search 
organized  to  find  missing  Union  soldiers, 
and  in  1865  went  to  Andersonville  to 
Kiark  the  graves  of  Northern  soldiers  who 
had  died  there.  When  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War  broke  out  (1870),  she  assisted 
in  preparing  military  hospitals,  and  also 
aided '  the  Red  Cross  Society.  In  1871, 
after  the  siege  of  Strasburg,  she  superin- 
tended, by  request  of  the  authorities,  the 
distribution  of  work  to  the  poor,  and  in 
1872  performed  a  similar  work  in  Paris. 
For  her  services  she  was  decorated  with 
the  Golden  Cross  of  Baden  and  the  Iron 
Cross  of  Germany.  In  1881,  when  the 
American  Red  Cross  Society  was  formed, 
she  was  made  its  president,  and  as  such 
in  1884  directed  the  measures  to  aid  the 
sufferers  by  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio 
floods.  In  1883  she  was  made  the  super- 
intendent, steward,  and  treasurer  of  the 
Reformatory  Prison  for  Women,  at  Sher- 
born,  Mass.,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
special  commissioner  of  foreign  exhibits 
at  the  New  Orleans  Exposition.  In  1884 
she  was  a  delegate  of  the  United  States 
to  the  Red  Cross  Conference,  and  also  to 
the  International  Peace  Conference,  both 
held  in  Geneva,  Switzerland.  In  1889  she 
directed  the  movements  for  the  relief  of 
the  sufferers  by  the  flood  at  Johnstown, 
Pa.,  and  in  1896  went  to  Armenia 
and  personally  managed  the  relief 
measures.  Prior  to  the  war  with  Spain 
she  carried  supplies  to  the  reconcentrados 
of  Cuba,  at  the  request  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley,  and  was  also  active  during  the 
war  in  army  relief  work.  In  1900, 
after  the  Galveston  disaster,  she  directed 
the  movement  for  the  relief  of  the  suf- 
ferers, till  her  health  failed.  She  is  au- 
thor of  History  of  the  Red  Gross;  and 
History  of  the  Red  Cross  in  Peace  and 
War. 

Barton,  William,  military  officer;  bom 
in  Warren,  R.  I.,  May  26,  1748.  Holding 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Rhode 
Island  militia,  he,  with  a  small  party, 
crossed  Narraganset  Bay  in  the  night 
(July  10,  1777)  and  seized  and  carried 
away  the  British  General  Prescott  (see 
Prescott,  Richard).  For  this  service 
Congress  gave  him  a  sword  and  a  com- 
mission of  colonel  in  the  Continental 
army.  He  was  wounded  at  Bristol  Ferry 
in  August,   1778,  and  was  disabled  from 


292 


BARTRAM— BATANGAS 


further    service    in    the    war.     He    was    a 
member   of   the   Rhode   Island   convention 


WILLIAM    BARTON. 

which  finally  adopted  the  national  Con- 
stitution. He  died  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
Oct.  22,  1831. 

Bartram,  .  William,  naturalist;  born 
in  Kingsessing,  Pa.,  Feb.  9,  1739.  He  en- 
gaged in  business  in  North  Carolina  in 
1761,  and  became  a  devoted  student  of  nat- 
ural history.  Son  of  John  Bartram,  a  dis- 
tinguished botanist,  and  the  founder  of  the 
first  botanical  garden  in  the  United  States, 
William  accompanied  his  father,  when  the 
latter  was  seventy  years  of  age,  in  a 
botanical  excursion  and  exploration  of 
east  Florida,  and  resided  some  time  on 
the  banks  of  the  St.  John  River,  returning 
home  in  1771.  He  was  employed  by  Dr. 
Fothergill,  of  London,  in  1773-78,  in  bo- 
tanical explorations  and  collections  in 
Florida,  Georgia,  and  South  Carolina.  Mr. 
Bartram  was  a  member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  and  other  scientific 
associations  in  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  In  1790  he  published  an  account 
of  his  travels  in  the  Gulf  region,  in  which 
he  gave  an  account  of  the  Creek,  Choctaw, 
and  Cherokee  Indians.  Mr.  Bartram  made 
the  most  complete  table  of  American 
ornithology  previous  to  the  work  of  Wil- 
son, and  to  him  we  are  indebted  for  a 
knowledge  of  many  curious  and  beautiful 


plants  peculiar  to  North  America.  He  died 
in  Kingsessing,  Pa.,  July  22,  1823. 

Bassett,  John  Spencer,  educator;  born 
in  Tarboro,  X.  C,  Sept.  10,  1867;  gradu- 
ated at  Trinity  College,  N.  C,  in  1888,  and 
was  Professor  of  History  in  Trinity  Col- 
lege in  1900.  He  is  author  of  Constitutional 
Beginnings  of  North  Carolina;  Slavery  and 
Servitude  in  Colony  of  North  Carolina; 
Anti  -  Slavery  Leaders  of  North  Caro- 
lina; Slavery  in  the  State  of  North  Caro- 
lina; The  War  of  the  Regulation,  etc. 

Bastidas,  RoDPaouEZ  de,  explorer;  born 
about  1460.  With  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  he 
sailed  towards  the  Western  Continent 
with  two  ships  in  1502,  and  discovered  the 
coast  of  South  America  from  Cape  de  Vela 
to  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  Ojeda,  with  Amer- 
icus  Vespucius,  went  in  the  same  course 
soon  afterwards,  ignorant  of  this  expedi- 
tion of  Bastidas,  touched  at  the  same 
places,  and  proceeded  to  Hispaniola,  or 
Santo  Domingo.  He  founded  the  city  of 
St.  Martha,  in  New  Grenada;  was  wound- 
ed in  an  uprising  of  his  people;  and  died 
soon  afterwards  in  Santo  Domingo, 
whither  he  had  fled. 

Batane,  or  Bashi,  Islands,  a  group  of 
islands  directly  north  of  the  Philippine 
Archipelago,  midway  between  the  Bashi 
and  Balintang  channels  and  a  little  to 
the  southeast  of  the  island  of  Formosa. 
They  have  an  estimated  area  of  125  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  about  9,500. 
The  principal  islands  in  the  group  are 
Mabudis,  Ibayat,  Batan,  Saptan,  and 
Balintang,  and  the  principal  towns  are 
Santo  Domingo  de  Basco,  San  Bartoloftie 
de  Calayan,  San  Carlos  de  Marigatao,  San 
Jose  de  Ibana,  Santa  Maria  de  Mayan, 
and  San  Vincente  de  Saptan.  In  March, 
1900,  the  United  States  authorities  estab- 
lished a  government  over  these  islands, 
and  the  neighboring  Calayan  Islands,  un- 
der the  direction  of  Teofilo  Costillejo,  a 
Filipino,  who  had  aided  the  American  au- 
thorities in  their  operations  on  Luzon. 

Batang'as,  a  province  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pine Islands,  bordering  on  San  Bernardino 
Strait,  and  north  of  the  island  of  Min- 
doro;  also  the  name  of  its  capital  city. 
The  province  is  naturally  one  of  the  rich- 
est sugar-growing  districts  in  the  Philip- 
pines, and  has  also  a  large  production  of 
cocoanut  oil.  Prior  to  the  war  between 
the  United  States  and  Spain,  in  1898,  the 


293 


BATCHELDER— BATTLES 


city  was  the  seat  of  large  commerce,  and  and  afterwards  became  the  senior  partner 

had    a    population    of    over    35,000.      The  of    the    firm    of    Baring    Brothers    &    Co. 

region    gives    i^romise    of    large    economic  In  1854  he  was  appointed  umpire  between 

returns    on    the    application    of    modern  the   British   and   American   commissioners 

methods  of  cultivation.  in  the  adjustment  of  claims  between  citi- 

Batchelder,   Riciiakd  N.,  military  offi-  zens    of    Great    Britain    and    the    United 

cer;  born  in  Lake  Village,  N.  H.,  July  27,  States  growing  out  of  the  War  of   1812. 

1832;  entered  the  volunteer  army  in  1861;  In   1852  Mr.  Bates  offered  $50,000  to  the 

served   through   the   Civil   War,   and   was  city  of  Boston  for  the  establishment  of  a 

awarded  a  Congressional  medal  of  honor  free   public   library,   and   afterwards   gave 

for  distinguished  gallantry  in  action;   en-  the  library  some  30,000  volumes.     He  died 

tered  the  regular  army  at  the  close  of  the  in  London,  England,  Sept.  24,  1864. 
war;    became    brigadier-general    in    1890,        Bates,    Samuel    Penniman,    historian; 

and    was    retired    in    1896.      He    died    in  born    in   Meriden,   Mass.,    Jan.    29,    1827; 

Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  4,  1901.  was    State   historian   of    Pennsylvania   in 

Bates,  Edward,  statesman;  born  in  Bel-  1866-73;  and  published  Lives  of  the  Gov- 

mont,   Va.,    Sept.   4,    1793;    served   in   the  ernors  of  Pennsylvania,  and  several  works 

Virginia  militia  in  1813;  removed  to  Mis-  on  the  Civil  War. 

souri  in  1814;  and  began  practising  law  in        Baton  Rouge,   Battle  at.     See  Port 

1816.     He  was  a  prominent  anti  -  slavery  Hudson;  Williams,  Thomas. 
man,  and  during  the  National  Republican        Battle,  Kemp  Plummer,  educator;  born 

Convention  of  1860  he  received  48  votes  on  in  Franklin  county,  N.  C,  Dec.  19,  1831 ; 

the  first  ballot  for  President.    Mr.  Lincoln  graduated    at    the    University    of    North 

after    his    election    appointed    Mr.    Bates  Carolina  in  1849;  member  of  the  Confed- 

Attorney-General.      He   resigned    in    1864,  erate  Convention  of  that  State  in   1861; 

and   returned   to   his   home   in   St.   Louis,  State  treasurer  in  1866-68;  was  president 

where  he  died,  March  25,  1869.  of   the   University   of   North    Carolina   in 

Bates,  John  Coalter,  military  officer;  1876-91;  then  resigned  to  become  Pro- 
born  in  St.  Charles  county.  Mo.,  Aug.  26,  fessor  of  History  in  the  same  institution. 
1842;  educated  at  Washington  University  He  is  author  of  History  of  the  Supreme 
(St.  Louis).  He  entered  the  army  in  Court  of  North  Carolina;  History  of  Ra- 
1861,  and  served  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  leigh,  North  Carolina;  Trials  and  Judicial 
George  G.  Meade  from  the  battle  of  Proceedings  of  the  Neio  Testament ;  Life 
Gettysburg  to  the  close  of  the  war.  In  of  General  Jethro  Sumner,  etc. 
1863-82  he  held  the  rank  of  captain;  Battle  Above  the  Clouds.  See  LooK- 
in  1882-86  that  of  lieutenant  -  colonel ;  out  Mountain,  Battle  of. 
in  1886-92  that  of  colonel.  He  was  presi-  Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic.  See 
dent  of  the  board  which  devised  the  pres-  Howe,  Julia  Ward. 

ent    drill    and    firing    regulations,    and    a        Battle  of  the  Kegs.     See  Hopkinson, 

member  of  the  board  which  adopted   the  Francis. 

Krag  -  Jorgensen   rifle.      At   the   outbreak        Battles.     The  principal  battles  in  which 

of  the  Spanish- American  War  he  was  com-  the  people  of  the  United  States  have  been 

missioned    a    brigadier-general    of    volun-  engaged,  as  colonists  and  as  a  nation,  are 

teers,  and  for  the  Santiago  campaign  was  as  follows: 
promoted  major-general.     In  1899  he  was 
appointed  military  governor  of  Cienfuegos,  french  and  indian   wah. 

Cuba.     On  the  reorganization  of  the  regu-  Great  Meadows May    28,  1754 

,  ._,,*'  ■■r./M     -u  Fort  Necessity   July      4, 

lar   army  m   February,    1901,   he  was   ap-  port  Beau  Sejour June   16,  1755 

pointed  one  of  the  new  brigadier-generals.  Fort  Gaspereaux June    17,     " 

Bates,  Joshua,  financier;  born  in  Wey-  Monongahela  July      9,     " 

,,      -.^  .      T^oo  J.   X      -n      ^     'a  Bloody       Pond       (near       Lake 

mouth,  Mass.,  m   1788;   went  to  England        Georee)  Sept      8      " 

as  the  agent  of  William  Gray  &  Son,  Bos-  Head  of  Lake  George Sept.     8^     " 

ton,   and  was  thrown  into  intimate  rela-  Oswego   Aug.    14,  1756 

tions  with  the  Hopes.  Barings,  and  other  ^ort  William  Henry July      6,  1757 

.   ,   •"  ^  "^    r.r^^   1  Near  Ticonderoga   July      6,   1758 

great   commercial   firms.      In    1826   he   en-  Ticonderoga    July      8,     " 

tered  into  partnership  with  John  Baring.  Louisburg  July    26,     " 

294 


BATTLES 


Fort  Frontenac Aug.  27, 

Alleghany    Mountains    Sept.  21, 

Fort  Niagara July  25, 

Montmorenci   July  31, 

Plains   of    Abraham Sept.  13, 

Sillery April  28, 

EEVOLUTIONAKY    WAR. 

Lexington April  19, 

Bunker  (Breed's)  Hill June  17, 

Near    Montreal     (Ethan    Allen 

captured)    Sept.  25, 

St.  John's   (Siege  and  Capture 

of)    Oct.  and  Nov. 

Great  Bridge   Dec.  9 

Quebec   Dec.  81 

Moore's   Creek   Bridge Feb.  27 

Boston   (Evacuation  of) Mar.  17 

Cedar  Rapids May  9 

Three  Rivers June  8 

Fort  Sullivan  (Charleston  Har- 
bor)      June  28 

Long  Island Aug.  27 

Harlem   Plains    Sept.  16 

White  Plains Oct.  28 

Fort  Washington   Nov.  16 

Trenton Dec.  26 

Princeton    Jan.  3 

Hubbardton   July  7 

Oriskany    Aug.  6 

Bennington    Aug.  16 

Brandy  wine    Sept.  11 

Bemis's    Heights    (first),    Sept. 

19;    (second)    Oct.  7 

Paoli    Sept.  20 

Germantown   Oct.  4 

Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery. Oct.  6 

Fort  Mercer Oct.  22 

Fort  Mifflin Nov.  16 

Monmouth   June  28 

Wyoming    July  4 

Quaker  Hill   (R.  I.) Aug.  29 

Savannah    Dec.  29 

Kettle  Creek    Feb.  14 

Brier  Creek    Mar.  3 

Stono  Ferry June  20 

Stony  Point   July  16 

Paulus's    Hook    Aug.  19 

Chemung  (near  Elmira,  N.  Y.).Aug.  29 

Savannah Oct.  9 

Charleston     (Siege     and     Sur- 
render of)    May  12 

Springfield  (N.  J.) June  23 

Rocky  Mount    (N.   C.) July  30 

Hanging  Rock  (N.  C.) Aug.  6 

Sander's  Creek    (near  Camden, 

S.  C.)    Aug.  16 

King's  Mountain    (S.   C.) Oct.  7 

Fish  Dam  Ford Nov.  18 

Blackstocks   Nov.  20 

Cowpens   Jan.  17 

Guilford    Mar.  15 

Hobkirk's   Hill    April  25 

Ninety-six   (Siege  of) May  and  June 

Augusta  (Siege  of) May  and  June 

Jamestown    July  9, 

Eutaw  Springs Sept.  8, 

Yorktown  (Siege  of) Sept.  and  Oct. 

NAVAL     ENGAGEMENTS. 

Hampton,     Va.     (British    fleet 

repulsed)    Oct.     24, 


1758  Fort  Sullivan,  Charleston  Har- 

"             bor   (British  fleet  repulsed)  .June  28,  1776 

1759  Fort  Stony  Point,  on  the  Hud- 
"  son      (captured     by     British 

fleet)    May  31,  1779 

1760  Verplanck's  Point,  on  the  Hud- 

son     (captured     by     British 

fleet)    June  1,  " 

1775  British  fleet  and  American 
flotilla  of  thirty-seven  ves- 
sels on  Penobscot  River  (lat- 
ter   destroyed)     Aug.  13,  " 

Bon  Homme  Richard   and   the 
Alliance  against  the  Serapis 

"  (off  coast  of  England) Sept.  23  " 

"^       American     fleet    captured     the 
'i-TiQ         Scarborough     (off    coast    of 

[[  England)    Sept.  23  " 

French    fleet    attacked    Savan- 
nah   (forced   by    the    British 

to  withdraw)   Oct.  9,  " 

"  WAK  WITH  THE  INDIANS. 

u         Miami  River Oct.  19  and  22,  1790 

St.  Clair's  Defeat Nov.  4,  1791 

Fort  St.  Clair   Nov.  6,  1792 

,_„_    Near  Fort  St.  Clair Oct.  17,  1793 

;.'       Fort  Recovery   June  30,  1794 

„         Maumee    Rapids    (Fallen    Tim- 
ber)     Aug.  20,  " 

,.         Tippecanoe Nov.  7,  1811 

„  WAK    OF    1812-15. 

Fort  Mackinaw    July  17,1812 

"        Brownstown Aug.  4,  " 

"        Maguaga Aug.  9,  " 

"         Chicago  (Massacre  at)    Aug.  16,  " 

"         Detroit  (Surrendered)    Aug.  16,  " 

1778  Fort  Harrison Sept.  4  and  5,  " 

Fort  Madison   Sept.  4-6,  " 

"         Gananoqui    Sept.  21,  " 

"         Queenstown  Heights   Oct.  13,  " 

1779  St.   Regis    Oct.  23,  " 

"         Fort  Niagara Nov.  21,  " 

Black  Rock Nov.  28,  " 

French  Town  (River  Raisin). Jan.  18-22,  1813 

"         Elizabethtown  (Canada)    Feb.  7,  " 

"         Ogdensburg   Feb.  22,  " 

"         York  (Toronto)    April  27,  " 

Fort  Meigs May  5,  " 

1780  Fort  George May  27,  " 

"         Sackett's    Harbor    May  29,  " 

"         Stony  Creek June  6,  " 

"         Hampton    (Defence  of) June  13,  " 

Craney  Island    June  22,  " 

"         Beaver  Dams   June  23,  " 

"         Near  Fort  George July  8,  " 

Black  Rock    July  11,  " 

"         Fort  George    (Defence  of  Out- 

1781  works)    July  17,  " 

"         Fort  Stephenson   Aug.  2,  " 

"         Stonington    (Bombardment  of) 

Aug.  9-11,  " 

"         Fort  Mims   Aug.  30,  " 

Thames   Oct.  5,  " 

"         French  Creek    Nov.  1  and  2,  " 

"        Tallasehatche Nov.  3,  " 

Talladega    Nov.  9,  " 

Chrysler's   Field    Nov.  11,  " 

Hillabee   Town    Nov.  18,  " 

1775    Auttose  Nov.  29,  " 

295 


BATTLES 


Fort  Niagara    Dec.  19, 

Econochaca   Dec.  23, 

Black  Rock Dec.  30, 

Emucfau  (Ala.)    Jan.  22, 

Enotochopco    (Ala.)    Jan.  24, 

Camp   Defiance    Jan.  27, 

Longwoods   Mar.  4, 

Horseshoe  Bend Mar.  27, 

La  Colle  Mills Mar.  30, 

Fort  Oswego May  4  and  5, 

Sandy  Creek May  30, 

Odell  Town June  28, 

Fort   Erie    July  3, 

Chippewa July  5, 

Champlain July  18  and  19, 

Lundy's  Lane  (Niagara  Falls). July  25, 

Fort  Mackinack   (Mackinaw)  .  .Aug.  4, 

Fort  Erie Aug.  13-15, 

Bladensburg Aug.  24, 

Plattsburg   Sept.  11, 

North  Point   Sept.  12, 

Fort    McHeni'y    (Bombardment 

of)     Sept.  13, 

Fort  Bower Sept.  15, 

Fort    Erie     (Sortie    from)  ....  Sept.  17, 

Chippewa    Oct.  15, 

Lyon's  Creek   Oct.  19, 

Pensacola    Nov.  7, 

Villerg's  Plantation  (New  Or- 
leans)     Dec.  23, 

Rodriguez's  Canal  (New  Or- 
leans)     Jan.  1, 

New  Orleans Jan.  8, 

Fort  St.   Philip    Jan.  9, 

Point  Petre  (Ga.)    Jan.  13, 

NAVAL     ENGAGEMENTS. 

Chesapeake  and  Leopard  (im- 
pressment, former  defeat- 
ed)     June  22, 

President  and  Little  Belt  (lat- 
ter defeated)    May  16, 

President         and         Belvidera 

(former  escaped)    June  23, 

Essex  and  Alert  (latter  de- 
feated )    Aug.  13, 

Constitution       and       Guerricre 

(latter  defeated)    Aug.  19, 

Wasp  and  Frolic  (latter  de- 
feated)     Oct.  18, 

Wasp     and    Poictiers     (former 

surrendered)     Oct.  18, 

United  States  and  Macedonian 

(latter  defeated)    Oct.  25, 

Constitution   and   Jaim    (latter 

defeated)     Dec.  29, 

Chesapeake        and        Shannon 

(former   defeated)     June  1, 

Enterprise    and    Boxer    (latter 

defeated)    Sept.  5, 

Argus  and  Pelican  (former  de- 
feated)     Aug.  14, 

Hornet    and     Peacock     (latter 

defeated)     Aug.  24, 

American  fleet  of  nine  ves- 
sels and  British  fleet  of 
six     vessels     on     Lake     Erie 

(latter   defeated)     Sept.  10, 

Essex  and  the  Phoehe  and 
Cherub  (former  surrender- 
ed)     Mar.  28, 


1813  Wasp'    and     Reindeer     (latter 

defeated)     June    28,  1814 

"         Wasp    and    Avo7i     (latter    de- 

1814  feated)     Sept.     1,     " 

"         American   fleet   of   sixteen   ves- 

"  sels    and    the     British    fleet 

"  on    Lake    Champlain    (latter 

defeated)     Sept.  11,     " 

"         President    and    the    Endymion, 

"  Majestic,     and      two      other 

"  British  ships  (former  de- 
feated/      Sept.  16,     " 

"         Hornet    and     Penguin     (latter 

defeated)     Jan.     22,   1815 

ii  BLACK   HAWK    WAR.       (See   BLACK   HAWK). 

May   to  August,    1832. 

^,  SEMINOLE    WAR 1835-42. 

.1         Micanopy    June  9,  1836 

Fort  Drane Aug.  21,  " 

Wahoo  Swamp.  ..  .Nov.   17,  18,  and  21,  " 

<<         Okeechobee  Lake Dec.  25,  1837 

Carloosahatchee July  23,  1839 

Fort   King    April  28,  1840 

Near   Fort    Brooke Mar.  2,  1841 

«         Big  Hammock   April  19,  1842 

WAR    AGAINST    MEXICO. 

Fort  Brown   May       3,  1846 

Palo  Alto   May       8,  " 

\^\f,    Resaca  de  la  Palma May       9,  " 

>.  "^      Sonoma    and    Sonoma    Pass... June    15,  " 

Monterey    Sept.  21-23,  " 

a        Braceta    Dec.     25,  " 

San  Gabriel    Jan.       8,  1847 

The  Mesa    Jan.       9,  " 

Encarnacion Jan.     23,  " 

Buena  Vista Feb.  22  and  23,  " 

Chihuahua    Feb.     28,  " 

1807    Vera  Cruz   (Surrendered) Mar.    20,  " 

Alvarado    April     2,  " 

1811  Cerro  Gordo April  18,  " 

Contreras    Aug.    20,  " 

1812  Churubusco     Aug.    20,  " 

El  Molino  del  Rey Sept.     8,  " 

Chapultepec     Sept.     12-14,  " 

Puebla Sept.  and  Oct.,  " 

Huamantla Oct.       9,  " 

Atlixco    Oct.     18,  " 

CIVIL    WAR. 

Fort   Sumter    (Evacuated)  ...  .April  14,  1861 

Big  Bethel   (Va.) June  10,  " 

"         Booneville  (Mo.)    .-.June  17,  " 

Carthage  (Mo.) July  6,  " 

"         Rich    Mountain    (Va.) July  10,  " 

Bull  Run   (Va.)    (first) July  21,  " 

1813  Wilson's   Creek    (Mo.) Aug.  10,  " 

Hatteras  Forts  Captured Aug.  26-30,  " 

"         Carnifex   Ferry    (Va.) Sept.  10,  " 

Lexington   (Mo.)    Sept.  20,  " 

"         Santa    Rosa    Island Oct.       9,  " 

Ball's    Bluff     (Va.) Oct.     21,  " 

Port  Royal  Expedition   (S.  C.) 

Oct.  to  Nov.,  " 

Belmont    (Mo.)    Nov.      7,  " 

Middle  Creek   (Ky.) Jan.     10,  1862 

Fort   Henry    (Tenn.)    Feb.       6,  " 

Roanoke  Island   (N.  C.)..Feb.  7  and  8,  " 

Fort  Donelson   Feb.     16,  " 

1814  Valvend    (New    Mexico) Feb.     21.  " 

296 


BATTLES 


14, 

15, 
17, 


13, 
20, 


Pea  Ridge  (Ark.) Mar.  7  and  8, 

Hampton  Roads    {Monitor  and 

Merrimac)     Mar.      9, 

Shiloh  (Tenn.) April  6  and  7, 

Island    Number    Ten     (Surren- 
dered)      April      7, 

Forts   Jackson    and    St.    Philip 

April  18-27, 
New        Orleans         (Captured). 

April  25  to  May  1, 

Yorktown   (Siege  of) April  and  May, 

Williamsburg May       5, 

Wincliester May     25, 

Hanover   Court-House    May     27, 

Seven     Pines,     or     Fair     Oaks 

May  31  and  June    1, 

Memphis   (Tenn.)    June    6, 

Cross    Keys    and    Port    Repub- 
lic    June  8  and  9, 

Seven       Days       before       Rich- 
mond     June  and  July, 

Baton  Rouge    (La.) Aug.      5, 

Cedar  Mountain    (Va.) Aug.      9, 

Bull   Run    (second) Aug.    30, 

South  Mountain    (Md.) Sept. 

Harper's  Ferry  (10,000  Nation- 
als surrendered)    Sept. 

Antietam   ( Md. )    Sept. 

luka   (Miss.) Sept.  19  and  20, 

Corinth    (Miss.)     Oct.        3, 

Perry  ville    (Ky.)     Oct.       8, 

Prairie  Grove   (Ark.)    Dec. 

Fredericksburg  (Va. )    Dec. 

Holly  Springs   (Miss.) Dec. 

Chickasaw  Bayou   (Miss.)  ..  .Dec.  27-29, 
Stone      River      (Murfreesboro, 

Tenn. )    Dec.     31, 

and  Jan.  3, 

Arkansas  Post   (Ark.) Jan.     11, 

Grierson's  Raid April  11  to  May  5, 

Port  Gibson   (Miss.) .May       1, 

Chancellorsville   (Va.)    May 

Raymond  (Miss.)    May 

Jackson    (Miss.)    May 

Champion  Hill  (Miss) May 

Big  Black  River   (Miss.) May 

Vicksburg  (Miss.)    May  19-22, 

Port  Hudson  (La.)    May     27, 

Hanover   Junction    (Pa.) June    30, 

Gettysburg  (Pa.)    July  1-3, 

Vicksburg  (Surrendered)    July      4, 

Helena   (Ark.)    July      4, 

Port  Hudson  (Surrendered)  ..  .July      9, 

Jackson  (Miss.)    July    16, 

Fort  Wagner  (S.  C.) July  10-18, 

Morgan's  Great  Raid  (Ind.  and 

O.) June  24  to  July  26, 

Chickamauga Sept.  19  and  20, 

Campbell's  Station    (Tenn.)  ..  .Nov.    16, 
Knoxville     (Tenn. ;     Besieged) 

Nov.  17  to  Dec. 
Lookout  Mountain  (Tenn.)  .  .  .  .Nov. 

Missionary  Ridge   (Tenn.) Nov. 

Olustee  (Fla.)    Feb. 

Sabine  Cross  Roads  (La.) April 

Pleasant  Hill   (La.) April 

Fort  Pillow    (Tenn.  ;   Massacre 

at)     April   12, 

Wilderness   (Va.) May  5  and     6, 

Spottsylvania      Court   -   House 

(Va.)    May  7-12, 


1-4, 
12, 
14, 
16, 
17, 


4, 

24, 

25, 

20, 

8, 

9, 


1862    Resaca  (Ga.) May  14  and  15,  1864 

Bermuda  Hundred    May     10,  " 

"         New   Hope  Church    (Ga.) May     25,  " 

Cold  Harbor  (Va.) June  1-3,  " 

Petersburg    (Va.  ;    Smith's    At- 

"  tack)     June    16,  " 

Weldon  Road  (Va.)  .  .  .  .June  21  and  22,  " 

"         Kenesaw    (Ga.)    June    27,  " 

Peach-tree    Creek    (Ga.) July    20,  " 

"         Decatur    (Ga.)     July    22,  " 

Atlanta    (Ga.)    July    28,  " 

"         Petersburg    (Va.  ;   Mine   Explo- 

"  sion)     July    30,  " 

"         Mobile  Bay   Aug.      5,  " 

Jonesboro    (Ga.)  .  .Aug.  31  and  Sept.   1,  " 

"         Atlanta    (Ga.  ;   Captured) Sept.     2,  " 

"         Winchester   (Va.)    Sept.  19,  " 

Fisher's  FHll  (Va.) Sept.  22,  " 

"         AUatoona   Pass    (Ga.) Oct.       6,  " 

Hatcher's  Run   (Va.) Oct.      27,  " 

"         Franklin    (Tenn.)    Nov.    30,  *' 

Fort  McAllister   (Ga.) Dec.     14,  " 

Nashville  (Tenn.) Dec.  15  and  16,  " 

Fort   Fisher    (N.   C.  ;    First  At- 

»  tack  on) Dec.  24  and  25,  " 

Fort    Fisher    (N.    C.  ;    Capture 

"  of)     Jan.     15,  1865 

"         Hatcher's  Run   (Va.) Feb.       5,  " 

"         Averasboro    (N.  C.) Mar.    16,  " 

Bentonville   (N.  C.) Mar.    18,  " 

<•         Five  Forks  (Va.)  .  .Mar.  31  and  April  1,  " 
"         Petersburg     (Carried     by     As- 

"  sault)    April     2,  " 

"         Appomattox       Court    -    House 

"  (near)    April     9,  " 

Mobile   (Capture  of) April  8-12,  " 

WAR     WITH     SPAIN. 

Destruction  of  Spanish  fleet  in 

Manila  Bay May       1,  1898 

Bombardment     of     San     Juan, 

Porto  Rico   May     12,  " 

Bombardments    of    forts,    San- 
tiago de  Cuba May     31,  " 

Daiquiri,  Cuba June  21-22,  " 

Juragua,  Cuba   (Capture) June    24,  " 

Las  Guasimas.  Cuba June    24,  " 

El  Caney,  Cuba July      1,  " 

San  Juan  Hill,  Cuba July      2,  " 

Destruction     of     Spanish    fleet 

off    Santiago July      3,  " 

Santiago    (jNIilitary   and   Naval 

Bombardment)    July  10-17,  " 

Nipe  Harbor,  Cuba July    21,  " 

Guanica,   Porto  Rico July    25,  " 

Ponce,    Porto    Rico July    28,  " 

Malate,   Philippine  Islands.  ..  .July    31,  " 

Manila  (Occupied)    Aug.    13,  " 

Filipinos  begin  war  on  Ameri- 
cans     Feb.       4,  1899 

Capture  of  Aguinaldo  ends  in- 
surrection     Mar.    23,  1901 


1863 


1864 


There  lias  been,  from  colonial  times,  des- 
ultory warfare  quite  frequently  between 
the  English- American  colonists  and  the 
Indian  tribes.  The  most  formidable  of  these 
encounters  were  the  Pequod  War,  the 
Ksopus  War,  King  Philip's  War,  Pontiac's 
297 


BATTLE-SHIPS— BAXTER 


War,  the  Creek  and  Seminole  War,  and 
wars  with  the  Sioux.  There  should  also 
he  included  in  the  list  of  wars  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  the  long  series  of  operations 
against  the  Filij^ino  insurgents  following 
the  ratification  of  peace  in  1899.  Details 
of  the  most  important  of  all  of  the  above 
events  will  be  found  under  their  respective 
titles. 

Battle-ships,  the  highest  and  heaviest 
class  of  war  vessels,  designed  for  sea- 
fighting  in  line  of  battle,  and  provided 
with  the  most  invulnerable  armor  and  the 
heaviest  guns,  diflfering  in  this  respect 
from  the  armored  and  unarmored  class  of 
cruisers,  in  which  the  qualities  of  pro- 
tection  and  armament  do   not   so   largely 


sachusetts,  Oregon,  and  Texas,  the  first 
seven  being  rated  as  first-class  battle- 
ships, the  last  as  second-class.  At  the  same 
period  there  were  under  construction,  or 
authorized  to  be  constructed,  the  following 
vessels,  all  of  the  first  class:  Illinois,  Wis' 
consin,  Maine,  Missouri,  Ohio,  Georgia, 
Neiv  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and 
Rhode  Island.  During  the  summer  of 
1899  the  Eearsarge  and  Kentucky  were 
put  in  commission,  the  former  being  made 
the  flag-ship  of  the  new  European  squad- 
ron, and  the  latter  being  sent  to  impress 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey  with  the  desirability 
of  paying  some  American  claims. 

What  was  denominated  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  the  "  greatest  industrial  event 


U.    S.   BATTLK  SHIP   KK.\KSARGE. 


preponderate.  In  a  fleet  of  modern  war- 
ships the  battle-ship  is  the  unit  of 
strength  and  is  expected  to  give  and  re- 
ceive the  hardest  blows. 

In  the  reconstruction  of  the  United 
States  navy,  large  attention  has  been  given 
to  this  class  of  vessels,  and  the  results 
of  the  remarkable  triumph  off  Santiago  de 
Cuba  have  been  used  as  a  justification  for 
giving  the  navy  the  most  thorough  possible 
equipment  in  this  line  of  fighting  ships. 

At  the  beginning  of  1901  the  following 
battle-ships  were  in  service:  Alabama, 
Kearsarge,  Kentucky,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Mas- 


this  or  any  other  country  had  ever  seen  " 
occurred  in  Washington,  Dec.  7,  1900, 
when  bids  were  opened  for  the  construction 
of  eleven  new  armored  fighting  ships,  to 
cost  an  aggregate  of  about  $50,000,000. 
The  vessels  authorized  were  sheathed  bat- 
tle-ships, for  which  Congress  limited  the 
cost  to  $4,250,000  each;  unsheathed  bat- 
tle-ships, limit  of  cost,  $4,000,000  each; 
and  armored  cruisers,  limit  of  cost,  $3,- 
600.000.  See  Navy  of  the  United  States. 
Baxter,  James  Phinney,  author;  born 
in  Gorham,  Me.,  March  23,  1831;  has 
been    mayor    of    Portland,    Me.,     several 


298 


BAY  AMON— BAYARD 


times;  and  is  the  author  of  British  In-  the  Senate  when  war  was  declared  against 
vasion  from  the  North;  Sir  Ferdinando  C4reat  Britain  in  1812.  In  May,  1813,  he 
Gorges  and  His  Province  of  Maine,  etc.         left  the  United  States  on  a  mission  to  St. 

Bayamon,  a  province  on  the  north  Petersburg,  to  treat  for  peace  with  Great 
coast  of  Porto  Rico;  bounded  on  the  east 
by  that  of  Humacao,  on  the  south  by 
those  of  Ponce  and  Guayama,  and  on  the 
west  by  that  of  Arecibo  {q.  v.) .  The 
chief  city  and  seaport  is  San  Juan  (q.v.), 
the  fortifications  of  which  were  several 
times  bombarded  by  a  portion  of  the  fleet 
under  Admiral  Sampson  in  1898.  The 
city  was  also  the  objective  point  of  the 
military  expedition  under  Gen.  N.  A. 
Miles  (g.  v.),  which  was  stopped  on  its 
triumphal  march  by  the  signing  of  the 
protocol  of  peace.  The  formal  transfer 
of  the  island  to  the  United  States  also 
took  place  in  this  city. 

Bayard,  George  Dashiell,  military 
officer ;  born  in  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Dec. 
18,  1835;  was  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1856,  and  entered  the  cavalry  corps. 
Early  in  April,  1861,  he  was  made  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteer  cavalry,  and 
was  attached  to  the  Pennsylvania  Re- 
serves. He  participated  in  the  battles 
fought  by  that  body;  served  under  Mc- 
Dowell and  Pope  in  Virginia;  and,  after 
the  battle  of  Antietam  Creek,  commanded 
a  cavalry  brigade.  He  was  chief  of  cav- 
alry of  the  3d  Army  Corps,  and  was  en- 


JAME3   ASHTON    BAYARD. 


Britain  under  Russian  mediation.  The 
mission  was  fruitless.  In  January,  1814, 
gaged  in  the  battles  of  Cedar  Mountain,  he  went  to  Holland,  and  thence  to  Eng- 
Manassas,  and  in  the  defence  of  Washing-  land.  At  Ghent,  during  that  year,  he, 
ton,  D.  C.  In  the  battle  of  Fredericks-  with  J.  Q.  Adams,  Clay,  Gallatin,  and 
burg,  where  he  fell,  Dec.  14,  1862,  he  was  Russell,  negotiated  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
attached  to  Franklin's  corps.  England.  He  was  preparing  to  go  to 
Bayard,  James  Ashton,  statesman;  England  as  a  commissioner  under  the 
born  in  Philadelphia,  July  28,  1767;  of  treaty,  when  an  alarming  illness  seized 
Huguenot  descent;  was  graduated  at  him,  and  he  returned  home  early  in  1815. 
Princeton  in  1784;  studied  law  under  He  died  soon  after  his  arrival,  Aug.  6. 
Gen.  Joseph  Reed;  was  admitted  to  the  Bayard,  Nicholas,  colonial  executive; 
bar  in  1787,  and,  settling  in  Delaware,  born  in  Alphen,  Holland,  in  1644.  His 
soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  law-  mother  was  a  sister  of  Governor  Stuy- 
yer.  Mr.  Bayard  was  a  member  of  Con-  vesant,  the  last  Dutch  governor  of  New 
gress  from  1797  to  1803,  and  a  conspicu-  Netherland,  whom  she  accompanied  to 
ous  leader  of  the  Federal  party.  In  1804  America  in  1647,  with  her  three  sons  and 
he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Sen-  a  daughter.  The  old  Bayard  mansion  in 
ate,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself  in  New  York  City,  on  the  Bowery,  was  con- 
conducting  the  impeachment  of  Senator  verted  into  a  pleasure  garden  in  1798. 
Blount.  He  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  The  Astor  Library  is  built  on  a  part  of 
securing  the  election  of  Jefferson  over  the  estate.  Under  the  second  English 
Burr  in  1800;  and  made,  in  the  House  of  regime,  in  1685,  Bayard  was  mayor  of 
Representatives,  in  1802,  a  powerful  de-  New  York,  and  a  member  of  Governor 
fence  of  the  existing  judiciary  system,  Dongan's  council.  In  1698  Col.  Bayard 
which  was  soou  overthrown.     He  was  in  went  to  England  to  clear  himself  of  the 

299 


BAYARD— BEACH 

imputation  of  complicity  in  the  piracy  The  Confederates  soon  rallied  and  drove 
of  Captain  Kidd,  having  been  accused  by  him  back.  Another  part  of  the  attacking 
the  Leisler  faction  of  both  piracy  and  a  foi-ce  was  driven  back,  and  the  attempt 
scheme    to    introduce    slavery.      He    was    failed. 

tried  before  Chief-Justice  Atwood  and'  Baylor,  George,  military  officer;  born 
sentenced  to  death.  The  proceedings,  in  Newmarket,  Va.,  Jan.  12,  1752.  Soon 
however,  were  annulled  by  an  order-in-  after  Washington's  arrival  at  Cambridge 
council,  and  he  was  reinstated  in  his  prop-  in  1778,  he  appointed  (Aug.  15)  young 
erty  and  honors.  He  died  in  New  York  Baylor  as  his  aide.  He  was  a  participant 
City,  in  1707.  in  the  battle  at  Trenton,  and  carried  the 

Bayard,  Thomas  Francis,  diploma-  news  of  the  victory  to  Congress,  when 
tist;  born  in  Wilmington,  Del.,  Oct.  29,  that  body  presented  him  with  a  horse  ca- 
1828;  grandson  of  James  A.  Bayard;  was  parisoned  for  service,  and  made  him 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  Wilmington  in  colonel  of  dragoons  (Jan.  8,  1777).  On 
1851,  and  served  as  United  States  Dis-  the  night  of  Sept.  27,  1778,  his  troop  of 
trict  Attorney.  From  1869  to  1885  he  was  horse,  lying  in  barns,  unarmed,  near  old 
United  States  Senator  from  Delaware,  Tappan,  were  surprised  at  midnight  by 
and  foremost  among  the  leaders  of  the  the  British  while  asleep.  The  British  had 
Democratic  side.  He  was  a  member  of  silently  cut  off  a  sergeant's  patrol  and  fell 
the  Electoral  Commission  in  1877,  and  suddenly  upon  the  sleeping  troopers.  The 
was  for  a  while  president  pro  tern,  of  latter,  without  arms  and  powerless,  asked 
the  Senate.  In  1880  and  1884  Senator  for  quarter.  General  Grey  had  given 
Bayard's  prominence  in  the  party  brought  special  orders  not  to  grant  quarter,  and 
his  name  before  the  National  Democratic  out  of  104  prisoners  sixty-seven  were 
Convention,  but  he  failed  of  securing  the  killed  or  wounded.  Some  of  the  men 
prize,  though  receiving  many  votes.  Pres-  were  bayoneted  in  cold  blood.  Baylor  was 
ident  Cleveland  called  him  in  1885  to  the  woimded  and  made  prisoner.  He  died  in 
office  of  Secretary  of  State^  where  he  re-  Bridgetown,  Barbadoes,  in  March,  1784. 
mained  until  1889,  and  in  President  Bay  State,  the  popular  name  of  Massa- 
Cleveland's  second  administration  he  was  chusetts,  the  colonial  corporate  title  of 
first  minister  and  then  Ambassador  which  was  "  The  Massachusetts  Bay." 
{q.  V.)  to  Great  Britain.  He  died  in  This  name  it  bore  until  the  adoption  of 
Dedham,  Mass.,  Sept.  28,  1898.  the  national  Constitution  in   1788. 

Baylis's  Creek,  Battle  at.  Gen.  W.  Beach,  Alfred  Ely,  inventor ;  born  in 
S.  Hancock  proceeded  to  attack  the  Con-  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1826;  was  educated 
federates  in  front  of  Deep  Bottom  on  the  at  Monson  Academy,  Mass.,  and  under  his 
James  River,  Aug.  12,  1864.  His  whole  father  (Moses,  an  early  proprietor  of  the 
force  was  placed  on  transports  at  City  New  York  Sun)  acquired  a  practical 
Point,  and  its  destination  reported  to  be  knowledge  of  newspaper  work.  In  1846 
Washington.  This  was  to  deceive  the  (with  Orson  D.  Munn)  he  established  the 
Confederates.  That  night  it  went  up  the  Scientific  American,  and  for  nearly  fifty 
James  River;  but  so  tardy  was  the  de-  years  was  its  editor.  In  1852  he  perfected 
barkation  that  the  intended  surprise  of  a  typewriting  machine  which  was  award- 
the  Confederates  was  not  effected.  Han-  ed  a  gold  medal  by  the  American  Insti- 
cock  pushed  some  of  his  troops  by  Mai-  tute.  Later  he  invented  the  system  of 
vern  Hill  to  flank  the  Confederates'  de-  underground  pneumatic  tubes,  through, 
fence  behind  Baylis's  Creek,  while  10,000  which  letters  were  carried  from  street 
men  were  sent,  under  Gen.  F.  C.  Barlow,  lamp-posts  to  the  central  post-office.  In 
to  assail  their  flank  and  rear.  There  were  1867  he  placed  on  exhibition  in  the  Ameri- 
other  dispositions  for  attack;  but  the  de-  can  Institute  the  working  model  of  a  por- 
lay  had  allowed  Lee  to  send  reinforce-  tion  of  an  elevated  railway,  which  met 
ments,  for  the  movement  seemed  to  with  so  much  favor  that  he  planned  a 
threaten  Richmond.  On  the  morning  of  similar  system  of  underground  railways 
the  16th,  General  Birney,  with  General  for  New  York.  In  1869,  under  the  author- 
Terry's  division,  attacked  and  carried  the  ity  of  the  legislature,  he  began  the  con- 
Confederate  lines,  and  captured  300  men.    struction    of   a   railway   under    Broadway 

300 


BE  AKM  AN— BEAUMONT 


between  Murray  and  Warren  streets,  the 
excavation  of  the  tunnel  being  made  by  a 
hydraulic  shield  of  his  own  invention. 
This  shield  was  subsequently  used  in  bor- 
ing several  well-known  tunnels  in  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  Europe.  He 
died  in  New  York  City,  Jan.   1,   1896. 

Beakman,  Daniel  Frederick,  soldier; 
born  in  iSTew  Jersey  about  1760;  enlisted 
in  1778,  and  served  throughout  the  Revo- 
lutionary War;  Avas  the  last  suiwiving 
pensioner  of  that  war.  In  1867  Congress 
passed  a  special  act,  giving  him  a  pension 
of  $500  during  life.  He  died  in  Sandusky, 
K  Y.,  April  5,  1869. 

Beall,  John  Young,  naval  officer;  born 
in  Virginia,  Jan.  1,  1835;  received  a  com- 
mission in  the  Confederate  navy,  and  on 
Sept.  19,  1864,  he,  in  company  with  two 
others,  in  the  dress  of  civilians,  captured 
the  Lake  Erie  steamer  Philo  Parsons. 
Subsequently  they  captured  another  steam- 
er. Island  Queen,  and  also  attempted  to 
wreck  a  railroad  train  near  Buffalo  on 
the  night  of  his  arrest,  Dec.  16,  1864.  He 
was  tried  by  court  martial,  condemned, 
and  hanged  on  Governor's  Island,  New 
York  Harbor,   Feb.   24,   1865. 

Beardslee,  Lester  Anthony,  naval  offi- 
cer; born  in  Little  Falls,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  1, 
1836;  was  graduated  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy in  1856;  brought  the  Confederate 
steam-sloop  Florida,  captured  off  Bahia, 
Brazil,  to  the  United  States  as  prize 
master  in  1864;  and  while  in  command  of 
the  Jamestoion  in  1879,  discovered,  sur- 
veyed, and  named  Glacier  Bay,  Alaska; 
promoted  rear-admiral  in   1895. 

Beatty,  John,  physician ;  born  in  Bucks 
county.  Pa.,  Dec.  19,  1749;  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  in  1769;  studied  medicine 
with  Dr.  Rush;  took  up  arms,  and  became 
a  colonel  in  the  Pennsylvania  line.  He 
was  made  prisoner  at  Fort  Washington, 
and  suffered  much.  In  1778  he  succeeded 
Elias  Boudinot  as  commissary-general  of 
prisoners,  but  resigned  in  1780.  He  was  a 
delegate  in  the  Congress  of  the  Confedera- 
tion, 1783-85,  and  of  the  national  Con- 
gress. 1793-95.  He  was  secretary  of  state 
for  New  Jersey  for  ten  years — 1795-1805. 
He  died  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  April  30,  1826. 

Beauharnais,  Charles,  Marquis  de, 
military  officer  and  a  natural  son  of  Louis 
XIV.;  born  about  1670;  was  governor  of 
New  France  (Canada)  from  1726  to  1746, 


and  held  the  rank  of  commodore  in  the 
French  navy,  and  lieutenant-general  of  the 
naval  army.  On  the  breaking  out  of  war 
with  England  (1745),  he  built  the  fortress 
of  Crown  Point,  which  was  afterwards  en- 
larged and  strengthened  by  Amherst.  He 
died  June  12,  1749. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Augustin  Ca- 
EON  de,  author;  born  in  Paris,  Jan.  24, 
1732:  the  son  of  a  Avatch-maker.  In  1761. 
he  purchased  a  commission  as  secretary 
to  the  King,  a  sinecure  which  conferred 
noble  rank  on  its  possessor,  and  the  name 
of  Beaumarchais,  which  he  had  assumed, 
was  legally  confirmed.  Entering  into  mer- 
cantile speculations,  he  soon  acquired  a 
large  fortiuie.  He  was  the  authov  of  the 
famous  play,  the  Barber  of  Seville.  In 
September,  1775,  he  submitted  a  memorial 
to  the  French  monarch,  in  which  he  in- 
sisted upon  the  necessity  of  the  French 
government's  secretly  aiding  the  English- 
American  colonies ;  and  as  agent  of  his 
governnient  he  passed  some  time  in  Eng- 
land, where  he  became  acquainted  with 
Arthur  Lee,  which  acquaintance  led  to  dip- 
lomatic and  commercial  relations  with  the 
Continental  Congress.  He  conducted  the 
business  of  supplying  the  Americans  with 
munitions  of  war  with  great  ability,  and 
afterwards  became  involved  in  a  lawsuit 
with  them.  In  1784  he  produced  his  Mar- 
riage of  Figaro,  which  was  violently  op- 
posed by  the  Court.  His  political  tenden- 
cies were  republican,  and  he  sympathized 
with  the  French  Revolutionists,  but  did 
not  enter  Avith  his  usual  enthusiasm  into 
their  measures.  Suspected  by  the  Jacobins, 
he  Avas  compelled  to  leave  the  country, 
and  his  property  AA'as  confiscated.  He  Avas 
finally  permitted  to  return  to  France,  but 
could  not  recover  his  Avealth.  Beaumar- 
chais lived  in  comparative  poverty  until 
May  18,  1799,  Avhen  he  Avas  found  dead 
in  his  bed,  having  died  of  apoplexy.  A 
suit  which  he  had  commenced  against  the 
United  States  for  payment  for  supplies 
furnished  to  the  Continental  Congress,  be- 
tAveen  1776  and  1779,  under  the  mercantile 
firm  name  of  Roderique  Hortales  &  Co., 
continued  about  fifty  years,  and  resulted 
in  1835  in  the  payment  to  his  heirs  by  the 
United  States  of  the  sum  of  about 
.$200,000. 

Beaumont,    William,   physician;    born 
in  Lebanon,  Conn.,  in   1796.     In   1812  he 


301 


BEAUREGARD— BEAVER 


was  made  assistant  surgeon  in  the  United 
States  army,  and  served  until  1837.  While 
stationed  at  Michilimackinac  (Mackinaw) 
in  1822,  he  treated  Alexis  St.  Martin,  a 
Canadian,  who  had  a  gunshot  wound  in 
his  side;  the  wound  healed  without  clos- 
ing up,  exposing  to  view  the  operations 
of  the  stomach  in  its  digestive  functions. 
Dr.  Beaumont  made  careful  experiments 
with  this  man,  for  several  years,  upon 
the  process  of  digestion,  and  published 
the  result  of  his  researches.  St.  Martin 
lived  for  more  than  fifty  years  after  the 
accident.  The  orifice  exposing  the  stom- 
ach never  closed.  Dr.  Beaumont  died  in 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  April  25,  1853. 

Beauregard,  Pterre  Gustave  Toutant, 
military  officer;  born  on  a  plantation  near 
New  Orleans,  May  28,  1818;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1838,  and  entered  the  artillery 
service,  but  was  transferred  to  the  engi- 
neer corps.    He  won  the  brevets  of  captain 


GEN.  PIERRE    G.   T.   BEAUREGARD. 

and  major  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and 
was  wounded  at  Chapultepec ;  also  at  the 
taking  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  He  left 
the  service  of  the  United  States  in  1861, 
and  joined  the  Confederates  in  February. 
He  conducted  the  siege  of  Fort  Sumter, 
and  was  afterwards  active  as  a  leader  in 
Virginia  and  other  parts  of  the  slave- 
labor  States.  Beauregard  was  made  brig- 
adier-general in  the  Confederate  army,  Feb. 
20,  1861,  and  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  gathering  army  of  Confederates  at  Ma- 
nassas Junction — the  Department  of  Alex- 
andria.     He    took    the    command    at    the 


beginning  of  June,  1861,  and  issued  a 
proclamation  which  was  calculated  and 
intended  to  "  fire  the  Southern  heart." 
He  said:  "A  reckless  and  unprincipled 
tyrant  has  invaded  your  soil.  Abraham 
Lincoln,  regardless  of  all  moral,  legal, 
and  constitutional  restraints,  has  thrown 
his  abolition  hosts  among  us,  who  are 
murdering  and  imprisoning  your  citizens, 
confiscating  and  destroying  your  property, 
and  committing  other  acts  of  violence  and 
outrage  too  shocking  and  revolting  to  hu- 
manity to  be  enumerated.  All  rules  of 
civilized  warfare  are  abandoned,  and  they 
proclaim  by  their  acts,  if  not  on  their 
banners,  that  their  war-cry  is  '  Beauty 
and  Booty.'  All  that  is  dear  to  man — 
your  honor,  and  that  of  your  wives  and 
daughters,  your  fortunes,  and  your  lives 
— are  involved  in  this  monstrous  contest." 
He  then,  as  "  General  of  the  Confederate 
States,  commanding  at  Camp  Pickens, 
Manassas  Junction,"  invited  the  people 
of  Virginia  to  a  vindication  of  their  pa- 
triotism, "  by  the  name  and  memory  of 
their  Revolutionary  fathers,  and  by  the 
purity  and  sanctity  of  their  domestic 
firesides,  to  rally  to  the  standard  of  their 
State  and  country,"  and  by  every  means 
in  their  power  "  compatible  with  honor- 
able warfare,  to  drive  back  and  expel  the 
invaders  from  the  land."  The  speech 
of  President  Davis  at  Richmond  and  this 
proclamation  of  Beauregard  were  lauded 
by  the  Confederates  at  Washington  and 
Baltimore  as  having  the  ring  of  true 
metal.  After  the  battle  of  Bull  Run 
(q.  v.),  in  July,  he  was  promoted  to 
major-general.  He  took  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Mississippi,  under  Gen.  A.  S. 
Johnston,  and  directed  the  battle  of  Shiloh 
in  April,  1862,  after  the  death  of  John- 
ston. He  successfully  defended  Charles- 
ton in  1862-63,  and  in  May,  1864,  he 
joined  Lee  in  the  defence  of  Petersburg 
and  Richmond.  As  commander  of  the 
forces  in  the  Carolinas  in  1865,  he  joined 
them  with  those  of  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston, 
and  surrendered  them  to  Sherman.  At  the 
close  of  the  war,  with  the  full  rank  of  gen- 
eral in  the  Confederate  service,  he  settled 
in  New  Orleans,  where  he  died,  Feb.  20, 
1893. 

Beaver,  James  Addams,  military  offi- 
cer ;  born  in  Millerstown,  Pa.,  Oct.  21, 
1837;  was  graduated  at  Jefferson  College 


302 


BEAVER    DAMS— BEEBE 

in  1856;  entered  the  army  in  1861;  was  ian  ambush,  and,  displaying  his  men  to 
shot  tlirough  the  body  at  Chancellorsville,  the  best  advantage  after  Boerstler  had 
in  the  side  at  Petersburg,  and  lost  a  leg  crossed  the  creek,  he  boldly  demanded  the 
at  Ream's  Station;  brevetted  brigadier-  surrender  of  the  Americans  to  Major  De 
general  of  volunteers;  was  elected  govern-  Haven,  commander  of  the  district.  For 
or  of  Pennsylvania  as  a  Republican  in  this  purpose  Fitzgibbon  bore  a  flag  him- 
1887;  and  was  a  member  of  President  Mc-  self.  He  falsely  assured  Boerstler  that  his 
Kinley's  commission  to  investigate  the  party  was  only  the  advance  of  1,500  Brit- 
conduct  of  the  War  Department  during  ish  troops  and  700  Indians,  under  Lieu- 
the  American-Spanish  War.  <.  tenant-Colonel  Bisshopp,  and  that  the  bar- 
Beaver  Dams,  Affair  at  the.  After  barians  were  so  exasperated  that  it  would 
leaving  Fort  George  the  British  establish-  be  difficult  to  restrain  them  from  massa- 
ed  a  strong  post  and  depot  of  supplies  cring  the  Americans.  Boerstler,  deceived 
at  the  Beaver  Dams,  among  the  hills  18  and  alarmed,  agreed  to  surrender  on  cer- 
miles  west  of  Queenstown.  Dearborn  tain  conditions.  De  Haven,  whom  Fitz- 
determined  to  attempt  the  capture  of  this  gibbon  had  sent  for,  came  up  with  200 
post  and  its  stores,  and  for  that  purpose  men,  and  Boerstler  and  500  soldiers  were 
he  detached  570  infantry,  some  cavalry  made  prisoners.  It  had  been  agreed  that 
under  Major  Chapin,  a  few  artillerymen,  the  captives  should  be  protected  and  sent 
and  two  field-pieces,  all  under  the  com-  back  on  parole.  This  promise  was  broken, 
mand  of  Lieut.-Col.  Charles  G.  Boerstler.  The  Indians  plundered  the  captive  troops. 
They  marched  up  the  Niagara  River  to  and  the  latter  were  sent  to  Burlington 
Queenstown  (June  2.3,  1813),  and  the  next  Heights  and  kept  prisoners  of  war.  When 
morning  pushed  off  westward.  Their  Boerstler  was  first  attacked  by  the  Indians, 
march  appears  to  have  been  discovered  he  sent  a  courier  back  to  Dearborn  for 
by  the  British,  for  while  Chapin's  mounted  aid,  and  that  commander  sent  Colonel 
men  were  in  the  advance  and  marching  Christie  with  300  men  to  reinforce  him. 
among  the  hills,  Boerstler's  rear  was  at-  When  they  reached  Queenstown,  they 
tacked  by  John  Brant,  at  the  head  of  heard  of  the  surrender,  and  hastened  back 
450  Mohawk  and  Caughnawaga  Indians,  to  camp  with  the  sad  intelligence.  The 
who  lay  in  ambush.  Chapin  was  instant-  British  advanced  upon  Queenstown,  and, 
ly  called  back,  and  the  Americans  in  a  occupying  that  place,  soon  invested  Fort 
body  charged  upon  the  Indians  and  drove  George. 

them  almost  a  mile.  Then  Boerstler  hesi-  Bedel,  Timothy,  military  officer;  born 
tated,  and  the  Indians,  rallying,  bore  upon  in  Salem,  N.  H.,  about  1740;  was  a  brave 
his  flank  and  rear,  and  kept  up  a  galling  and  faithful  officer  in  the  war  for  inde- 
fire  at  every  exposed  situation.  The  pendenee.  He  was  attached  to  the  North- 
Americans  pushed  forward  over  the  Beaver  ern  army,  and  had  the  full  confidence 
Dam  Creek,  fighting  the  dusky  foe  at  a  and  esteem  of  General  Schuyler,  its  com- 
great  disadvantage,  and  made  conscious  mander.  He  was  captain  of  rangers  in 
that  they  were  almost  surrounded  by  1775,  and  early  in  1776  was  made  colonel 
them.  After  keeping  up  this  contest  for  of  a  New  Hampshire  regiment.  He  was 
about  three  hours,  Boerstler  determined  with  Montgomery  at  the  capture  of  St. 
to  abandon  the  expedition,  when  he  found  John's  on  the  Sorel,  and  was  afterwards 
himself  confronted  by  an  unexpected  force,  in  command  at  the  Cedars,  not  far  from 
Mrs.  Laura  Secord,  a  slight  and  delicate  Montreal,  where  a  cowardly  surrender  by 
woman,  living  at  Queenstown,  became  ac-  a  subordinate,  in  Bedel's  absence,  caused 
quainted  with  .  Dearborn's  plans,  and  at  the  latter  to  be  tried  by  a  court-martial, 
the  time  when  Boerstler  and  his  forces  on  a  false  charge,  made  by  General  Ar- 
left  Fort  George — a  hot  summer  even-  nold.  He  was  deprived  of  command  for 
ing — she  made  a  circuitous  journey  of  a  while,  but  was  reinstated.  He  died  at 
19  miles  on  foot  to  the  quarters  of  Lieu-  Haverhill,  N.  H.,  in  February,  1787. 
tenant  -  Colonel  Fitzgibbon  ( who  was  in  Beebe,  Bezaleel,  military  officer ; 
command  of  some  regulars  at  the  Beaver  born  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  April  28,  1741 ; 
Dams)  and  warned  him  of  his  danger,  was  one  of  the  Rogers  Rangers,  and  was 
Thus  forewarned,  he  had  ordered  the  Ind-  engaged  in  the  fight  in  which  Putnam  was 

303 


BEECHER'S   BIBLES— BEECHEB, 


taken,  also  in  the  capture  of  Montreal  in 
1760.  In  July,  1775,  lie  was  commis- 
sioned lieutenant  and  sent  to  Boston.  In 
177G  he  saw  active  service  in  New  York 
an(j[  New  Jersey,  and  was  taken  prisoner 
at  the  capture  of  Fort  Washington  and 
confined  in  New  York  nearly  a  year.  Tow- 
ards the  end  of  the  Revolution  he  was 
appointed      brigadier-general      and      com- 


mander of  all  the  Connecticut  troops  for 
sea-coast  defence.  He  died  in  Litchfield, 
May  29,   1824. 

Beecher's  Bibles.  During  the  Kansas 
trouble,  in  1854-60,  Henry  Ward  Beecher 
declared  that  for  the  slave-holder  of  Kan- 
sas the  Sharpe  rifle  was  a  greater  moral 
agency  than  the  Bible,  and  so  those  rifles 
became   known   as   "  Beecher's   Bibles." 


BEECHER,    HENRY    WARD 


Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  clergyman; 
born  in  Litchfleld,  Conn.,  June  24,  1813; 
son  of  Lyman  Beecher;  was  graduated  at 
Amherst  College  in  1834.  He  afterwards 
studied  theology  in  Lane  Seminary.  For 
a  few  years  he  was  pastor  of  a  Presby- 
terian church  in  Indiana,  flrst  at  Law- 
renceburg   and   then   at   Indianapolis.     In 


HENRY   WARD    BEECHER. 

1847  he  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  a 
new  Congregational  organization  in 
Brooklyn,  called  Plymouth  Church,  over 
Avhich  he  presided  as  pastor  till  his  death, 
March  8,  1887.  From  the  beginning  of 
his  ministry,  Mr.  Beecher  held  a  high 
rank  as  a  public  teacher  and  pulpit  ora- 
tor, with  a  constantly  increasing  reputa- 
tion. Laying  aside  the  conventionalities 
of  his  sacred  profession,  and  regarding 
the  Gospel  minister  as  peculiai'ly  a  lead- 
er in  social  life,  his  sermons  were  always 
marked  by  practical  good-sense,  and  em- 
braced in  their  topics  the  whole  field  of 
human  society.  They  were  largely  made 
up  of  illustrations  drawn  from  every 
phase  of  life  and  the  instructions  of  nat- 


ure. He  had  an  abiding  love  of  music, 
the  fine  arts,  flowers,  and  animals;  and 
believing  Christianity  to  be,  not  a  philo- 
sophical system,  but  an  exalted  rule  of 
conduct,  he  never  hesitated  to  discuss  in 
the  pulpit  the  great  problems  of  the  times 
in  politics  and  social  life — temperance, 
social  evils,  and  the  lust  for  power  and 
gain.  His  persistent  and  forceful  denun- 
ciation of  the  evils  of  slavery  brought 
him  into  the  greatest  prominence  during 
the  Civil  War  period,  while  his  speeches 
made  during  his  visit  to  England  in 
1863  did  much  to  disabuse  public  opinion 
there  as  to  the  merits  of  the  struggle. 
Mr.  Beecher  led  a  most  active  life  as 
preacher,  editor,  lyceum  lecturer,  and  au- 
thor of  numerous  books.  He  began  edi- 
torial labors  before  he  began  to  preach, 
conducting  for  a  year  (1836)  The  Cin- 
cinnati Journal;  and  for  nearly  twenty 
years  he  was  an  editorial  contributor  to 
the  New  York  Independent,  a  Aveekly  news- 
paper. From  1870  he  w^as  editor  several 
years  of  the  Christian  Union,  a  weekly 
paper  published  in  New  York,  and  was 
a  constant  contributor  to  other  publica- 
tions. In  1874  Mr.  Beecher  was  accused 
of  criminal  conduct  with  Mrs.  Theodore 
Tilton.  He  was  exonerated  by  the  com- 
mittee of  Plymouth  Church,  but  in  the 
civil  suit  instituted  by  Mr.  Tilton,  which 
lasted  more  than  six  months,  the  jury 
failed  to  agree.  The  case  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  entire  world. 

The  System  of  Slavery. — The  follow- 
ing is  Mr.  Beecher's  address  in  Liverpool, 
England,  Oct.  16,  1863,  the  feeling  of  his 
auditors  towards  his  subject  and  himself 
being  clearly  indicated  parenthetically: 

For  more  than  twenty-five  years  I  have 
been  made  perfectly  familiar  with  popular 
assemblies  in  all  parts  of  my  country,  ex- 


304 


S£jXjCS£!Bi 


eept  the  extreme  South.  There  has  not,  hisses,  "No,  no!"  and  a  voice:  "New 
for  the  whole  of  that  time,  been  a  single  York  mob.")  Now,  personally,  it  is  a 
day  of  my  life  when  it  would  have  been  matter  of  very  little  consequence  to  me 
safe  for  me  to  go  south  of  Mason  and  whether  I  speak  here  to-night  or  not. 
Dixon's  line  in  my  own  country,  and  all  (Laughter  and  cheers.)  But  one  thing 
for  one  reason:  my  solemn,  earnest,  per-  is  very  certain,  if  you  do  permit  me  to 
sistent  testimony  against  that  which  I  speak  here  to-night  you  will  hear  very 
consider  to  be  the  most  atrocious  thing  plain  talking.  (Applause  and  hisses.) 
under  the  sun — the  system  of  American  You  will  not  find  a  man — (interruption) 
slavery  in  a  great,  free  republic.  (Cheers.)  — you  will  not  find  me  to  be  a  man 
I  have  passed  through  that  early  period  that  dared  to  speak  about  Great  Britain 
when  right  of  free  speech  was  denied  to  3,000  miles  off,  and  then  is  afraid  to 
me.  Again  and  again  I  have  attempted  speak  to  Great  Britain  when  he  stands 
to  address  audiences  that,  for  no  other  on  her  shores.  (Immense  applause  and 
crime  than  that  of  free  speech,  visited  hisses.)  And  if  I  do  not  mistake  the  tone 
me  with  all  manner  of  contumelious  epi-  and  temper  of  Englishmen,  they  would 
thets;  and  now,  since  I  have  been  in  rather  have  a  man  who  opposes  them  in  a 
England,  although  I  have  met  with  great-  manly  way — (applause  from  all  parts  of 
er  kindness  and  courtesy  on  the  part  of  the  hall) — than  a  sneak  that  agrees  with 
most  than  I  deserved,  yet,  on  the  other  them  in  an  unmanly  way.  (Applause  and 
hand,  I  perceive  that  the  Southern  in-  "Bravo!")  Now,  if  I  can  carry  you  with 
fluence  prevails  to  some  extent  in  Eng-  me  by  sound  convictions,  I  shall  be  im- 
land.  (Applause  and  uproar.)  It  is  my  mensely  glad — (applause) — but  if  I  can- 
old  acquaintance;  I  understand  it  perfect-  not  carry  you  with  me  by  facts  and  sound 
ly  (laughter),  and  I  have  always  held  it  arguments,  I  do  not  wish  you  to  go  with 
to  be  an  unfailing  truth  that  where  a  me  at  all;  and  all  that  I  ask  is  simply 
man  had  a  cause  that  would  bear  exami-  fair  play.  (Applause,  and  a  voice:  "You 
nation  he   was   joerfectly  willing  to   have  shall  have  it,  too.") 

it  spoken  about.  (Applause.)  And  when  Those  of  you  who  are  kind  enough  to 
in  Manchester  I  saw  those  huge  placards:  wish  to  favor  my  speaking — and  you  will 
"  Who  is  Henry  Ward  Beecher  ?"  ( Laugh-  observe  that  my  voice  is  slightly  husky, 
ter,  cries  of  "  Quite  right,"  and  applause.)  from  having  spoken  almost  every  night 
And  when  in  Liverpool  I  was  told  that  in  succession  for  some  time  past — those 
there  were  those  blood-red  placards,  pur-  who  wish  to  hear  me  will  do  me  the 
porting  to  say  what  Henry  Ward  Beecher  kindness  simply  to  sit  still  and  to  keep 
had  said,  and  calling  upon  Englishmen  still ;  and  I  and  my  friends  the  Secession- 
to  suppress  free  speech — I  tell  you  what  ists  will  make  all  the  noise.  (Laughter.) 
I  thought.  I  thought  simply  this :  "  I  am  There  are  two  dominant  races  in  mod- 
glad  of  it."  (Laughter.)  Why?  Because  em  history — the  Germanic  and  the  Ro- 
if  they  had  felt  perfectly  secure,  that  manic  races.  The  Germanic  races  tend 
you  are  the  minions  of  the  South  and  the  to  personal  liberty,  to  a  sturdy  individual- 
slaves  of  slavery,  they  would  have  been  ism,  to  civil  and  to  political  liberty.  The 
perfectly  still.  (Applause  and  uproar.)  Roman  race  tends  to  absolutism  in  gov- 
And,  therefore,  when  I  saw  so  much  ner-  ernment ;  it  is  clannish ;  it  loves  chief- 
vous  apprehension  that,  if  I  were  permit-  tains ;  it  develops  a  people  that  crave 
ted  to  speak — (hisses  and  applause) — •  strong  and  showy  governments  to  support 
when  I  found  they  were  afraid  to  have  me  and  plan  for  them.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
speak — (hisses  and  applause,  and  "No,  race  belongs  to  the  great  German  family, 
no!") — when  I  found  that  they  considered  and  is  a  fair  exponent  of  its  peculiari- 
my  speaking  damaging  to  their  cause —  ties.  The  Anglo-Saxon  carries  self-govern- 
( applause) — when  I  found  that  they  ap-  ment  and  self  -  development  with  him 
pealed  from  facts  and  reasonings  to  mob  wherever  he  goes.  He  has  popular  gov- 
law — (applause  and  uproar) — I  said,  no  ernment  and  popular  industry;  for  the 
man  need  tell  me  what  the  heart  and  se-  effects  of  a  generous  civil  liberty  are  not 
cret  counsel  of  these  men  are.  They  trem-  seen  a  whit  more  plain  in  the  good  order, 
ble  and  are  afraid.  (Applause,  laughter,  in  the  intelligence,  and  in  the  virtue  of 
!•— u                                                         305 


Tt  K  Kit;  H  rj  K. 


a  self  -  governing  people,  than  in  their 
amazing  enterprise,  and  the  scope  and 
power  of  their  creative  industry.  The 
power  to  create  riches  is  just  as  much 
a  part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  virtues  as  the 
power  to  create  good  order  and  social 
safety.  The  things  required  for  prosperous 
labor,  prosperous  manufactures,  and  pros- 
perous commerce  are  three:  First,  liberty; 
second,  liberty ;  third,  liberty —  ( "  Hear, 
hear!") — though  these  are  not  merely  the 
same  liberty,  as  I  shall  show  you.  First, 
there  must  be  liberty  to  follow  those  laws 
of  bvisiness  which  experience  has  develop- 
ed, without  imposts  or  restrictions  or  gov- 
ernmental intrusions.  Business  simply 
wants  to  be  let  alone.  ("Hear,  hear!") 
Then,  secondly,  there  must  be  liberty  to 
distribute  and  exchange  products  of  in- 
dustry in  any  market  without  burden- 
some tariffs,  without  imposts,  and  without 
vexatious  regulations.  There  must  be 
these  two  liberties  —  liberty  to  create 
wealth,  as  the  makers  of  it  think  best, 
according  to  the  light  and  experience 
which  business  has  given  them ;  and  then 
liberty  to  distribute  what  they  have  cre- 
ated without  unnecessary  vexatious  bur- 
dens. The  comprehensive  law  of  the  ideal 
industrial  condition  of  the  world  is  free 
manufacture  and  free  trade.  ( "  Hear, 
hear!"  A  voice:  "The  Morrill  tariff." 
Another  voice:  "Monroe.")  I  have  said 
there  were  three  elements  of  liberty.  The 
third  is  the  necessity  of  an  intelligent 
and  free  race  of  customers.  There  must 
be  freedom  among  producers;  there  must 
be  freedom  among  the  distributers;  there 
must  be  freedom  among  the  customers. 
It  may  not  have  occurred  to  you  that 
it  makes  any  difference  what  one's  cus- 
tomers are,  but  it  does  in  all  regular  and 
prolonged  business.  The  condition  of  the 
customer  determines  how  much  he  will 
buy.  Poor  and  ignorant  people  buy  little, 
and  that  of  the  poorest  kind.  The  rich- 
est and  the  intelligent,  having  the  more 
means  to  buy,  buy  the  most  and  always 
buy  the  best.  Here,  then,  are  the  three 
liberties:  liberty  of  the  producer,  liberty 
of  the  distributer,  and  liberty  of  the  con- 
sumer. The  first  two  need  no  discussion; 
they  have  been  long  thoroughly  and  brill- 
iantly illustrated  by  the  political  econo- 
mists of  Great  Britain  and  by  her  eminent 
statesmen ;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  enough 


attention  has  not  been  directed  to  the 
third;  and,  with  your  patience,  I  will 
dwell  upon  that  for  a  moment,  before 
proceeding  to  other  topics. 

It  is  a  necessity  of  every  manufacturing 
and  commercial  people  that  their  cus- 
tomers should  be  very  wealthy  and  intelli- 
gent. Let  us  put  the  subject  before  you 
in  the  familiar  light  of  your  own  local 
experience.  To  whom  do  the  tradesmen 
of  Liverpool  sell  the  most  goods  at  the 
highest  profit?  To  the  ignorant  and  poor 
or  to  the  educated  and  prosperous?  (A 
voice:  "To  the  Southerners."  Laughter.) 
The  poor  man  buys  simply  for  his  body; 
he  buys  food,  he  buys  clothing,  he  buys 
fuel,  he  buys  lodging.  .  .  . 

On  the  other  hand,  a  man  well  off — ■ 
how  is  it  with  him?  He  buys  in  far  great- 
er quantity.  He  can  afford  to  do  it;  he 
has  the  money  to  pay  for  it.  He  buy^ 
in  far  greater  variety,  because  he  seeks 
to  gratify  not  merely  physical  wants,  but 
also  mental  wants.  He  buys  for  the  satis- 
faction of  sentiment  and  taste,  as  well 
as  of  sense.  He  buys  silk,  wool,  flax,  cot- 
ton ;  he  buys  all  metals — iron,  silver,  gold, 
platinum;  in  short,  he  buys  for  all  ne- 
cessities and  all  substances.  But  that  is 
not  all.  He  buys  a  better  quality  of  goods. 
He  buys  richer  silks,  finer  cottons,  high- 
er-grained wools.  Now  a  rich  silk  means 
so  much  skill  and  care  of  somebody's, 
that  has  been  expended  upon  it  to  make 
it  finer  and  richer;  and  so  of  cotton  and 
so  of  wool.  That  is,  the  price  of  the 
finer  goods  runs  back  to  the  very  begin- 
ning and  remunerates  the  workman  as 
well  as  the  merchant.  Now,  the  whole 
laboring  community  is  as  much  interest- 
ed and  profited  as  the  mere  merchant, 
in  this  buying  and  selling  of  the  higher 
grades  in  the  greater  varieties  and  quan- 
tities. .  .  .  Both  the  workman  and  the 
merchant  are  profited  by  having  purchas- 
ers that  demand  quality,  variety,  and 
quantity.  Now,  if  this  be  so  in  the  toAvn 
or  the  city,  it  can  only  be  so  because  it 
is  a  law.  This  is  the  specific  development 
of  a  general  or  universal  law,  and,  there- 
fore, we  should  expect  to  find  it  as  true 
of  a  nation  as  of  a  city  like  Liverpool. 
I  know  that  it  is  so,  and  you  know  that 
it  is  true  of  all  the  world ;  and  it  is  just 
as  important  to  have  customers  educated, 
intelligent^  moral,  and  rich  out  of  Liver- 


306 


Sxi£]CS£Bi 

pool  as  it  is  in  Liverpool.  (Applause.)  great  deal  more  important  to  Great  Brit- 
They  are  able  to  buy;  they  want  variety;  ain  than  the  doctrine  how  to  raise  cot- 
they  want  the  very  best,  and  those  are  ton.  It  is  to  that  doctrine  I  ask  from  you, 
the  customers  you  want.  That  nation  business  men,  practical  men,  men  of  fact, 
is  the  best  customer  that  is  freest,  because  sagacious  Englishmen,  to  that  point  I 
freedom  works  prosperity,  industry,  and  ask  a  moment's  attention.  ( Shouts  of 
wealth.  Great  Britain,  then,  aside  from  "Oh,  oh!"  hisses  and  applause.)  There 
moral  considerations,  has  a  direct  com-  are  no  more  continents  to  be  discovered, 
mercial  and  pecuniary  interest  in  the  lib-  ("Hear,  hear!")  The  market  of  the  future 
erty,  civilization,  and  wealth  of  every  must  be  found — how?  There  is  very  lit- 
nation  on  the  globe.  ( Loud  applause. )  tie  hope  of  any  more  demand  being  created 
You  also  have  an  interest  in  this,  because  by  new  fields.  If  you  are  to  have  a  better 
you  are  a  moral  and  religious  people,  market  there  must  be  some  kind  of  proc- 
("Oh,  oh!"  laughter  and  applause.)  You  ess  invented  to  make  the  old  fields  bet- 
desire  it  from  the  highest  motives ;  and  ter.  ( A  voice :  "  Tell  us  something  new," 
godliness  is  profitable  in  all  things,  hav-  shouts  of  "Order!"  and  interruption.) 
ing  the  promise  of  the  life  that  now  is  Let  us  look  at  it,  then.  You  must  civilize 
as  well  as  of  that  which  is  to  come;  but  the  world  in  order  to  make  a  better  class 
if  there  were  no  hereafter,  and  if  man  of  purchasers.  (Interruption.)  If  you 
had  no  progress  in  this  life,  and  if  there  were  to  press  Italy  down  again,  under  the 
were  no  question  of  civilization  at  all,  it  feet  of  despotism,  Italy,  discouraged,  could 
would  be  worth  your  while  to  protect  draw  but  very  few  supplies  from  you.  .  .  . 
civilization  and  liberty  merely  as  a  com-  A  savage  is  a  man  of  one  story,  and 
mercial    speculation.    .    .    .  that  one  story  a  cellar.     When  a  man  be- 

They  have  said  that  your  chief  want  gins  to  be  civilized,  he  raises  another 
is  cotton.  I  deny  it.  Your  chief  want  story.  When  you  Christianize  and  civil- 
is  consumers.  (Applause  and  hisses.)  You  ize  the  man,  you  put  story  upon  story, 
have  got  skill,  you  have  got  capital,  and  for  you  develop  faculty  after  faculty;  and 
you  have  got  machinery  enough  to  manu-  you  have  to  supply  every  story  with  your 
facture  goods  for  the  whole  population  productions.  The  savage  is  a  man  one 
of  the  globe.  You  could  turn  out  four-  story  deep;  the  civilized  man  is  thirty 
fold  as  much  as  you  do,  if  you  only  had  stories  high.  (Applause.)  Now,  if  you 
the  market  to  sell  in.  It  is  not  so  much  go  to  a  lodging-house,  where  there  are 
the  want,  therefore,  of  fabric,  though  three  or  four  men,  your  sales  to  them 
there  may  be  a  temporary  obstruction  of  may,  no  doubt,  be  worth  something;  but 
it;  but  the  principal  and  increasing  want  if  you  go  to  a  lodging-house  like  "some 
— increasing  from  year  to  year — is,  where  of  those  which  I  saw  in  Edinburgh,  which 
shall  we  find  men  to  buy  what  we  can  seemed  to  contain  about  twenty  stories 
manufacture  so  fast?  (Interruption  and  — ("Oh,  oh!"  and  interruption) — every 
a  voice,  "  The  Morrill  tariff,"  and  ap-  story  of  which  is  full,  and  all  who  occupy 
plause. )  Before  the  American  war  broke  buy  of  you — which  is  the  better  customer, 
out,  your  warehouses  were  loaded  with  the  man  who  is  drawn  out  or  the  man 
goods  that  you  could  not  sell.  (Applause  who  is  pinched  up?  (Laughter.)  Now, 
and  hisses. )  You  had  over-manufactured;  there  is  in  this  a  great  and  sound  prin- 
what  is  the  meaning  of  over  -  manufact-  ciple  of  economy.  ("  Yah,  yah !"  from  the 
uring  but  this:  that  you  had  skill,  capi-  passage  outside  the  hall  and  loud  laugh- 
tal,  machinery,  to  create  faster  than  you  ter.)  If  the  South  should  be  rendered 
had  customers  to  take  goods  off  your  independent — (at  this  juncture  mingled 
hands?  And  you  know  that  rich  as  Great  cheering  and  hissing  became  immense; 
Britain  is,  vast  as  are  her  manufactures,  half  the  audience  rose  to  their  feet,  wav- 
if  she  could  have  fourfold  the  present  de-  ing  hats  and  handkerchiefs,  and  in  every 
mand,  she  could  have  fourfold  riches  to-  part  of  the  hall  there  was  the  greatest 
morrow ;  and  every  political  economist  commotion  and  uproar ) .  You  have  had 
will  tell  you  that  your  want  is  not  cotton  your  turn  now;  now  let  me  have  mine 
primarily,  but  customers.  Therefore,  the  again.  (Loud  applause  and  laughter.) 
doctrine    how    to    make    customers    is    a    It  is  a  little  inconvenient  to  talk  against 

307 


S££Gxx£xi 


the  wind;  but,  after  all,  if  you  will  just 
keep  good-natured — I  am  not  going  to  lose 
my  temper;  will  you  watch  yours?  (Ap- 
plause.) Besides  all  that,  it  rests  me, 
and  gives  me  a  chance,  you  know,  to  get 
my  breath.  (Applause  and  hisses.)  And 
I  think  that  the  bark  of  those  men  is 
worse  than  their  bite.  They  do  not  mean 
any  harm — they  don't  know  any  better. 
(Loud  laughter,  applause,  hisses,  and  con- 
tinued uproar.)  I  was  saying,  when  these 
responses  broke  in,  that  it  was  worth 
our  while  to  consider  both  alternatives. 
What  will  be  the  result  if  this  present 
struggle  shall  eventuate  in  the  separation 
of  America  and  making  the  South — (loud 
applause,  hisses,  hooting,  and  cries  of 
"  Bravo ! " )  — a  slave  territory  exclusive- 
ly—  (cries  of  "No,  no!"  and  laughter)  — 
and  the  North  a  free  territory — what  will 
be  the  final  result?  You  will  lay  the 
foundation  for  carrying  the  slave  popu- 
lation clear  through  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
This  is  the  first  step.  There  is  not  a  man 
who  has  been  a  leader  of  the  South  any 
time  within  these  twenty  years  that  has 
not  had  this  for  a  plan.  It  was  for  this 
that  Texas  was  invaded,  first  by  colo- 
nists, next  by  marauders,  until  it  was 
wrested  from  Mexico.  It  was  for  this 
that  they  engaged  in  the  Mexican  War 
itself,  by  which  the  vast  territory  reach- 
ing to  the  Pacific  was  added  to  the  Union. 
Never  for  a  moment  have  they  given  up 
the  plan  of  spreading  the  American  in- 
stitutions, as  they  call  them,  straight 
through  towards  the  West ;  until  the  slave, 
who  has  washed  his  feet  in  the  Atlantic, 
shall  be  carried  to  wash  them  in  the 
Pacific.  (Cries  of  "Question?"  and  up- 
roar.) There!  I  have  got  that  statement 
out  and  you  cannot  put  it  back.  (Laugh- 
ter and  applause.)  Now,  let  us  consider 
the  prospect.  If  the  South  becomes  a 
slave  empire,  what  relation  will  it  have 
to  you  as  a  customer?  (A  voice:  "Or 
any  other  man."  Laughter.)  It  would  be 
an  empire  of  12,000,000  of  people.  Now, 
of  these  8,000,000  are  white  and  4,000,000 
black.  (A  voice:  "How  many  have  you 
got?"  Applause  and  laughter.  Another 
voice :  "  Free  your  own  slaves." )  Con- 
sider that  one-third  of  the  whole  are  the 
miserably  poor,  unbuying  blacks.  (Cries 
of  "No,  no!"  "Yes,  yes!"  and  interrup- 
tion.)     Y^ou    do    not    manufacture    much 


for  them.  (Hisses,  "Oh!"  "No.")  You 
have  not  got  machinery  coarse  enovigh. 
(Laughter  and  "  No!")  Your  labor  is  too 
skilled  by  far  to  manufacture  bagging 
and  linsey-woolsey.  (A  Southerner:  "We 
are  going  to  free  them,  every  one.")  Then 
you  and  I  agree  exactly.  (Laughter.) 
One  other  third  consists  of  a  j^oor,  un- 
skilled, degraded  white  population,  and  the 
remaining  one-third,  which  is  a  large  al- 
lowance, we  will  say  intelligent  and  rich. 
Now  here  are  12,000,000  of  people,  and 
only  one-third  of  them  are  customers  that 
can  afi'ord  to  buy  the  kind  of  goods  that 
you  bring  to  market.  (Interruption  and 
uproar.)  My  friends,  I  saw  a  man  once, 
who  was  a  little  late  at  a  railway  station, 
chase  an  express  train.  He  did  not  catch 
it.  ( Laughter. )  If  you  are  going  to  stop 
this  meeting,  you  have  got  to  stop  it  be- 
fore I  speak;  for  after  I  have  got  the 
things  out,  you  may  chase  as  long  as  you 
please — you  would  not  catch  them. 
(Laughter  and  interruption.)  But  there 
is  luck  in  leisure;  I'm  going  to  take  it 
easy.  (Laughter.)  Two  -  thirds  of  the 
population  of  the  Southern  States  to-day 
are  non-purchasers  of  English  goods.  (A 
voice:  "  No,  they  are  not;"  "  No,  no!"  and 
uproar.)  Now,  you  must  recollect  another 
fact — namely,  that  this  is  going  on  clear 
tlnough  to  the  Pacific  Ocean;  and  if  by 
sympathy  or  help  you  establish  a  slave 
empire,  you  sagacious  Britons —  ( "  Oh, 
oh!"  and  hooting) — if  you  like  it  better, 
then,  I  will  leave  the  adjective  out — 
(laughter,  "Hear!"  and  applause) — are 
busy  in  favoring  the  establishment  of  an 
empire  from  ocean  to  ocean  that  should 
have  fewest  customers  and  the  largest  non- 
buying  population.  (Applause,  "No,  no!" 
A  voice:  "  I  thought  it  was  the  happy  peo- 
ple that  populated  fastest.")  ...  It  is 
said  that  the  North  is  fighting  for  union, 
and  not  for  emancipation.  The  North  is 
fighting  for  union,  for  that  insures  eman- 
cipation. (Loud  cheers,  "Oh,  oh!"  "No, 
no!"  and  cheers.)  A  great  many  men  say 
to  ministers  of  the  Gospel :  "  You  pretend 
to  be  preaching  and  working  for  the  love 
of  the  people.  Why,  you  are  all  the  time 
preaching  for  the  sake  of  the  Church." 
What  does  the  minister  say?  "It  is  by 
means  of  the  Church  that  we  help  the  peo- 
ple," and  when  men  say  that  we  are  fight- 
ing for  the  Union,  I  too  say  we  are  fighting 


308 


K  hi  Kli TT  rj  f\i 


for  the  Union.  ("Hear,  hear!"  and  a 
voice :  "  That's  right." )  But  the  motive 
determines  the  value;  and  why  are  we 
fighting  for  the  Union?  Because  we  never 
shall  forget  the  testimony  of  our  enemies. 
They  have  gone  off  declaring  that  the 
Union  in  the  hands  of  the  North  was 
fatal  to  slavery.  (Loud  applause.)  There 
is  testimony  in  court  for  you.  (A  voice: 
"  See  that,"  and  laughter. ) .  .  . 

In  the  first  place,  I  am  ashamed  to  con- 
fess that  such  was  the  thoughtlessness — ■ 
(interruption) — such  was  the  stupor  of 
the  North —  ( renewed  interruption )  — you 
will  get  a  word  at  a  time;  to-morrow  will 
let  folks  see  what  it  is  you  don't  want 
to  hear — that  for  a  period  of  twenty-five 
years  she  went  to  sleep,  and  permitted 
herself  to  be  drugged  and  poisoned  with 
the  Southern  prejudice  against  black  men. 
(Applause  and  uproar.)  The  evil  was 
made  worse  because,  when  any  object 
whatever  has  caused  anger  between  po- 
litical parties,  a  political  animosity  arises 
against  that  object,  no  matter  how  inno- 
cent in  itself;  no  matter  what  were  the 
original  influences  which  excited  the  quar- 
rel. Thus  the  colored  man  has  been  the 
football  between  the  two  parties  in  the 
North,  and  has  suffered  accordingly.  I 
confess  it  to  my  shame.  But  I  am  speak- 
ing now  on  my  own  ground,  for  I  began 
twenty-five  years  ago,  with  a  small  party, 
to  combat  the  unjust  dislike  of  the  colored 
men.  (Loud  applause,  dissension,  and  up- 
roar. The  interruption  at  this  point  be- 
came so  violent  that  the  friends  of  Mr. 
Beecher  throughout  the  hall  rose  to  their 
feet,  waving  hats  and  handkerchiefs,  and 
renewing  their  shouts  of  applause.  The 
interruption  lasted  some  minutes.)  Well, 
I  have  lived  to  see  a  total  revolution  in 
the  Northern  feeling — I  stand  here  to  bear 
solemn  witness  of  that.  It  is  my  opinion ; 
it  is  my  knowledge.  (Great  uproar.) 
Those  men  who  undertook  to  stand  up  for 
the  rights  of  all  men — black  as  well  as 
white — have  increased  in  number;  and 
now  what  party  in  the  North  represents 
those  men  that  resist  the  evil  prejudices 
of  past  years?  The  Republicans  are  that 
party.  (Loud  applause.)  And  who  are 
those  men  in  the  North  that  have  oppress- 
ed the  negro?  They  are  the  Peace  Demo- 
crats; and  the  prejudice  for  which  in 
England  you  are  attempting  to  punish  me, 


is  a  prejudice  raised  by  the  men  who  have 
opposed  me  all  my  life.  These  pro-slavery 
Democrats  abused  the  negro.  I  defended 
him,  and  they  mobbed  me  for  doing  it. 
Oh,  justice!  (Loud  laughter,  applause, 
and  hisses.)    .  .  . 

There  is  another  fact  that  I  wash  to  al- 
lude to — not  for  the  sake  of  reproach  or 
blame,  but  by  way  of  claiming  your  more 
lenient  consideration — and  that  is,  that 
slavery  was  entailed  upon  us  by  your 
action.  ("Hear,  hear!")  Against  the 
earnest  protests  of  the  colonists  the  then 
government  of  Great  Britain — I  will  con- 
cede not  knowing  what  were  the  mischiefs 
■ — igTiorantly,  but  in  point  of  fact,  forced 
slave  traffic  on  the  unwilling  colonists. 
(Great  uproar,  in  the  midst  of  which  one 
individual  was  lifted  up  and  carried  out 
of  the  room  amid  hisses  and  cheers.) 

The  Chairman:  "If  you  would  only  sit 
down  no  disturbance  would  take  place." 

(The  disturbance  having  subsided,  Mr. 
Beecher  continued.) 

I  was  going  to  ask  you,  suppose  each 
child  is  born  with  hereditary  disease;  sup- 
pose this  disease  was  entailed  upon  him 
by  parents  who  had  contracted  it  by  their 
own  misconduct,  would  it  be  fair  that 
those  parents  that  had  brought  into  the 
world  the  diseased  child,  should  rail  at 
that  child  because  it  was  diseased?  ("No, 
no!")  Would  not  the  child  have  the  right 
to  turn  round  and  say :  "  Father,  it  was 
your  fault  that  I  had  it,  and  you  ought  to 
be  pleased  to  be  patient  with  my  deficien- 
cies "?  (Applause  and  hisses,  and  cries  of 
"  Order ! "  great  interruption  and  great 
disturbance  here  took  place  on  the  right 
of  the  platform;  and  the  chairman  said 
that  if  the  persons  around  the  unfortunate 
individual  who  had  caused  the  disturb- 
ance would  allow  him  to  speak  alone,  but 
not  assist  him  in  making  the  disturbance, 
i1  might  soon  be  put  an  end  to.  The  in- 
terruption continued  until  another  person 
was  carried  out  of  the  hall.  Mr.  Beecher 
continued.)  I  do  not  ask  that  you  should 
justify  slavery  in  us,  because  it  was  wrong 
in  you  200  years  ago;  but  having  ig- 
norantly  been  the  means  of  fixing  it  upon 
us,  now  that  we  are  struggling  with  mor- 
tal struggles  to  free  ourselves  from  it,  we 
have  a  right  to  your  tolerance,  your  pa- 
tience, and  charitable  constructions. 

No  man  can  unveil  the  future;  no  man 


309 


BEECHEB^BEEKMAN 


can  tell  what  revolutions  are  about  to 
break  upon  the  world ;  no  man  can  tell 
what  destiny  belongs  to  France,  nor  to 
any  of  the  European  powers;  but  one 
thing  is  certain,  that  in  the  exigencies  of 
the  future  there  will  be  combinations  and 
recombinations,  and  that  those  nations 
that  are  of  the  same  faith,  the  same 
blood,  and  the  same  substantial  interests 
ought  not  to  be  alienated  from  each  other, 
but  ought  to  stand  together.  (Immense 
cheering  and  hisses.)  I  do  not  say  that 
you  ought  not  to  be  in  the  most  friendly 
alliance  with  France  or  with  Germany; 
but  I  do  say  that  your  own  children,  the 
ofl'spring  of  England,  ought  to  be  nearer 
to  you  than  any  people  of  strange  tongue. 
(A  voice:  "Degenerate  sons,"  applause 
and  hisses ;  another  voice :  "  What  about 
the  Trent?")  If  there  had  been  any  feel- 
ings of  bitterness  in  America,  let  me  tell 
you  that  they  had  been  excited,  rightly 
or  wrongly,  under  the  impression  that 
Great  Britain  was  going  to  intervene  be- 
tween us  and  our  own  lawful  struggle. 
(A  voice:  "No!"  and  applause.)  With 
the  evidence  that  there  is  no  such  inten- 
tion, all  bitter  feelings  will  pass  away. 
(Applavise. )  We  do  not  agree  with  the 
recent  doctrine  of  neutrality  as  a  question 
of  law.  But  it  is  past,  and  we  are  not  dis- 
posed to  raise  that  question.  We  accept 
it  as  a  fact,  and  we  say  that  the  utter- 
ance of  Lord  Russell  at  Blairgowrie — (ap- 
plause, hisses,  and  a  voice:  "What  about 
Lord  Brougham?") — together  with  the 
declaration  of  the  government  in  stopping 
war-steamers  here — (great  uproar  and  ap- 
plause )  — has  gone  far  towards  quieting 
every  fear,  and  removing  every  apprehen- 
sion from  our  minds.  (Uproar  and  shouts 
of  applause.)  And  now  in  the  future  it 
is  the  work  of  ev^ery  good  man  and  patriot 
not  to  create  divisions,  but  to  do  things 
that  will  make  for  peace.  ("  Oh,  oh,"  and 
laughter.)  On  our  part  it  shall  be  done. 
(Applause  and  hisses,  and  "No,  no.") 
On  your  part  it  ought  to  be  done;  and 
when  in  any  of  the  convulsions  that  come 
upon  the  world.  Great  Britain  finds  her- 
self struggling  single-handed  against  the 
gigantic  powers  that  spread  oppression 
and  darkness — (applause,  hisses,  and  up- 
roar)— there  ought  to  be  such  cordiality 
that  she  can  turn  and  say  to  her  first-born 
and     most     illustrious     child,     "  Come ! " 


("Hear,  hear!"  applause,  tremendous 
cheers,  and  uproar.)  I  will  not  say  that 
England  cannot  again,  as  hitherto,  single- 
handed  manage  any  power — (applause  and 
uproar — but  I  will  say  that  England  and 
America  together  for  religion  and  liberty 
—  (a  voice:  "Soap,  soap!"  uproar,  and 
great  applause) — are  a  match  for  the 
world.  (Applause;  a  voice:  "They  don't 
want  any  more  soft  soap.")  Now,  gentle- 
men and  ladies — (a  voice:  "Sam  Slick"; 
and  another  voice:  "Ladies  and  gentle- 
men, if  you  please") — when  I  came  I  was 
asked  whether  I  would  answer  questions, 
and  I  very  readily  consented  to  do  so,  as 
I  had  in  other  places;  but  I  will  tell  you 
it  was  because  I  expected  to  have  the  op- 
portunity of  speaking  with  some  sort  of 
ease  and  quiet.  (A  voice:  "So  you 
have.")  I  have  for  an  hour  and  a  half 
spoken  against  a  storm — ("Hear,  hear!") 
— and  you  yourselves  are  witnesses  that, 
by  the  interruption,  I  have  been  obliged 
to  strive  with  my  voice  so  that  I  no 
longer  have  the  power  to  control  this  as- 
sembly. (Applause.)  And  although  I  am 
in  spirit  perfectly  willing  to  answer  any 
question,  and  more  than  glad  of  the 
chance,  yet  I  am  by  this  very  unnecessary 
opposition  to-night  incapacitated  physical- 
ly from  doing  it.  Ladies  and  gentlemen, 
I  bid  you  good-evening. 

Beecher,  Lyman,  clergyman;  born  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  2,  1775;  was 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1797,  and  ordained 
in  1799.  In  1832  he  accepted  the  pres- 
idency of  Lane  Seminary,  Cincinnati,  and 
served  the  seminary  in  that  capacity 
twenty  years.  He  had  seven  sons,  all  of 
whom  became  Congregational  clergymen — 
William,  Edward,  George,  Henry  Ward, 
Charles,  Thomas,  and  James.  His  daugh- 
ters were  Catharine  Beecher,  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe,  ]\Iary  Beecher  Perkins,  and 
Isabella  Beecher  Hooker.  He  died  in 
Brooklyn,  Jan.  10,  1863. 

Beekman,  Gerardus,  colonial  govern- 
or; was  a  member  of  Leisler's  council  in 
1688  and  was  condemned  with  Leisler, 
but  subsequently  pardoned.  In  1700  he 
became  lieutenant-colonel  of  a  militia  reg- 
iment under  Governor  Bellomont.  After 
the  removal  of  Governor  Ingoldsby,  Beek- 
man was  president  of  the  council  and  act- 
ing governor  of  New  York  until  the  ar- 
rival of  Governor  Hunter,  in  whose  coun- 


510 


BEET    SUGAR— BELCHER 

cil  he  also  served.     He  died  in  New  York  in    the    United    States    in    the    season    of 

City  about  1728.  1899-1900: 

Beet   Sugar.      This   substitute   for   the  California   37,938 

product   of   sugar-cane  was   first  made   in  Nebraska  4,591 

1747   in  Germany  by  Maregraf,  who  dis-  F,^*^^  ;;  ' '. ^'^It 

•'      ■'  °°       '  New   Mexico 446 

covered  that  excellent  sugar  could  be  ob-  ^^^  York .......... .\.\.\.     1  607 

tained   from   the    common   beet.      In    1830  Michigan   16,699 

efforts    were    made    in    the   United    States  Minnesota   2,053 

to   establish   the   beet-sugar   industry,   but  lufno^ 804 

it  was  not  until  1876  that  an  adequately  Colorado 804 

equipped  factory  was  erected  for  the  pur-  Washington 446 

pose,   in  Alvarado,   Cal.     Since  that  year  n,  ^  ,    ,      tt  -^  ^  c.^  ^        TTTTT 

^       '      .     .1                  1           ,          1     -i,            ,1  Totals  for  United  States..    74,944 
many  similar  ones  have  been  built,  mostly 

in  the  Western   States,  and  the  industry  Behring.     See  Bering. 

may  now  be  said  to  be  firmly  established.  Beissel,  Johann  Conrad,  reformer ;  born 

Federal  and  State  governments  have  great-  in  Eberbach,  Germany,  in  1690;  becoming 

ly    aided    in    bringing    about    this    result  a  Dunker  he  was  forced  to  leave  his  native 

through  the  offer  of  bounties  on  produc-  country   and   emigrated   to   Pennsylvania, 

tion.      Beet  -  roots    yield    an    average    of  where  in  1733  he  established  at  the  village 

about   10  per   cent,   of  saccharine  matter,  of  Ephrata  a  monastic  society,  which  at 

and   sugar-cane   about    18   per   cent.      The  one  time  numbered  nearly  300.    The  Capu- 

white    Slevig   beet   is   the    richest    among  chin  habit  was  adopted  by  both  sexes  and 

the     varieties.      In     manufacturing,     the  celibacy  was   considered  a  virtue,   though 

roots  are  compressed  into  a  pulp  by  ma-  not  an  obligation.     Soon  after  the  death 

chinery;  the  pulp  is  put  into  bags,  and  the  of  Beissel,  in  1768,  the  society  at  Ephrata 

juice    forced    out   by   presses.      After    the  began  to  decline.     A  history  of  the  Ephra- 

juice  has  been  clarified  by  the  use  of  lime  ta  society  was  published  in  1901. 

or  sulphuric  acid,  it  is  filtered  till  no  de-  Belcher,  Jonathan,  colonial  governor; 

posit  is  apparent,  and  then  boiled  for  the  born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Jan.   8,   1681; 

purpose    of    concentrating   it.      When    the  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1699. 

density  of   25   Beaume   has  been   reached.  He  visited   Europe,  where  he   became   ac- 

the  juice  is  strained  through  flannel,  be-  quainted  with  the  Princess  Sophia  and  her 

coming    a    dark-colored    syrup,    which    in  son    (afterwards   George   I.   of   England), 

turn  is  filtered  through  animal  charcoal,  which  led  to  his  future  honors.     After  a 

or  bone-black,  to   free   it   of   its  mucilage  six  years'  sojourn  he  returned  to  America, 

and   coloring   matter.      The   filtered   juice  engaged  in  mercantile  business  in  Boston, 

is  then  treated  with  lime  -  water  and  the  became  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Assem- 

whites    of    eggs,    and    stirred    till    it    is  bly,  and  in  1729  was  sent  as  agent  of  the 

slightly   alkaline.      It    is    then    placed    in  provinces  to  England.    In  1730  he  was  ap- 

copper  pans,  and  while  boiling  is  constant-  pointed    governor    of    Massachusetts    and 

ly  stirred  and  scummed.     After  sufficient  New    Hampshire,    which    office    he    held 

concentration  the  substance  is  placed  in  a  eleven  years.     He  was  authorized   to   ac- 

v/arm  room  for  several  days  till  it  crystal-  cept    from    the    legislature    of    Massachu- 

lizes.      The   juice    or   molasses   which    re-  setts  a  standing  salary  of  $5,000  a  year, 

mains  is  drained  off",  and  the  solid  part  is  to  be  paid  first  out  of  the  annual  grants. 

raw  sugar.     This  may  be  further  refined  When   he  first  met   the   legislature    (Sep- 

by  dissolving  again  and  using  albumen  and  tember,   1730),  he  tried  to  bring  about  a 

blood.  settlement  for  a  standing  salary,  but  could 

Experiments   in   beet    sugar   production  not,  and  the  Assembly  was  dissolved.     To 

were    stimulated    by    the    United    States  secure  a  majority  in  the  next  House,  the 

bounty   law,    in    operation    from    July    1,  governor  tried  to  gain  the  influence  of  cer- 

1891,  to  Aug.  27,  1894.  tain  leaders  by  gifts  of  office;    but  their 

In  the  period   1890-1900  the  output  in  acceptance    diminished    their    popularity, 

the    United    States    was    increased    from  and  he  gained  nothing.  The  people  had  been 

2,800  tons  to  74,944  tons.     The  following  encouraged   by   the   English   press,   which 

table  shows  the  production,  in  long  tons,  had  commended  the  Bostonians  for  their 

311 


BELKNAP— BELL 

"noble  stand"  against  the  demands  of  thence  to  Boston  in  1872,  and  became  Pro- 
Buinet,  which  had  "  endeared  them  to  all  fessor  of  Vocal  Physiology  in  the  Boston 
lovers  and  asserters  of  liberty."  The  new  University.  He  invented  the  telephone, 
court  was  unmanageable  by  the  governor,  which  was  first  exhibited  at  the  Centennial 
and  he  accepted  a  grant  of  a  salary  for  Exposition  in  1876.  He  also  invented  the 
one    year.      In    consequence    of    a    clamor    photophone. 

against  him,  he  was  superseded  in  1741,  Bell,  Charles  H.,  naval  officer;  born 
but  succeeded  in  vindicating  himself  be-  in  New  York,  Aug.  15,  1798;  entered  the 
fore  the  British  Court.  Belcher  was  made  naval  service  in  June,  1812;  served  with 
governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  arrived  in  Decatur  in  1813-14;  with  Chauncey,  on 
1747,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  Lake  Ontario,  in  1814;  and  with  Decatur 
his  life.  He  extended  the  charter  of  the  again,  in  the  Mediterranean,  in  181.5.  He 
College  of  New  Jersey,  and  was  its  chief  was  with  the  squadron  in  the  West  Indies 
patron  and  benefactor.  He  died  in  Eliza-  (1824-29)  operating  against  the  pirates 
l3ethtown,  N.  J.,  Aug.  31,  1757.  there.     In  1860  he  was  in  command  of  the 

Belknap,  George  Eugene,  naval  officer ;  Norfolk  navy -yard ;  commanded  the  Pa- 
born  in  Newport,  N.  H.,  Jan.  22,  1832;  cific  squadron  in  1862-64,  and  the  navy- 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1855,  yard  at  Brooklyn  186.5-68.  In  July,  1866, 
and  in  1862  became  lieutenant-commander,  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral.  He  died  in 
He  became  executive  officer  of  the  iron-  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Feb.  19,  1875. 
clad  'N&w  Ironsides  in  1862,  and  was  with  Bell,  James  Franklin,  military  officer; 
her  in  her  contests  with  the  forts  in  born  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  in  1857 ;  was 
Charleston  Harbor  in  1863,  receiving  com-  graduated  at  the  United  States  Military 
niendation  from  Rear-Admiral  Dahlgren.  Academy  in  1878;  promoted  to  second 
In  the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  (g.  v.)  he  lieutenant  in  the  9th  Cavalry  the  same 
commanded  the  iron-clad  Canonicus,  and  year,  first  lieutenant  in  the  7th  Cavalry 
his  services  were  officially  commended  in  1890,  and  captain  in  1899.  In  the  vol- 
by  Rear-Admiral  Porter.  He  was  pro-  imteer  army  he  was  commissioned  major 
moted  to  rear-admiral  in  1889,  and  was  of  engineers  May  17,  1898;  major  and 
retired  in  1894.  assistant  adjutant-general,  April  17,  1899, 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  clergyman ;  born  in  and  colonel  of  the  36th  JJnited  States 
Boston,  June  4,  1744;  graduated  at  Har-  Infantry,  July  5,  1899.  In  May,  1898,  he 
v^ard  College  in  1762.  He  founded  the  was  ordered  to  duty  to  Manila,  where 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society;  Avas  an  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Bureau  of 
overseer  of  Harvard  College ;  was  a  pa-  Information  ( or  secret-service  department 
triot  during  the  war  for  independence,  of  the  army  in  the  Philippines).  In  Feb- 
and  an  opponent  of  African  slavery.  He  ruary,  1899,  when  operations  were  begun 
published  a  History  of  Neio  Hampshire;  against  the  Filipino  insurgents,  he  at- 
Am.erican  Biography,  etc.  He  died  in  tached  himself  to  the  staff  of  General  Mac- 
Boston,  Mass.,  June  20,  1798.  Arthur,  and  rendered  important  service  in 

Belknap,  William  Worth,  military  scouting.  On  Sept.  9,  for  "  most  distin- 
officer;  born  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  22,  guished  gallantry  in  action"  near  Porac, 
1829;  removed  to  Iowa  in  1851;  elected  Luzon,  President  McKinley  directed  that 
to  the  legislature  in  1857;  entered  the  a  congressional  medal  of  honor  should  be 
army  as  major  of  an  Iowa  regiment,  and  presented  to  him.  On  Nov.  12,  Colonel 
reached  the  grade  of  major-general,  March  Bell  took  possession  of  Tarlac,  where 
13,  1865.  lie  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Aguinaldo  had  established  his  headquar- 
War,  Oct.  13,  1869;  impeached  March  7,  ters.  The  following  month  he  was  pro- 
1876,  but  acquitted  for  want  of  jurisdic-  moted  to  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 
tion.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.'c,  Oct.  On  the  reorganization  of  the  regular  army 
12,  1890.  in  February,  1901,  President  McKinley  ap- 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  inventor ;  pointed  Colonel  Bell  one  of  the  new  briga- 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  March  3,  dier-generals— an  act  that  caused  eonsider- 
1847;  son  of  Alexander  Melville;  was  able  surprise,  as  this  officer  was  only  a 
educated  in  Edinburgh  and  London  univer-  captain  in  the  regular  army,  and  was  ad- 
sities.     In   1870  he  went  to  Canada,  and    vanced  over  the  heads  of  more  than  1,000 

312 


BELL— BELLOMONT 


officers  who,  according  to  the  rules  of 
seniority,  would  have  been  entitled  to  pre- 
cede him  in  promotion.  General  Bell  is 
widely  known  in  the  army  as  a  dashing 
cavalry  officer,  and  when  General  Otis 
recommended  the  presentation  of  the 
medal  of  honor,  he  said  that  it  was  a  won- 
der that  Colonel  Bell  still  lived,  because 
of  his  recklessness  in  action. 

Bell,  John,  statesman;  born  near 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  15,  1797;  was  grad- 
uated at  Cumberland  College  (now  the 
University  of  Nashville)  in  1814,  and 
studied  law  in  Franklin,  Tenn.  In  1817 
he  was  elected  to  the  State  Senate.  After 
the  expiration  of  his  term  he  practised 
law  till  1827,  when  he  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress. He  served  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives till  1841  by  re-elections.  After 
abandoning  his  free-trade  views,  he  became 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Whig  Party 
(q.  v.),  and  was  elected  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  1834.  Presi- 
dent Harrison  appointed  him  Secretary 
of  War  in  1841,  but  he  resigned  with  other 
members  of  the  cabinet  (excepting  Daniel 
Webster)  when  President  Tyler  left  the 
Whig  party.  In  1847-.59  he  was  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Senate,  and  in  1860 
he  was  the  unsuccessful  candidate  of  the 
Constitutional  Union  Party  (g.  v.)  for 
President,  with  Edward  Everett  for  Vice- 
President.  He  died  in  Cumberland,  Tenn., 
Sept.  10,  1869. 

Bellamy,  Edward,  author ;  born  in  Chic- 
opee  Falls,  Mass.,  March  26,  1850;  was 
educated  at  Union  College,  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  and  also  studied  in  Germany.  Re- 
turning home  he  read  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  but  never  practised. 
He  became  an  editorial  writer  on  the  New 
York  Evening  Post,  but  soon  afterwards 
retired  from  journalism  to  devote  himself 
to  fiction.  His  works  include  Six  to  One; 
A  Nantucket  Idyl;  Dr.  Heidenhoff's  Proc- 
ess; Miss  Ludington's  Sister;  his  great- 
est effort.  Looking  Backward,  or  2000- 
1887,  a  work  treating  of  government  so- 
cialism; and  IsisUj,  Equality  (1897).  Sev- 
eral communities  were  established  on  his 
ideal  in  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  but 
all  were  short-lived.  He  died  in  Chicopee 
Falls,  Mass.,  May  22,  1898. 

Belle  Isle.     See  Confederate  Prisons. 

Bellingham,  Richard,  colonial  govern- 
or;   born    in   England    in    1592.      Bred   a 


313 


lawyer,  he  came  to  America  in  1634,  and 
was  chosen  deputy  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts- the  next  year.  He  was  elected  gov- 
ernor, in  opposition  to  Winthrop,  in  1641. 
He  was  rechosen  in  1654,  and  in  1666, 
after  the  death  of  Governor  Endicott,  con- 
tinuing in  office  the  rest  of  his  life.  His 
administration  was  a  somewhat  stormy 
one.  Bellingham  was  so  opposed  to  all  in- 
novations in  religious  matters  that  he  was 
severe  in  his  conduct  towards  the  Friends, 
or  Quakers.     He  died  Dec.  7,  1672. 

Bellomont,  Richard  Coote,  Earl  of, 
colonial  governor;  born  in  1636;  was  of 
the  Irish  peerage,  and  among  the  first  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  the  Prince  of  Orange 
when  he  invaded  England.  He  was  cre- 
ated earl  in  1689,  and  made  treasurer  and 
receiver-general  of  Queen  Mary.  In  May, 
1695,  he  was  appointed  governor  of  New 
York,  but  did  not  arrive  there  until  May, 
1698.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  commis- 
sioned governor  of  Massachusetts,  includ- 
ing New  Hampshire;  and  on  going  to  Bos- 
ton, in  1699,  he  was  well  received,  and  his 
administration  was  popular.  Bellomont 
had  been  one  of  the  parliamentary  com- 
mittee appointed  to  investigate  the  affair 
of  Leisler's  trial  and  execution,  and  had 
taken  a  warm  interest  in  the  reversal  of 
the  attainder  of  that  unfortunate  leader. 
On  his  arrival  in  New  York,  he  naturally 
connected  himself  with  the  Leisler  party, 
whom  Governor  Fletcher  had  strongly  op- 
posed. Bellomont  came  with  power  to  in- 
quire into  the  conduct  of  Governor  Fletch- 
er, and  he  Avas  so  well  satisfied  of  his 
malfeasance  in  office  that  he  sent  him  to 
England  under  arrest.  The  remains  of 
Leisler  and  Milborne  were  taken  up,  and 
after  lying  in  state  several  days  were  re- 
buried  in  the  Dutch  Church.  Bellomont 
chose  for  his  council  a  majority  of  "  Leis- 
lerians";  and  that  party  soon  obtained  a 
majority  in  the  Assembly  also.  One  of 
their  first  acts  was  to  vote  an  indemnity 
to  the  heirs  of  Leisler.  Bellomont  used 
every  means  to  gain  the  good-will  of  the 
people  in  both  provinces,  and  succeeded. 
The  earl  was  a  shareholder  in  the  privateer 
ship  commanded  by  Captain  Kidd;  and 
when  that  seaman  was  accused  of  piracy 
Bellomont  procured  his  arrest  in  Boston, 
and  sent  him  to  England  for  trial.  Bello- 
mont died  in  New  York,  March  5,  1701, 
and  the  earldom  expired  in  1800. 


BELLOWS— BEMIS'S    HEIGHTS 


HENRY    WHITNEY    BELLOWS,   D.D. 


Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  clergyman;  marched  from  Padueah  to  menace  Colum- 
born  in  Boston,  June  11,  1814.  Educated  bus  in  the  rear.  Grant  went  with  Me- 
at Harvard  and  the  Divinity  School  at  Clernand.  The  troops  landed  3  miles 
Cambridge,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  above  Belmont,  Nov.  7,  1861,  and  while 
first  Unitarian  Church  in  New  York  City  they  were  pushing  on  the  gunboats  opened 
in  January,  1838-     He  remained  its  pastor    fire    upon    Columbus.      General     (Bishop) 

Polk,  the  commander,  sent  General  Pil- 
low over  the  river  to  reinforce  the  little 
garrison  at  Belmont.  A  sharp  battle  en- 
sued, and  the  Nationals  were  victorious; 
but,  exposed  to  the  heavy  artillery  at 
Columbus,  the  post  was  untenable.  Giv- 
ing three  cheers  for  the  Union,  the  Na- 
tionals set  fire  to  the  Confederate  camp, 
and  hastened  back  towards  their  boats 
with  the  captured  men,  horses,  and  artil- 
lery. Polk  opened  seven  of  his  heaviest 
guns  upon  them,  and  at  the  same  time 
sent  over  some  fresh  troops  under  Gen- 
eral Cheatham.  Then  he  crossed  over 
himself,  with  two  regiments,  making  the 
whole  Confederate  force  about  5,000  men. 
They  fell  upon  Grant,  and  a  desperate 
struggle  ensued.  Grant  fought  his  way 
back  to  the  transports  under  cover  of  a 
until  his  death,  Jan.  30,  1882.  He  was  fire  from  the  gunboats,  and  escaped.  The 
the  projector  of  the  Christian  Inquirer,  in  Nationals  lost  about  500  men,  and  the 
1843,  and  he  occupied  from  the  beginning  Confederates  over  600,  killed,  wounded, 
a  conspicuous  place  in  the  pulpit,  in  let-    and  missing. 

ters,  and  in  social  life,  wielding  great  in-  Bemis's  Heig-hts,  Battles  of.  Gen- 
fiuence  for  good.  Dr.  Bellows  was  one  of  eral  Schuyler,  with  his  feeble  army,  had 
the  originators  of  the  United  States  San-  so  successfully  opposed  the  march  of  Bur- 
ITARY  Commission  (q.  v.) ,  which  per-  goyne  down  the  valley  of  the  Hudson  that 
formed  such  prodigious  benevolent  work  he  had  not  passed  Saratoga  the  first  week 
during  the  late  Civil  War.  He  was  presi-  in  August,  1777.  When  the  expedition  of 
dent  of  the  commission  from  the  beginning.  St.  Leger  from  the  Mohawk  and  the  de- 
Belmont,  August,  financier ;  born  in  feat  of  the  Germans  at  Hoosick,  near 
Germany,  Dec.  6,  1816;  removed  to  New  Bennington,  had  crippled  and  discouraged 
York,  1837;  consul-general  of  Austria  in  the  invaders,  and  Schuyler  was  about 
New  York  City,  1844-50;  United  States  to  turn  upon  them,  and  strike  for  the 
minister  to  Holland,  1854-58;  chairman  victory  for  which  he  had  so  well  pre- 
of  the  Democratic  national  committee,  pared,  he  was  superseded  by  General 
1860-72.  He  died  in  New  York  City,  Gates  in  the  command  of  the  Northern 
Nov.  24,  1890.  army.     Yet  his  patriotism  was  not  cooled 

Belmont,  Battle  at.  Just  before  Fre-  by  the  ungenerous  act,  the  result  of  in- 
mont  was  deprived  of  his  command  (see  trigue,  and  he  offered  Gates  every  assist- 
Fremont,  John  C.)  he  ordered  General  ance  in  his  power.  Had  the  latter  acted 
Grant  to  move  a  co-operative  force  along  promptly,  he  might  have  gained  a  vic- 
the  line  of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  was  tory  at  once;  but  he  did  not.  At  the 
promptly  done.  A  column  about  3,000  end  of  twenty  days  he  moved  the  army  to 
strong,  chiefly  Illinois  volunteers,  under  a  strong  position  on  Bemis's  Heights, 
Gen.  John  A.  McClernand,  went  down  where  his  camp  was  fortified  by  Kosci- 
from  Cairo  in  transports  and  wooden  gun-  usko,  the  Polish  patriot  and  engineer, 
boats  to  menace  Columbus  by  attacking  Burgoyne  called  in  his  outposts,  and  with 
Belmont,  opposite.  At  the  same  time  his  shattered  forces  and  splendid  train  of 
another  column,  under  Gen.  C.  F.  Smith,    artillery    he    crossed    the    Hudson    on    a 

314 


BEMIS'S    HEIGHTS 


bridge  of  boats  (Sept.  13,  1777),  and  en- 
camped on  the  Heights  of  Saratoga,  after- 
wards Schuylerville.  New  courage  had 
been  infused  into  the  hearts  of  the  Ameri- 
cans by  the  events  near  Bennington  and 
on  the  upper  Mohawk,  and  Gates's  army 
was  rapidly  increasing  in  numbers.  Bur- 
goyne  felt  compelled  to  move  forward 
speedily.  Some  American  troops,  under 
Col.  John  Brown,  had  got  in  his  rear,  and 
surprised  a  British  post  at  the  foot  of 
Lake  George  (Sept.  18).  They  also  at- 
tempted   to    capture    Ticonderoga.      Bur- 


act  on  the  defensive.  Gen.  Benedict  Ar- 
nold and  others,  who  observed  the  move- 
ments of  the  British,  urged  Gates  to  at- 
tack them,  but  he  refused  to  fight.  Even 
at  11  A.M.,  when  the  booming  of  a  can- 
non gave  the  signal  for  the  general  ad- 
vance of  Burgoyne's  army,  he  remained  in 
his  tent,  apparently  indifferent.  Arnold, 
as  well  as  others,  became  extremely  im- 
patient as  peril  drew  near.  He  was  finally 
permitted  to  order  Col.  Daniel  Morgan 
with  his  riflemen,  and  Dearborn  with  in- 
fantry, to  attack  the  Canadians  and  Ind- 


NEILSON    HOUSE    ON  BEillS'S    HEIGHTS.* 

goyne  had  moved   slowly   southward,   and  ians,  who  were  swarming  on  the  hills  in 

on  the  morning  of  Sept.  19  he  offered  bat-  advance  of  Burgoyne's  right.     These  were 

tie  to  Gates.  driven  back  and  pursued.   Morgan's  troops, 

First  Battle. — His  left  wing,  with  the  becoming  scattered,  were  recalled,  and 
immense  artillery  train,  commanded  by  with  New  England  troops,  under  Dearborn, 
Generals  Phillips  and  Riedesel,  kept  upon  Scammel,  and  Cilley,  another  furious 
the  plain  near  the  river.  The  centre,  com-  charge  was  made.  After  a  sharp  engage- 
posed  largely  of  German  troops,  led  by  ment,  in  which  Morgan's  horse  was  shot 
Burgoyne  in  person,  extended  to  a  range  under  him,  the  combatants  withdrew  to 
of  hills  that  were  touched  by  the  American  their  respective  lines.  Meanwhile  Bur- 
left,  and  upon  these  hills  General  Eraser  goyne  had  moved  rapidly  upon  the  Ameri- 
and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Breyman,  with  can  centre  and  left.  At  the  same  time 
grenadiers  and  infantry,  were  posted.  The  the  vigilant  Arnold  attempted  to  turn  the 
front  and  flank  of  Burgoyne's  army  were  British  right.  Gates  denied  him  rein- 
covered  by  the  Canadians,  Tories,  and  Ind-  forcements,  and  restrained  him  in  every 
ians  who  yet  remained  in  camp.  General  way  in  his  power,  and  he  failed.  Masked 
Gates,  who  lacked  personal  courage  and  by  thick  woods,  neither  party  was  now 
the  skill  of  a  good  commander,  resolved  to  certain  of  the  movements  of  the  other,  and 

they  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  met  in  a 

*  The  mansion  of  Mr.  Neilson,  an  active  ravine  at  Freeman's  farm,  at  which  Bur- 
Whig  at  the  time  of  the  battle.  It  was  the  goyne  had  halted.  There  they  fought  des- 
headquarters  of  General  Poor  and  Colonel  „„„„+„!„  f^„  „  ,„i,m„  a  ,„„i/i  ,„  „j 
Morgan.  To  it  the  wounded  Major  Acland  P^rately  for  a  while.  Arnold  was  pressed 
was  conveyed,  and  there  was  joined  by  his  back,  when  Eraser,  by  a  quick  movement, 
wife.  called   up   some   German  troops   from  the 

315 


BEMIS'S    HEIGHTS 


British  centre  to  his  aid.  Arnold  rallied 
his  men,  and  with  New  England  troops, 
led  by  Colonels  Brooks,  Dearborn,  Scam- 
mel,  Cilley,  and  Major  Hull,  he  struck  the 
enemy  such  heavy  blows  that  his  line  be- 
gan to  waver  and  fall  into  confusion.  Gen- 
eral Phillips,  below  the  heights,  heard 
through  the  woods  the  din  of  battle,  and 
hurried  over  the  hills  with  fresh  English 
troops  and  some  artillery,  followed  by  a 
portion  of  the  Germans  under  Riedesel, 
and  appeared  on  the  battle-field  just  as 
victory  seemed  about  to  be  yielded  to  the 
Americans.  The  battle  continued.  The 
British  ranks  were  becoming  fearfully 
thinned,  when  Biedesel  fell  heavily  upon 
the  American  iiank  with  infantry  and  ar- 
tillery, and  they  gave  way.  The  Germans 
saved  the  British  army  from  ruin.  A  lull 
in  the  battle  succeeded,  but  at  the  middle 
of  the  afternoon  the  contest  was  renewed 
with  greater  fury.  At  length  the  British, 
fearfully  assailed  by  bullet  and  bayonet, 
recoiled  and  fell  back.  At  that  moment 
Arnold  was  at  headquarters,  seated  ripon 
a  powerful  black  horse,  and  in  vain  urging 
Gates  to  give  him  reinforcements.  Hear- 
ing the  roar  of  the  renewed  battle,  he 
could  no  longer  brook  delay,  and  turning 
his  horse's  head  towards  the  field  of  strife, 
and  exclaiming,  "  I'll  soon  jjut  an  end  to 
it!  "  Avent  off  on  a  full  gallop,  followed  by 
one  of  Gates's  staff,  with  directions  to  or- 
der him  back.  The  subaltern  could  not 
overtake  the  general,  who,  by  words  and 
acts,  animated  the  Americans.  For  three 
hours  the  battle  raged.  Like  an  ocean  tide 
the  warriors  surged  backward  and  for- 
Avard,  winning  and  losing  victory  alter- 
nately. When  it  was  too  late.  Gates  sent 
out  the  jSTew  Yoi'k  regiments  of  Livingston 
and  Van  Cortlandt  and  the  whole  brigade 
of  General  Leaimed.  Had  Gates  complied 
with  Arnold's  wishes,  the  capture  of  Bur- 
goyne's  army  might  have  been  easily  ac- 
complished. Night  closed  the  contest, 
and  both  parties  slept  on  their  arms  until 
morning.  But  for  Arnold  and  Morgan,  no 
doubt  Burgoyne  Avould  have  been  march- 
ing triumphantly  on  Albany  before  noon 
that  day.  So  jealous  was  Gates  because 
the  army  praised  those  gallant  leaders, 
that  he  omitted  their  names  in  his  official 
report.  The  number  of  Americans  killed 
and  wounded  in  this  action  was  about  300; 
of  the  British  about  600. 


Second  Battle. — Burgoyne  found  his 
broken  army  utterly  dispirited  on  the 
morning  after  the  first  battle,  and  he 
withdrew  to  a  point  2  miles  from  the 
American  lines.  Arnold  urged  Gates  to 
attack  him  at  dawn,  but  that  officer  would 
not  consent.  Burgoyne  was  hoping  to  re- 
ceive good  news  from  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
who  was  preparing  to  ascend  the  Hudson 
with  a  strong  force.  So  he  intrenched  his 
camp,  put  his  troops  in  better  spirits  by  a 
cheerful  harangue,  and  resolved  to  wait 
for  Clinton.  The  next  morning  he  was 
himself  cheered  by  a  message  from  Clin- 
ton, who  promised  to  make  a  diversion 
in  his  favor  immediately;  also  by  a  de- 
spatch from  Howe,  announcing  a  victory 
over  Washington  on  the  BrandyAvine 
(see  Brandywine,  Battle  of).  Bur- 
goyne gave  the  glad  tidings  to  his  army, 
and  wrote  to  Clinton  that  he  could  sus- 
tain his  position  until  Oct.  12.  But  his 
condition  rapidly  grew  AA^orse.  The  Amer- 
ican army  hourly  increased  in  numbers, 
and  the  militia  Avere  sAvarming  on  his 
flanks  and  rear.  His  foraging  parties 
could  get  very  little  food  for  the  starving 
horses,  the  militia  so  annoyed  them.  In 
his  hospitals  were  800  sick  and  AA^ounded 
men,  and  his  effectiA'e  soldiers  Avere  fed  on 
diminished  rations.  His  Indian  allies 
deserted  him,  while,  through  the  exer- 
tions of  Schuyler,  Oneida  Avarriors  joined 
the  forces  of  Gates.  Lincoln,  Avith  2,000 
men,  also  joined  him  on  the  22d;  still 
Gates  remained  inactive.  His  officers  Avere 
impatient,  and  Arnold  plainly  told  hira 
that  the  army  Avas  clamorous  for  action, 
and  the  militia  were  threatening  to  go 
home.  He  told  him  that  he  had  reason  to 
think  that  if  they  had  improA^ed  the  20th 
of  September  it  might  have  ruined  the 
enemy.  "  That  is  past,"  he  said ;  "  let  me 
entreat  you  to  improve  the  present  time." 
Gates  was  offended,  and,  treating  the 
brave  Arnold  with  silent  contempt,  sat 
still.  A  long  time  Burgoyne  Avaited  for 
further  tidings  from  Clinton.  On  Oct.  4, 
he  called  a  council  of  officers.  It  was  de- 
cided to  fight  their  Avay  through  the 
American  lines,  and,  on  the  morning  of 
Oct.  7,  1777,  the  Avhole  army  moA^ed. 
ToAvards  the  American  left  wing  Burgoyne 
pressed  with  1,500  picked  men,  eight  brass 
cannon,  and  tAvo  hoAvitzers,  leaAang  the 
main   army   on   the   heights   in    command 


316 


BEMIS'S    HEIGHTS 


of  Brigadiers  Specht  and  Hamilton,  and  British  grenadiers  was  severely  wounded, 
the  redoubts  near  the  river  with  Briga-  and  Major  Williams,  of  the  artillery,  was 
dier-General  Gall.  Phillips,  Fraser,  and  made  prisoner.  Five  times  one  of  the 
Riedesel  were  with  Burgoyne.  Canadian  cannon  was  taken  and  retaken.  When 
rangers,  loyalists,  and  Indians  were  sent  the  British  fell  back,  and  the  gun  re- 
to  hang  on  the  American  rear,  while  Bur-  niained  with  the  Americans,  Colonel  Cil- 
goyne  should  attack  their  front.  This  ley  leaped  upon  it,  waved  his  sword  over 
movement  was  discerned  before  the  Brit-  his  head,  dedicated  the  piece  to  the 
ish  were  ready  for  battle.  The  drums  of  "  American  cause,"  and,  turning  it  upon 
the  American  advanced  guard  beat  to  the  foe,  he  opened  its  destructive  energies 
arms.  The  alarm  ran  all  along  the  lines,  upon  them  with  their  own  ammunition. 
Gates  had  10,000  troops — enough  to  have  Sir  Francis  Clarke,  Burgoyne's  chief  aide, 
crushed  the  weakened  foe  if  properly  who  was  sent  to  secure  the  cannon,  was 
handled.  He  inquired  the  cause  of  the  mortally  wounded,  made  a  prisoner,  and 
disturbance,  and  then  permitted  Colonel  sent  to  Gates's  tent.  The  whole  eight  can- 
Morgan  to  "  begin  the  game." 
Morgan  soon  gained  a  good 
position  on  the  British  right, 
while  General  Poor,  with  his 
New  Hampshire  brigade,  fol- 
lowed by  General  Ten  Broeck, 
with  New  -  Yorkers  advanced 
against  their  left.  Mean- 
while, the  Canadian  rangers 
and  their  companions  had 
gained  the  American  ^rear, 
and  attacked  their  pickets. 
They  were  soon  joined  by 
grenadiers.  The  Americans 
were  driven  back  to  their 
lines,  when  a  sharp  fight  en- 
sued. By  this  time  the  whole 
British  line  was  in  battle  or- 
der, the  grenadiers  under  Ma- 
jor Acland,  with  artillery  un- 
der Major  Williams,  forming 
the  left;  the  centre  composed 
of  British  and  grenadiers 
under  Philips  and  Riedesel, 
and  the  right  of  infantry 
under  Earl  Balcarras.  Gen- 
eral Fraser,  with  500  pick- 
ed men,  was  in  advance  of 
the    British    right,    ready    to 

fall  upon  the  left  flank  of  the  Americans  non  and  the  possession  of  the  field  re- 
when  the  action  should  begin  on  the  front,  mained  with  the  Americans.  Meanwhile 
It  was  now  between  three  and  four  o'clock  Colonel  Morgan  had  assailed  Fraser's 
in  the  afternoon.  As  Burgoyne  was  about  flanking  corps  so  furiously  that  they 
to  advance,  he  was  astonished  by  the  were  driven  back  to  their  lines.  There 
thunder  of  cannon  on  his  left,  and  the  Morgan  fell  upon  the  British  right  so 
crack  of  rifles  on  his  right.  Poor  had  fiercely  that  it  was  thrown  into  confu- 
pressed  up  the  thick-wooded  slope  on  which  sion.  A  panic  prevailed.  It  was  followed 
Majors  Acland  and  Williams  were  posted,  by  an  onslaught  in  front  by  Dearborn, 
unobserved,  until  he  was  near  the  bat-  with  fresh  troops,  when  the  British 
teries,  which  were  captured  after  a  des-  broke  and  fled  in  terror.  Balcarras  soon 
perate  struggle,  in  which  the  leader  of  the    rallied  them,  while  the   centre,   composed 

317 


PLAN    OP   BATTLES    ON    BEMIS'S    HEIGHTS. 


BEMIS'S     HEIGHTS— BENEZET 

chiefly     of     Germans,     though     convulsed,  and   spread   such   terror   among   the   Ger- 

stood  firm.     Now  Arnold  came  upon  the  mans    that    they    fled,    giving    a    parting 

scene.     Gates,  off"ended  by  what  he  called  volley  of  bullets,  one  of  which  gave  Arnold 

Arnold's     •'  impertinence,"     had     deprived  a  severe  wound  in  the  same  leg  that  was 

hira  of  all  command,  and  he  was  an  im-  badly  hurt  at   Quebec.     At   that  moment 

patient  spectator  of  the  battle.     When  he  he  was  overtaken  by  the  subaltern,  who  had 

could     no     longer     restrain     himself,     he  been   sent   by   Gates   to   recall   him,   "  lest 

sprang  upon  his  charger  and  started  on  full  he  should  do  some  rash  thing."     He  had 

gallop    for    the    field    of    action,    pursued  done   it.     He  had  achieved  a  victory  for 

by    a    subaltern    to    call    him    back.      He  which  Gates  received  the  honor.     The  Ger- 

dashed  into  the  vortex  of  danger,   where  mans    had    thrown    down    their    weapons, 

the  pursuer  dared  not  follow.     He  was  re-  Breyman     was     mortally     wounded.     The 

ceived  with  cheers  by  his  old  troops,  and  fight    ended    at    twilight,    and    before    the 

he   led   them   against   the   British    centre,  dawn,  Burgoyne,  who  had  resolved  to  re- 

With    the   desperation   of    a    madman    he  treat,  removed  his  whole  army  a  mile  or 

rushed    into    the    thickest    of    the    fight,  two  north  of  his  intrenchments.     In  this 

When,  at  the  head  of  his  men,  he  dashed  remarkable  battle — won  by  an  officer  who 

into   the   firm   German   lines,   they   broke  had   been   deprived   of   his   command^the 

and  fled  in  dismay.     The  battle  was  now  Americans    lost,    in    killed    and    wounded, 

general.      Arnold    and    Morgan    were    the  150  men;    that   of   the   British,   including 

ruling     spirits     on     the     American     side,  prisoners,  was  about  700.     Arnold  was  the 

Fraser    was    the    soul    that    directed    the  only    American    commanding    officer    who 

most  potent  energies  of  the  British.     One  received  a  wound.     Burgoyne  was  defeated 

of  Morgan's  riflemen  singled  him  out  by  at  Stillwater,  Oct.   7,  and  ten  days  later 

his     brilliant     uniform,     and     shot     him  surrendered    his    army    of    6,000    men    at 

through    the    body,    wounding    him    mor-  Saratoga.     See  Burgoyne. 

tally.     Then  a  panic  ran  along  the  Brit-  Benedict,   George  Grenville,   military 

ish  line.     At  the  sight  of  3,000  fresh  New  officer;   born  in  Burlington,  Vt.,  Dec.   10, 

York  militia,  under  General  Ten  Broeck,  1826;  graduated  at  the  University  of  Ver- 

approaching.  the  wavering  line  gave  way,  mont  in  1847;  served  in  the  12th  Vermont 

and    the    troops    retreated    to    their    in-  Volunteers  in   1862  -  63 ;   and  was  author 

trencliments,    leaving    their    artillery    be-  of    Vermont   at    Gettysiurg ;    Vermont   in 

hind.      Up    to    their    intrenchments,    the  the   Civil   War;   Army   Life  in    Virginia, 

Americans,    with    Arnold    at    their    head,  etc. 

eagerly  pressed,  in  the  face  of  a  terrible  Benedict,  Lewis,  military  officer;  born 
storm  of  grape-shot  and  bullets.  The  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  2,  1817;  was  a 
works  were  assailed  with  small  arms,  graduate  of  Williams  College;  was  ad- 
Balcarras  defended  them  bravely  until  he  mitted  to  the  bar  in  1841;  was  surrogate 
could  resist  no  longer.  The  voice  of  Ar-  of  Albany  county  in  1848,  and  member  of 
nold  was  heard  above  the  din  of  battle.  Assembly  in  1861.  He  entered  the  mili- 
and  his  form  was  seen,  in  the  midst  of  tary  service  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  vol- 
the  smoke,  dashing  from  point  to  point,  unteers  in  1861 ;  served  in  the  campaign 
With  the  troops  first  of  Generals  Pater-  on  the  Peninsula  in  1862;  was  captured, 
son  and  Glover,  and  then  of  Learned,  and  confined  in  Libby  and  Salisbury  pris- 
he  assailed  the  enemy's  right,  which  ons  several  months,  and  when  exchanged 
was  defended  by  Canadians  and  loyal-  was  sent  to  the  Department  of  the  Gulf, 
ists.  The  English  gave  way,  leaving  where  he  M^as  distinguished  for  his  wis- 
the  Germans  exposed.  Then  Arnold  dom  and  bravery.  He  served  as  brigadier- 
ordered  up  the  troops  of  Livingston  general  in  the  Red  River  campaign,  till 
and  Wesson,  with  Morgan's  riflemen,  killed  in  the  battle  of  Pleasant  Hill,  La., 
to  make  a  general  assault,  while  Colonel  April  9,   1864. 

BrookS;     with     his     Massachusetts     regi-  Benezet,       Anthony,      philanthropist; 

ment,    accompanied    by    Arnold,    attacked  born  in  France,  Jan.  31,  1713;   emigrated 

the    troops     commanded    by    Lieutenant-  to  Philadelphia  in  1731,  and  taught  school 

Colonel  Breyman.    Arnold  rushed  into  the  there   nearly   all   his   life.      He   became   a 

sally-port    on    his    powerful    black    horse,  member   of   the   Society   of   Friends;    and 

318 


BENHAM— BENNETT 


his  life  was  conspicuous  for  acts  of  benev- 
olence. He  wrote  much  against  war  and 
African  slavery,  and  bequeathed  his  es- 
tate, on  the  death  of  his  wife,  to  the 
African  school  in  Philadelphia.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia,  May  3,  1784. 

Benliam,  Andkew  Ellicott  Kennedy, 
naval  officer;  born  in  New  York,  April  10, 
1832;  entered  the  navy  Nov.  24,  1847. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  served  in  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Western  Gulf  squad- 
rons, and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Port 
Royal  and  other  engagements.  In  1894 
he  commanded  a  squadron  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Brazil,  and  forced  the  commander 
of  the  insurgent  squadron  to  raise  the 
blockade  of  the  city  and  to  discontinue 
firing  upon  American  merchant  vessels. 
Rear-admiral  in  1890;  retired  in  1894. 

Benham,  Henry  W.,  military  officer; 
born  in  Cheshire,  Conn.,  in  1817;  was 
graduated  at  West  Point,  first  in  his  class, 
in  1837.  He  served  under  General  Tay- 
lor in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  was 
wounded  in  the  battle  of  Buena.  Vista. 
Early  in  the  Civil  War  he  was  active  in 
western  Virginia,  and  afterwards  on  the 
South  Carolina  coast.  He  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  Fort  Pulaski;  and  in  1863-64 
he  commanded  an  engineer  brigade  in  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  for  services  in  the  cam- 
paign ending  with  the  surrender  of  Lee, 
and  major-general  (March,  1865)  for 
"  meritorious  services  in  the  rebellion." 
He  died  in  New  York,  June  1,  1884. 

Benjamin,  Judah  Philip,  lawyer;  was 
born  in  St.  Croix,  West  Indies,  Aug.   11, 


JUDAH    PHrUP    BENJAMIN. 


1811;  was  of  Jewish  parentage,  and  in 
1816  his  family  settled  in  Savannah,  Ga. 
Judah  entered  Yale  College,  but  left  it, 
in  1827,  without  graduating,  and  became 
a  lawyer  in  New  Orleans.  He  taught 
school  for  a  while,  married  one  of  his 
pupils,  and  became  a  leader  of  his  pro- 
fession in  Louisiana.  From  1853  to  1861 
he  was  United  States  Senator.  He  was 
regarded  for  several  years  as  leader  of 
the  Southern  wing  of  the  Democratic 
party;  and,  when  the  question  of  seces- 
sion divided  the  people,  he  withdrew  from 
the  Senate,  and,  with  his  coadjutor,  John 
Slidell,  he  promoted  the  great  insurrec- 
tion. He  became  Attorney-General  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy,  acting  Secretary  of 
War,  and  Secretary  of  State.  After  the 
war  he  went  to  London,  where  he  prac- 
tised his  profession  with  success.  He  died 
in  Paris,  May  8,  1884. 

Bennet,  or  Bennett,  Richard,  colonial 
governor;  was  appointed  one  of  the  Vir- 
ginia commissioners  to  reconcile  Virginia 
to  the  administration  of  Oliver  Cromwell 
in  1651.  In  1654  the  Maryland  royalists, 
under  the  instigation  of  Lord  Baltimore, 
revolted,  and  intercolonial  hostilities  fol- 
lowed, resulting  in  a  victory  for  the  Vir- 
ginians under  Governor  Bennet.  During 
the  night  of  March  25,  1655,  many  pris- 
oners were  taken,  including  the  royalist 
Governor  Stone.  Some  of  these  were  after- 
wards executed. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  founder  of  the 
New  York  Herald;  born  in  New  Mill, 
Scotland,  Sept.  1,  1795;  died  in  New  York, 
June  1,  1872.  Intending  to  enter  upon 
the  ministry  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  he  studied  theology  in  Aberdeen 
some  time,  but,  abandoning  the  intention, 
he  went  to  British  America,  arriving  at 
Halifax,  N.  S.,  in  1819,  where  he  taught 
school.  He  made  his  way  to  Boston,  where 
he  became  a  proof-reader,  and  in  1822 
he  went  to  New  York,  and  thence  to 
Charleston,  where  he  made  translations 
from  the  Spanish  for  the  Charleston 
Courier.  Returning  to  New  York,  he  be- 
came proprietor  (1825)  of  the  New  York 
Courier,  but  did  not  succeed.  After  vari- 
ous editorial  and  journalistic  adventures 
in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  Mr.  Ben- 
nett, in  May,  1835,  began  the  publication 
of  the  New  York  Herald.  His  method 
was    a    "  new   departure "    in    journalism. 


319 


BENNINGTON 


The  Herald  obtained  an  immense  circu- 
lation and  advertising  patronage.  The 
profits  of  the  establishment,  at  the  time 


JAMES    GORDON    BENNETT. 

of  Mr.  Bennett's  death,  were  estimated  at 
from  $500,000  to  $700,000  a  year.  He 
died  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  be- 
queathed the  Herald  to  his  only  son, 
James  Gordon  Bej^nett,  Jr.,  who  was 
born  in  New  York  City,  May  10,  1841; 
fitted  out  the  Jeannette  polar  expedition; 
sent  Henry  M.  Stanley  in  search  of  Dr. 
Livingstone  in  Africa;  constructed,  with 
John  W.  Mackay,  a  new  cable  between 
America  and  Europe;  and  greatly  pro- 
moted international  yachting. 

Bennington,  Battle  neau.  Falling 
short  of  provisions,  Burgoyne  sent  out  an 
expedition  from  his  camp  on  the  Hudson 
River  to  procure  cattle,  horses  to  mount 
Riedesel's  dragoons,  to  "  try  the  affections 
of  the  country,"  and  to  complete  a  corps 
of  loyalists.  Colonel  Baum  led  the  expe- 
dition, which  consisted  of  800  men,  com- 
prising German  dragoons  and  British 
marksmen,  a  body  of  Canadians  and  Ind- 
ians, some  loyalists  as  guides,  and  two 
pieces  of  artillery.  They  penetrated  the 
country  eastward  of  the  Hudson  towards 
Bennington,  Vt.,  where  the  Americans  had 
gathered  a  considerable  quantity  of  sup- 
plies. At  that  time  (August,  1777),  Gen- 
eral Stark,  disgusted  because  he  had  not 
been  made  a  Continental  brigadier-gen- 
eral, had  resigned  his  colonelcy,  taken 
the  leadership  of  the  New  Hampshire  mili- 


tia, with  the  stipulation  that  he  was  to 
have  an  independent  command,  and  was 
at  Bennington  with  part  of  a  brigade.  He 
had  lately  refused  to  obey  a  command  of 
General  Lincoln  to  join  the  main  army 
opposing  Burgoyne,  It  was  a  fortunate 
circumstance,  for  he  did  better  service 
M'hen  Baum  approached  and  began  to 
cast  up  intrenchments  (Aug.  14,  1777)  in 
the  township  of  Hoosick,  N.  Y.,  within 
about  5  miles  of  Bennington.  Informed  of 
that  approach,  Stark  had  sent  expresses 
for  Warner's  shattered  regiment,  and  for 
militia,  and  he  soon  gathered  many  fugi- 
tives from  the  disaster  at  Hubbardton. 
The  15th  was  rainy.  Baum  had  sent  back 
to  Burgoyne  for  reinforcements,  and  Stark 
was  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  more  ex- 
pected troops  from  Berkshire.  Warner 
joined  Stark  on  the  morning  of  the  15tli 
— he  and  his  men  drenched  during  a  night 
march  in  the  rain.  The  16th  dawned 
bright  and  hot,  and  Stark  proceeded  to 
execute  a  plan  of  attack  on  Baum's  in- 
trenched position  by  dividing  his  force 
and  making  a  simultaneous  attack  at  dif- 
ferent points.  The  frightened  Indians 
with  Baum  dashed  through  the  encir- 
cling lines  of  the  Americans,  and  fled  to 
the  shelter  of  the  woods.  After  a  severe 
contest  of  two  hours'  duration,  the  ammu- 
nition of  the  Germans  failed,  and  they  at- 
tempted to  break  through  the  line  of  be- 
siegers with  bayonets  and  sabres.  In  that 
attempt  Baum  was  slain  and  his  veterans 
were  made  prisoners.  At  that  moment 
Lieutenant  -  Colonel  Breyman  appeared 
with  the  jaded  reinforcements  which  Bur- 
goyne had  sent,  and  Stark  was  joined  by 
some  fresh  troops  furnished  by  Warner. 
The  cannon  which  had  been  taken  from  the 
Germans,  were  immediately  turned  upon 
Breyman's  men.  A  fierce  battle  continued 
until  sunset,  when  Breyman  retreated, 
leaving  all  his  artillery,  and  nearly  all 
his  wounded,  behind.  The  Germans  lost, 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  nearly 
1,000  men.  The  Americans  lost  less  than 
100.  On  Aug.  19,  1891,  a  monument  com- 
memorating the  victory  was  dedicated  at 
Bennington.  It  is  a  shaft  of  magnesian 
limestone,  308  feet  high — the  highest  bat- 
tle-monument in  the  world;  and  near  the 
city  the  national  government  has  since 
established  a  military  post.  See  Ethan 
Allen,  Fort. 


320 


BENSON— BENTON 


Benson,  Egbert,  jurist;  born  in  New 
York  City,  June  21,  1746;  was  graduated 
at  King's  College  (now  Columbia  Uni- 
versity) in  1765;  took  an  active  part  in 
political  events  preliminary  to  the  war 
for  independence;  was  a  member  of  the 
Committee  of  Safety,  and,  in  1777,  was 
appointed  the  first  attorney-general  of 
the  State  of  New  York.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  first  State  legislature.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress 
from  1784  to  1789,  and  of  the  new  Con- 
gress from  1789  to  1793,  also  from  1813 
to  1815.  From  1789  to  1802,  he  was  a 
regent  of  the  New  York  University,  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  York  (1794- 
1801 ) ,  and  of  the  United  States  Circuit 
Court.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the 
New  Y'ork  Historical  Society.  Judge 
Benson  was  the  author  of  a  Vindication 
of  the  Captors  of  Major  Andre,  and  a  Me- 
moir on  Dutch  Islames  of  Places.  He 
died  in  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  Aug.  24, 
1833. 

Bentley,  Charles  Eugene,  clergyman; 
born  in  Warner's,  N.  Y.,  April  30  1841 ; 
became  a  Baptist  minister,  chairman  of 
the  State  Prohibition  Convention  in  1864, 
and  subsequently  candidate  for  various  of- 
fices. In  1896  he  was  the  Presidential 
candidate  of  the  Liberty  party. 

Benton,  James  Gilchrist,  military 
officer;  born  in  Lebanon,  N.  H.,  Sept.  15, 
1820;  was  graduated  at  West  Point  Acad- 
emy in  1842;  served  continuously  in  the 
ordnance  department  of  the  army,  and  as 
a  result  of  his  experiments  made  many 
inventions,  for  none  of  which  did  he  take 
out  a  patent,  as  he  held  that  having  been 
educated  by  the  government  it  was  en- 
titled to  benefit  in  every  way  by  his  time 
and  talent.  He  published  A  Course  of 
Instruction  in  Ordnance  and  Gunnery.  He 
died  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  23,   1881. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  statesman; 
born  near  Hillsboro,  N.  C,  March  14,  1782. 
Before  finishing  his  studies  at  Chapel  Hill 
University,  North  Carolina,  he  removed 
to  Tennessee,  studied  law,  and  obtained 
great  eminence  in  his  profession.  In  the 
legislature  of  that  State  he  procured  the 
enactment  of  a  law  giving  to  slaves  the 
benefit  of  a  jury  trial,  and  also  succeeded 
in  having  a  law  passed  which  reformed 
the  judicial  system  of  the  State.  He  had 
been  on  intimate  terms  with  General  Jack- 
I.— X  3 


son  at  Nashville  (1813),  when  a  quarrel 
ensued,  and  in  a  personal  encounter  in  that 
town  with  deadly  weapons  both  parties  gave 
and  received  severe  wounds.  He  was  colo- 
nel of  a  Tennessee  regiment  from  Decem- 
ber, 1812,  to  April,  1813,  and  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  regular  army  from  1813  to 
1815.  Bemoving  to  St.  Louis  in  1813,  he 
established  the  Missouri  Inquirer  there, 
and  practised  his  profession.    He  took  an 


THOMAS    HART    BEXTON. 

active  part  in  favoring  the  admission  of 
Missouri  as  a  State  of  the  Union,  and  was 
one  of  its  first  representatives  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  which  post  he  held 
for  thirty  consecutive  years,  where  he  was 
ever  the  peculiar  exponent  and  guardian 
of  "  The  West."  He  was  an  early  and  un- 
tiring advocate  of  a  railway  from  the 
Mississippi  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He 
warmly  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  [q.  v.)  in  1854.  His 
free-labor  sentiments  caused  his  defeat  as 
a  candidate  for  the  Senate  by  the  ultra- 
slavery  men  of  his  party  in  1850,  and  in 
1852  he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. By  a  combination  of  his  old 
opponents  with  the  American  Party 
(q.  V.) ,  he  was  defeated  in  1854,  and  failed 
of  an  election  for  governor  in  1856.  He 
had  then  begun  to  devote  himself  to  lit- 
erary pursuits;  and  he  completed  his 
Thirty  Years'  View  of  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1854.  He  prepared  an  Abridg- 
ment of  the  Debates  of  Congress,  from 
1789  to  1856,  in  16  volumes  8vo.  They 
contain  a  complete  political  history  of  the 
21 


BENTON 


country  during  that  period,  so  far  as  the 
national  legislature  is  concerned.  He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  April  10,  1858. 
The  Amiexation  of  Texas. — On  May  16, 
17,  and  20,  1844,  Senator  Benton  delivered 
a  remarkable  and  characteristic  speech  in 
the  debate,  while  the  Senate  was  in  secret 
session,  on  the  ratification  of  the  treaty 
for  the  annexation  of  Texas.  He  had  vigor- 
ously opposed  the  measure,  and  on  the  13th 
offered  the  following  resolutions,  in  support 
of  which  his  great  speech  was  delivered: 

1.  That  the  ratification  of  the  treaty 
would  be  the  adoption  of  the  Texan  war 
with  Mexico,  and  would  devolve  its  con- 
clusion upon  the  United  States. 

2.  That  the  treaty-making  power  does 
not  extend  to  the  power  of  making  war, 
and  that  the  President  and  Senate  have  no 
right  to  make  war,  either  by  declaration 
or  adoption. 

3.  That  Texas  ought  to  be  reunited  to 
the  American  Union,  as  soon  as  it  can 
be  done  with  the  consent  of  a  majority  of 
the  people  of  the  United  States  and  of 
Texas,  and  when  Mexico  shall  either  con- 
sent to  the  same,  or  acknowledge  the  in- 
dependence of  Texas,  or  cease  to  prosecute 
the  war  against  her  (the  armistice  having 
expired)  on  a  scale  commensurate  to  the 
conquest  of  the  coimtry. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the 
speech :  

The  President  upon  our  call  sends  us  a 
map  to  show  the  Senate  the  boundaries 
of  the  country  he  proposes  to  annex.  This 
memoir  is  explicit  in  presenting  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte  in  its  whole  extent  as  a 
boundary  of  the  Republic  of  Texas,  and 
that  in  conformity  to  the  law  of  the  Texan 
Congress  establishing  its  boundaries.  The 
boundaries  on  the  map  conform  to  those 
in  the  memoir;  each  takes  for  the  western 
limit  the  Rio  Grande  from  head  to  mouth ; 
and  a  law  of  the  Texau  Congress  is  copied 
into  the  margin  of  the  map,  to  show  the 
legal,  and  the  actual,  boundaries  at  the 
same  time.  From  all  this  it  results  that 
the  treaty  before  us,  besides  the  incorpo- 
ration of  Texas  proper,  also  incorporates 
into  our  Union  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  in  its  whole  extent,  from  its  head 
spring  in  the  Sierra  Verde,  near  the  South 
Pass  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to  its  mouth 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  4°   south  of  New 


Orleans,  in  lat.  26°.  It  is  a  "  grand  and 
solitary  river,"  almost  without  affluents 
or  tributaries.  Its  source  is  in  the  region 
of  eternal  snow;  its  outlet  in  the  clime  of 
eternal  flowers.  Its  direct  course  is  1,200 
miles;  its  actual  run  about  2,000  miles. 
This  immense  river,  second  on  our  conti- 
nent to  the  Mississipjii  only,  and  but  lit- 
tle inferior  to  it  in  length,  is  proposed  to 
be  added  in  the  whole  extent  of  its  left 
bank  to  the  American  Union;  and  that  by 
virtue  of  a  treaty  for  the  reannexation  of 
Texas.  Now,  the  real  Texas,  which  we  ac- 
quired by  the  treaty  of  1803,  and  flung 
away  by  the  treaty  of  1819,  never  ap- 
proached the  Rio  Grande  except  near  its 
mouth ;  while  the  whole  upper  part  was 
settled  by  the  Spaniards,  and  a  great  part 
of  it  in  the  year  1694 — nearly  100  years 
before  La  Salle  first  saw  Texas.  All  this 
upper  part  was  then  formed  into  provinces, 
on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  has  re- 
mained under  Spanish  or  Mexican  author- 
ity ever  since.  These  former  provinces 
of  the  Mexican  viceroyalty,  now  de- 
partments of  the  Mexican  Republic,  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  Rio  Grande  from 
its  head  to  its  mouth,  we  now  propose 
to  incorporate,  so  far  as  they  lie  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  into  our  Union, 
by  virtue  of  a  treaty  of  reannexation 
with  Texas.  Let  us  pause  and  look  at 
our  new  and  important  proposed  acquisi- 
tions in  this  quarter.  First,  there  is  the 
department,  formerly  the  province,  of  New 
Mexico,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
from  its  headspring  to  near  the  Paso  del 
Norte — that  is  to  say,  half  down  the  river. 
This  department  is  studded  with  towns 
and  villages — is  populated — well  culti- 
vated and  covered  with  flocks  and  herds. 
On  its  left  bank  (for  I  only  speak  of  the 
part  which  we  propose  to  reannex)  is, 
first,  the  frontier  village  Taos,  3,000  souls, 
and  where  the  custom-house  is  kept  at 
which  the  Missouri  caravans  enter  their 
goods.  Then  comes  Santa  Fe,  the  capital, 
4,000  souls;  then  Albuquerque,  6,000 
souls;  then  some  scores  of  other  towns  and 
villages,  all  more  or  less  populated,  and 
surrounded  by  flocks  and  fields.  Then 
come  the  departments  of  Chihuahua, 
Coahuila,  and  Tamaulipas,  without  set- 
tlements on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
])ut  occupying  the  right  bank,  and  com- 
manding the  left.     All  this — being  parts 


322 


BENTON 


of  four  Mexican  departments — now  under 
Mexican  governors  and  governments,  is 
permanently  reannexed  to  this  Union,  if 
this  treaty  is  ratified;  and  is  actually  re- 
annexed  from  the  moment  of  the  signature 
ol  the  treaty,  according  to  the  President's 
last  message,  to  remain  so  until  the  ac- 
quisition is  rejected  by  rejecting  the 
treaty.  The  one-half  of  the  department  of 
New  Mexico,  with  its  capital,  becomes  a 
territory  of  the  United  States;  an  angle 
of  Chihuahua,  at  the  Paso  del  Norte,  fam- 
ous for  its  wine,  also  becomes  ours;  a 
part  of  the  department  of  Coahuila,  not 
populated  on  the  left  bank,  which  we  take, 
but  commanded  from  the  right  bank  by 
Mexican  authorities;  the  same  of  Tamau- 
lipas,  the  ancient  Nuevo  San  Tander  (New 
St.  Andrew),  and  which  covers  both  sides 
of  Mexico,  2,000  miles  long  and  some  hun- 
dred miles  up,  and  all  the  left  bank  of  which 
is  in  the  power  and  possession  of  Mexico. 
These,  in  addition  to  the  old  Texas,  these 
parts  of  four  states,  these  towns  and  vil- 
lages, these  people  and  territory,  these 
flocks  and  herds,  this  slice  of  the  Republic 
of  Mexico,  2,000  miles  long  and  some  hun- 
dred broad,  all  this  our  President  has  cut 
oil  from  its  mother  empire,  and  presents 
to  us,  and  declares  it  is  oiirs  till  the  Sen- 
ate rejects  it.  He  calls  it  Texas;  and  the 
cutting  off  he  calls  reannexation.  Hum- 
boldt calls  it  New  Mexico,  Chihuahua, 
Coahuila,  and  Nuevo  San  Tander  (now 
Tamaulipas)  ;  and  the  civilized  world  may 
qualify  this  reannexation  by  the  applica- 
tion of  some  odious  and  terrible  epithet. 
Demosthenes  advised  the  people  of  Athens 
not  to  take,  but  to  retake  a  certain  city : 
and  in  that  re  lay  the  virtue  which  saved 
that  act  from  the  character  of  spoliation 
and  robbery.  Will  it  be  equally  potent 
with  us?  And  will  the  re  prefixed  to  the 
annexation  legitimate  the  seizure  of  2,000 
miles  of  a  neighbor's  dominion,  with  whom 
we  have  treaties  of  peace,  and  friendship, 
and  commerce?  Will  it  legitimate  this 
seizure,  made  by  virtue  of  a  treaty  with 
Texas,  when  no  Texan  force — witness  the 
disastrous  expeditions  to  Mier  and  to 
Santa  Fe — have  been  seen  near  it  without 
being  killed  or  taken,  to  the  last  man? 

The  treaty,  in  all  that  relates  to  the 
boundary  of  the  Pio  Grande,  is  an  act  of 
unparalleled  outrage  on  Mexico.  It  is  the 
seizure    of    2,000    miles    of   her    territory 


without  a  word  of  explanation  with  her, 
and  by  virtue  of  a  treaty  with  Texas,  to 
which  she  is  no  party.  Our  Secretary  of 
State  (Mr.  Calhoun),  in  his  letter  to  the 
United  States  charge  in  Mexico,  and  seven 
days  after  the  treaty  was  signed,  and  after 
the  Mexican  minister  had  withdrawn  from 
our  seat  of  government,  shows  full  well 
that  he  was  conscious  of  the  enormity  of 
the  outrage,  knew  it  was  war,  and  prof- 
fered volunteer  apologies  to  avert  the  con- 
sequences which  he  knew  he  had  provoked. 
The  President,  in  his  special  message  of 
Wednesday  last,  informs  us  that  we  have 
acquired  a  title  to  the  ceded  territories  by 
his  signatures  to  the  treaty,  wanting  only 
the  action  of  the  Senate  to  perfect  it;  and 
that,  in  the  mean  time,  he  will  protect  it 
from  invasion,  and  for  that  purpose  has 
detached  all  the  disposable  portions  of  the 
army  and  navy  to  the  scene  of  action. 
This  is  a  caper  about  equal  to  the  mad 
freaks  with  which  the  unfortunate  Em- 
peror Paul  of  Russia  was  accustomed  to 
astonish  Europe  about  forty  years  ago. 
By  this  declaration  the  30,000  Mexicans  in 
the  left  half  of  the  valley  of  the  Rio  del 
Norte  are  our  citizens,  and  standing,  in 
the  language  of  the  President's  message, 
in  a  hostile  attitude  towards  us,  and  sub- 
ject to  be  repelled  as  invaders.  Taos,  the 
seat  of  the  custom-house,  where  our  cara- 
vans enter  their  goods,  is  ours ;  Santa  Fe, 
the  capital  of  New  Mexico,  is  ours;  Gov- 
ernor Armijo  is  our  governor,  and  sub- 
ject to  be  tried  for  treason  if  he  does  not 
submit  to  us;  twenty  Mexican  towns  and 
villages  are  ours;  and  their  peaceful  in- 
habitants, cultivating  their  fields  and 
tending  their  flocks,  are  suddenly  convert- 
ed, by  a  stroke  of  the  President's  pen,  into 
American  citizens,  or  American  rebels. 
This  is  too  bad;  and,  instead  of  making 
themselves  party  to  its  enormities,  as  the 
President  invites  them  to  do,  I  think 
rather  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Senate  to 
vpash  its  hands  of  all  this  part  of  the 
transaction,  by  a  special  disapprobation. 
The  Senate  is  the  constitutional  adviser 
of  the  President,  and  has  the  right,  if  not 
the  duty,  to  give  him  advice  when  the  oc- 
casion requires  it.  I,  therefore,  propose, 
as  an  additional  resolution,  applicable  to 
the  Rio  del  Norte  boundary  only,  the  one 
which  I  will  read  and  send  to  the  secre- 
tary's table — stamping  as  a  spoliation  this 


323 


BENTONVILLE 


seizure  of  Mexican  territory,  and  on 
which,  at  the  proper  time,  I  shall  ask  the 
vote  of  the  Senate: 

"  Resolved,  that  the  incorporation  of 
the  left  bank  of  the  Kio  del  Norte  into  the 
American  Union,  by  virtue  of  a  treaty  with 
Texas,  comprehending,  as  the  said  incor- 
poration would  do,  a  part  of  the  Mexican 
departments  of  New  Mexico,  Chihuahua, 
Coahuila,  and  Tamaulipas,  would  be  an  act 
of  direct  aggression  on  Mexico;  for  all 
the  consequences  of  which  the  United 
States  would  stand  responsible." 

Bentonville,  Battle  of.  After  the  de- 
feat of  Hardee  at  A\'^rasboro,  Sherman  be- 
lieved he  would  meet  with  no  more  serious 
opposition  in  his  march  to  Goldsboro.  He 
issued  orders  accordingly.  This  sense  of 
security  proved  almost  fatal  to  Sherman's 
army,  for  at  that  moment,  Johnston,  who 
had  come  down  from  Smithfield,  N.  C, 
on  a  rapid  but  stealthy  march,  under 
cover  of  night,  was  hovering  near  in  full 
force.  He  found  the  Nationals  in  a  favor- 
able position  for  him  to  attack  them. 
Gen.  J.  C.  Davis's  corps  was  encamped 
(March  18,  1865)  on  the  Goldsboro  road, 
at  a  point  where  it  was  crossed  by  one 
from  Clinton  to  Smithfield.  Two  divisions 
of  Williams's  were  encamped  10  or  12 
miles  in  the  rear  of  this,  in  charge  of 
Slocum's  wagon-trains.  The  remainder  of 
the"  forces  were  scattered  to  the  south 
and  east,  in  fancied  security.  On  the 
morning  of  the  16th,  Sherman  left  Slocum, 
nearest  the  Confederates,  to  join  How- 
ard's troops,  which  were  scattered  and 
moving  on  over  the  wretched,  muddy  road. 
On  March  19,  Sherman,  while  on  his  way 
to  Howard,  heard  cannonading  on  his  left 
wing,  but  did  not  think  there  was  any- 
thing serious  in  it.  It  proved,  however, 
to  be  a  complete  surprise.  The  Confeder- 
ates, in  overwhelming  numbers,  were 
found  pressing  Slocum.  A  very  severe 
battle  ensued,  in  a  densely  wooded  swamp, 
dark  and  wet  and  dismal.  In  this  encoun- 
ter, Gen.  J.  C.  Davis  conducted  much  of 
the  battle  with  great  skill  and  courage, 
continually  cheering  his  men  with  as- 
surances of  victory.  Johnston  had  as- 
sured his  men  that  he  was  confident  of  vic- 
tory, and  the  troops  on  both  sides  fought 
desperately.  Davis  had  formed  General 
Fearing's  brigade  to  the  left  and  hurled 
them  upon  the  flank  of  the  Confederates. 


The  latter  were  staggered  and  paralyzed 
by  this  unexpected  and  stunning  blow 
from  a  force  hitherto  unseen  by  them,  for 
Fearing's  troops  were  in  reserve.  They 
reeled  and  fell  back  in  amazement,  and 
the  attack  was  not  renewed  on  that  part 
of  the  field  for  more  than  an  hour  after- 
wards. The  army  was  saved.  The  young 
general  (Fearing)  was  disabled  by  a  bul- 
let, and  hundreds  of  his  brigade,  dead 
and  wounded,  strewed  the  field  of  conflict. 
Davis  re-formed  the  disordered  left  and 
centre  of  his  line  in  open  fields  half  a  mile 
in  the  rear  of  the  old  line.  The  artillery 
was  moved  to  a  commanding  knoll,  and 
Kilpatrick  massed  his  cavalry  on  the  left. 
Meanwhile  an  attack  upon  Morgan's  di- 
vision of  the  14th  Corps  had  been  very 
severe  and  unceasing.  The  National  forces 
received  six  distinct  assaults  by  the  com- 
bined troops  of  Hardee,  Hoke,  and  Cheat- 
ham, vuider  the  immediate  command  of 
General  Johnston,  without  yielding  an 
inch  of  ground,  and  all  the  while  doing 
much  execution  on  the  Confederate  ranks, 
especially  with  the  artillery.  With  dark- 
ness this  conflict,  known  as  the  battle  of 
Bentonville,  ended.  It  was  one  of  the 
most  notable  battles  of  the  Civil  War. 
The  main  forces  of  the  Union  and  of  its 
enemies  were  then  concentrating  at  one 
point  for  a  desperate  last  struggle — Sher- 
man and  Johnston  in  North  Carolina,  and 
Grant  and  Lee  in  Virginia.  Had  John- 
ston won  at  that  time  the  consequence 
probably  would  have  been  the  loss  of  the 
whole  of  Sherman's  army  and  the  quick 
and  fatal  dispersion  or  capture  of  Grant's 
before  Petersburg  and  Richmond.  On  the 
night  after  the  battle  reinforcements  came 
to  the  left  of  the  Nationals.  The  Con- 
federates prepared  for  another  onset,  but 
when  Johnston  heard  of  the  actual  con- 
nection of  three  National  armies  in  the 
vicinity  of  Goldsboro,  he  perceived  that  all 
chance  for  success  against  Sherman  had 
vanished.  There  had  been  hard  flghting 
all  day  (March  20,  1865),  and  that  night, 
after  having  his  only  line  of  retreat  se- 
verely menaced  by  a  flank  movement  under 
General  Mower,  Johnston  withdrew  and 
went  towards  Smithfield  in  such  haste 
that  he  left  his  pickets,  wounded  in  hospi- 
tals, and  dead  behind.  The  aggregate  loss  of 
the  Nationals  near  Bentonville  was  1,648. 
The  loss  of  the  Confederates  was  never  re- 


324 


BERGH— BEBING     SEA 

ported.     The  Nationals  cajitured   1,625  of  as    lat.    55°,    and   formally   annexed   that 

their  men,  and  buried  267  of  their  dead.  part  of  the  continent  to  the  Russian  do- 

Bergh,  Henry,  founder  of  the  Society  mains.  In  1867  Russian  America  was 
for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals;  purchased  by  the  United  States  govern- 
was  born  in  New  York  City,  May  8,  1820;  ment  for  $7,200,000.  The  only  wealth 
was  educated  at  Columbia  College,  and  in-  of  the  country  known  at  that  time  was 
dulged  in  literary  labors  for  a  while,  writ-  its  fur-producing  animals,  particularly  the 
ing  a  drama  and  some  poems.  In  1863  fur-seals  of  the  coasts  and  islands,  and  it 
he  was  secretary  of  legation  to  Russia,  was  for  this  mainly  that  the  purchase  was 
and  acting  vice-consul  there.  He  acquired  made.  The  officials  who  conducted  the 
lasting  fame  over  the  civilized  world  for  transaction  were  not  mistaken  in  their 
his  untiring  and  brave  labors  in  behalf  estimates  of  the  revenue  to  be  derived 
of  abused  dumb  creatures.  These  phil-  from  this  source,  for  during  the  twenty 
anthropic  efforts  absorbed  his  attention  years  which  followed  the  seal  -  fisheries 
for  many  years,  and  elicited  the  praise  paid  into  the  national  treasury  a  rental 
of  all  good  men  and  women.  A  society  which  exceeded  the  purchase-price  of  the 
for  carrying  out  his  benevolent  plan  was  territory  by  $6,350,000.  That  Bering  Sea, 
incorporated  by  the  legislature  of  New  with  its  islands,  was  the  exclusive  prop- 
York  in  1866,  and  this  example  was  fol-  erty  of  Russia  for  the  sixty-eight  years 
lowed  in  nearly  all  of  the  States  and  of  her  domination  in  Alaska  had  never 
Territories  of  the  Union  and  in  Canada,  been  questioned,  and  that  the  United 
He  died  in  New  Yoi'k,  March  12,  1888.  States,  by  purchase,  succeeded  to  the  same 

Bering  (now preferred  to  the  form  Beh-  rights  of  possession  no  one  could,  it  would 
ring),  Vitus,  Danish  navigator;  born  at  be  supposed,  deny.  About  1886,  however, 
Horsen,  in  Jutland,  in  1680.  In  his  youth  some  ship-owners  in  British  Columbia  be- 
he  made  several  voyages  to  the  East  and  gan  to  encroach  upon  these  rights  by  send- 
West  Indies;  entered  the  Russian  navy,  ing  vessels  into  the  sea  to  intercept  the 
and  served  with  distinction  against  the  seals  as  they  made  their  annual  migra- 
Swedes;  and  in  1725  commanded  a  scien-  tion  to  their  breeding-grounds  on  the 
tific  expedition  to  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka.  Pribyloff  Islands.  This  unlawful  poaching 
He  ascertained  that  Asia  and  America  and  the  unregulated  pelagic  sealing  were 
were  separated  by  water — a  strait  which  carried  on  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1890 
now  bears  his  name.  This  problem  Peter  the  Canadian  intruders  secured  20,000 
the  Great  had  been  very  desirous  of  hav-  skins.  As  very  many  of  the  seals  thus 
ing  solved.  Bering  was  appointed  captain  taken  were  females,  and  their  young  were 
commandant  in  1732,  and  in  1741  set  out  left  to  perish  for  want  of  sustenance,  the 
on  a  second  voyage  to  the  same  region,  actual  number  destroyed  was  far  in  ex- 
when  he  discovered  a  part  of  the  North  cess  of  the  number  of  skins,  and  the 
American  continent  supposed  to  have  been  extinction  of  the  entire  species  was  threat- 
New  Norfolk.  He  and  his  crew,  being  ened.  At  this  juncture  a  United  States 
disabled  by  sickness,  attempted  to  return  revenue-cutter  captured  one  of  the  poach- 
to  Kamtchatka,  bvit  were  wrecked  on  an  ing  vessels.  The  seizure  became  at  once 
island  that  now  bears  his  name,  where  the  subject  of  correspondence  between  the 
Bering  died  Dec.  8,  1741.  His  discoveries  British  government  and  the  State  De- 
were  the  foundation  of  the  claim  of  Russia  partment  at  Washington.  Secretary  Blaine 
to  a  large  region  in  the  far  northwest  of  urged  that  illicit  sealing  was  a  pursuit 
the  American   continent.      See  Alaska.  contra  ionos  mores,  against  international 

Bering  Sea.     In  1725  Capt.  Vitus  Be-  comity;   and  he  argued  against  the  claim 

ring,   a   Danish   navigator   in   the   service  of  Lord  Salisbury,  who  had  asserted  that 

of    Peter    the    Great,    discovered    the    sea  Bering   Sea    could   not   be   mare   clausum 

which    bears    his   name,    and   in    1741    he  under    any    circumstances.      The    British 

made  an  imperfect  exploration  of  a  por-  premier   declined   to   recognize  the   claims 

tion  of  the  Alaskan  coast.     By  virtue  of  of    the    United    States,    although    he    ex- 

these    discoveries,    the    Emperor    Paul    of  pressed    regret   at   the   "  wanton    destruc- 

Russia,   in   1799,   assumed   the    sovereign-  tion  of   a  valuable  industry,"   and   asked 

ty  over  the  American  coast  as  far  south  that   the   right   of   the   United    States    to 

325 


BERING   SEA 


seize  the  Canadian  vessels  be  submitted 
to  a  court  of  arbitration.  While  this  cor- 
respondence was  going  on  the  poachers 
continued  their  depredations,  and  the 
number  of  seals  was  so  materially  re- 
duced that  in  1891  not  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  usual  number  of  pelts  were 
taken  by  the  legally  authorized  sealers. 
An  agreement  was  finally  entered  into 
to  submit  the  matter  to  a  court  of  arbi- 
tration, com^josed  of  commissioners  se- 
lected by  the  two  governments.  The  ques- 
tions at  issue  to  be  decided  by  this  court 
were  as   follows: 

1.  What  exclusive  jurisdiction  in  Bering 
Sea  did  Russia  exercise  prior  to  the  ces- 
sion of  Alaska? 

2.  To  what  extent  was  this  jurisdiction, 
especially  as  regarded  the  seal  fisheries, 
recognized   by   Great   Britain? 

3.  Was  the  Bering  Sea  included  in  the 
phrase  "  Pacific  Ocean "  in  the  Anglo- 
Eussian  treaty  of  1825;  and  what  rights 
did  Russia  exercise  in  the  Bering  Sea 
after  the  treaty? 

4.  Did  not  all  the  Russian  rights  in  the 
fisheries  east  of  the  water  boundary  pass 
to  the  United  States  when  the  treaty  was 
ratified  by  which  she  acquired  possession 
of  the  territory  of  Alaska? 

5.  What  right  of  protection  of  prop- 
erty has  the  United  States  in  the  seals 
frequenting  United  States  islands,  when 
found  outside  the  ordinary  3-mile  limit? 

Pending  the  decision  of  the  case  by  ar- 
bitration, an  agreement  was  entered  into 
between  the  two  governments,  June  15, 
1891,  providing: 

1.  That  Great  Britain  shall  use  her 
best  efforts  to  prohibit  sealing  by  her 
subjects  in  Bering  Sea  until  May,  1892. 

2.  That  the  United  States  shall  limit  the 
number  of  seals  to  be  taken  by  the  North 
American  Commercial  Company  to  7,500 
per  year,  and  shall  not  permit  more  to  be 
taken  i^revious  to  the  date  above  given. 

3.  That  offending  vessels  outside  the 
territorial  limits  of  the  United  States 
may  be  seized  by  either  of  the  contract- 
ing parties;   and, 

4.  That  British  agents  may  visit  or 
remain  on  the  islands  during  the  pres- 
ent season  to  make  such  observations  as 
may  be  necessary  for  the  proper  presenta- 
tion of  the  case  to  the  court  of  arbitration. 

Expert  agents  were  appointed  by  each 


government  to  visit  the  localities  under 
dispute,  and  make  a  thorough  investi- 
gation of  the  material  facts.  A  treaty 
was  signed  at  Washington,  Feb.  29,  1892, 
providing  for  the  settlement  by  arbitra- 
tion of  the  vexed  seal  question.  The 
treaty  was  ratified  in  London,  and  the  ar- 
bitrators met  in  Paris;  they  were  Lord 
Hannen,  Sir  John  Thompson,  Justice  Har- 
lan, United  States  Senator  Morgan,  Baron 
de  Courcelles,  M.  Gregero  Gram,  and  Mar- 
quis Visconti  Venosta.  The  decision  of 
the  tribunal  was  rendered  Aug.  15,  1893. 
The  findings  of  the  arbitrators  were:  Rus- 
sia never  claimed  exclusive  rights;  Great 
Britain  had  not  conceded  any  claim  of 
Russia  to  exclusive  jurisdiction;  Bering 
Sea  was  included  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  in 
the  treaty  of  1825;  all  Russian  rights 
passed  to  the  United  States;  the  United 
States  have  no  rights  when  seals  are  out- 
side the  3-mile  limit.  Restrictive  regula- 
tions were  also  adopted:  proclaiming  a 
closed  season  from  May  1  to  July  31  in 
Bering  Sea  and  the  North  Pacific;  estab- 
lishing a  protected  zone  within  60  miles 
of  the  Pribyloff  Islands ;  forbidding 
steam- vessels,  use  of  nets,  fire-arms,  and 
explosives.  The  award  was  regarded  as  a 
compromise,  in  which  the  United  States 
was  technically  defeated,  but  acquired 
substantial  advantages  in  the  regulations. 
The  complaints  came  mainly  from  Can- 
ada.    See  Bering  Sea  Arbitration. 

In  1894,  the  year  following  the  sign- 
ing of  this  treaty,  more  seals  were  slaugh- 
tered by  poachers  than  ever  before.  The 
United  States  again  asked  England  to  in- 
terfere against  the  Canadian  poachers, 
but  that  country  refused  to  act  unless  the 
LTnited  States  should  pay  Great  Britain 
$500,000  in  discharge  of  all  claims  for 
damages  resulting  from  alleged  illegal 
seizures  of  British  vessels  in  Bering  Sea. 
The  United  States  denied  the  justice  of 
this  claim,  but  after  another  year  of 
seal  slaughter,  agreed  to  submit  the  claim 
to  arbitration.  In  July,  1896,  Judge 
G.  E.  King,  of  Canada,  and  Judge 
W.  E.  Putnam,  of  the  United  States,  were 
chosen  commissioners  to  settle  the  matter. 

On  Jan.  14,  1898,  President  McKinley 
submitted  to  Congress  the  report  and 
awards  of  the  commission,  the  last  aggre- 
gating $473,151  in  favor  of  Great  Britain, 
and    on   June    14    Congress    appropriated 


326 


BERING    SEA    ARBITRATION 


tliat  amount.  In  the  mean  time  (June, 
1896)  President  Cleveland  appointed  a 
commission  to  make  an  exhaustive  study 
of  the  fur-seal  question,  and  on  its  re- 
port (1897)  President  McKinley  appoint- 
ed a  new  commission  to  devise  protection 
for  the  seals.  Then  efforts  were  made  to 
induce  Great  Britain  to  consent  to  an  in- 


ternational conference,  but  Canada  ob- 
jected to  the  representation  of  Russia  and 
Japan,  whom  the  United  States  had  in- 
vited, and  on  this  objection  Great  Britain 
declined.  Subsequently  the  United  States 
invited  all  interested  nations  to  a  con- 
ference separately.  See  Anglo-Amekican 
Commission. 


BERING    SEA    ARBITRATION 


Bering  Sea  Arbitration.  The  United 
States  stands  distinguished  among  the 
nations  as  the  foremost  champion  of  in- 
ternational arbitration.  Our  ablest  and 
wisest  statesmen  have  recognized  it  as  the 
best  way  of  adjusting  most  questions  of 
difference  arising  between  governments, 
when  the  ordinary  diplomatic  methods 
fail.  Such  being  the  settled  policy  of  the 
country,  it  would  be  unfortunate  for  the 
cause  of  peace  and  civilization  in  the 
world  if  that  policy  should  be  prejudiced 
in  the  United  States  for  want  of  correct 
information  or  through  partisan  bias. 

In  1893  John  Watson  Foster  (q.  v.) 
was  appointed  United  States  agent  to  the 
Bering  Sea  arbitration  tribunal  which 
met  in  Paris.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
arbitration  he  wrote  the  following  paper : 


The  impression  seems  to  prevail  with 
many  of  our  people  that  the  Bering  Sea 
arbitration  was  unwisely  entered  upon, 
that  it  was  fruitless  in  its  results  to  us, 
and  that  the  responsibility  for  the  failure 
is  chargeable  to  the  administration  which 
agreed  to  it.  Every  one  of  these  conclu- 
sions is  incorrect,  and  in  the  interest  of 
the  great  cause  of  international  arbitra- 
tion their  fallacy  should  be  exposed. 

It  is  well,  in  the  first  place,  to  examine 
the  origin  of  the  controversy.  Alaska 
was  ceded  by  Russia  to  the  United  States 
in  1867,  and  in  1870  the  seal  islands  in 
Bering  Sea  were  leased  by  the  government 
to  a  private  company,  with  the  privilege 
of  taking  on  the  land  a  certain  number 
of  seals  annually.  Soon  thereafter  it  be- 
came apparent  that  the  seal  herd  was  ex- 
posed to  serious  diminution  by  means  of 
pelagic  or  open-sea  hunting.  As  early 
as  1872  the  attention  of  the  government 
was  called  to  this  danger,  and  it  was  sug- 
gested that  a   revenue-cutter   be   sent  to 


cruise  in  the  vicinity  of  the  passes  of  the 
Aleutian  chain,  through  which  the  herd 
travelled  on  its  way  to  and  from  the  seal 
islands,  with  a  view  of  preventing  such 
hunting.  But  Mr.  Boutwell,  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  declined  to  act  upon  the 
suggestion,  stating:  "I  do  not  see  that 
the  United  States  would  have  the  juris- 
diction or  power  to  drive  off  parties  going 
up  there  for  that  purpose,  unless  they 
made  the  attempt  A\ithin  a  marine  league 
of  the  shore."  With  the  progress  of  time 
pelagic  hunting  increased  along  the  Cana- 
dian and  American  coasts,  with  greater 
slaughter  of  the  herd,  and  with  occasional 
incursions  into  Bering  Sea.  There  was 
gradually  developed  a  contention  that  the 
principle  laid  down  by  Secretary  Bout- 
well  did  not  apply  to  Bering  Sea,  because 
Russia  had  claimed  and  enforced  exclu- 
sive jurisdiction  over  all  its  waters,  that 
it  had  been  acquiesced  in  by  the  maritime 
nations,  including  Great  Britain,  and  that 
all  the  rights  of  Russia' therein  passed  to 
the  United  States  by  the  cession.  The  act 
of  Congress  of  1868  (Section  1,956)  made 
it  unlawful  to  kill  seals  "  within  the  lim- 
its of  Alaska  Territory  or  in  the  waters 
thereof,"  and  it  was  claimed  that  the  wa- 
ters of  Alaska  embraced  all  that  portion 
of  Bering  Sea  east  of  the  line  designated 
in  the  Russian  treaty  of  cession.  Under 
the  foregoing  construction  of  the  treaty 
and  the  statute,  the  first  seizure  of  Brit- 
ish vessels  in  Bering  Sea  took  place  under 
instructions  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury by  the  revenue  vessels  in  1886,  and 
other  seizures  followed  in  1887.  Suits 
were  instituted  in  the  federal  court  at 
Sitka  under  the  act  cited,  and  the  vessels 
were  condemned.  The  judge,  whose  ten- 
ure of  office  under  the  practice  in  vogue 
as  to  that  Territory  was  limited  to  the 
political   administration  which   appointed 


327 


BERING    SEA   ARBITRATION 


him,  following  the  line  of  argument  sub- 
mitted by  the  district  attorney  in  a  brief 
prepared  in  the  office  of  the  Attorney- 
General,  held  that  "  all  the  waters  within 
the  boundary  set  forth  in  the  treaty  .  .  . 
are  to  be  considered  as  comprised  within 
the  waters  of  Alaska,  and  all  the  penal- 
ties prescribed  by  law  .  .  .  must  there- 
fore attach  within  those  limits."  He 
further  held  that  "  as  a  matter  of  inter- 
national law,  it  makes  no  difference  that 
the  accused  parties  may  be  subjects  of 
Great  Britain.  Russia  had  claimed  and  ex- 
ercised jurisdiction  over  all  that  portion 
of  Bering  Sea  .  .  .  and  that  claim  had  been 
tacitly  recognized  and  acquiesced  in  by 
the  other  maritime  powers  of  the  world." 

The  seizure  and  condemnation  of  the 
British  vessels  were  followed  by  an  at- 
tempt to  secure  a  more  precise  and  strict 
definition  of  "  the  waters  of  Alaska  "  by 
congressional  legislation.  A  lengthy  in- 
vestigation was  had  by  a  committee  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  1888;  and 
in  January,  1889,  a  report  was  made  by 
Mr.  Dunn,  of  Arkansas,  chairman  of  the 
committee,  fully  sustaining  the  view  taken 
by  the  Attorney-General  and  the  federal 
judge  in  Alaska,  and  submitting  a  bill 
which  declared  "  that  Section  1,956  of  the 
Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States  was 
intended  to  include  and  apply  to,  and  is 
hereby  declared  to  include  and  apply  to, 
all  waters  of  Bering  Sea  in  Alaska  em- 
braced within  the  boundary  lines  "  of  the 
treaty  with  Russia.  This  bill  was  passed 
by  the  House,  but  in  the  Senate  it  was 
sent  to  the  committee  on  foreign  rela- 
tions, and  that  committee  recommended 
that  the  clause  above  quoted  be  disagreed 
to;  and  the  chairman,  Mr.  Sherman,  in 
support  of  the  recommendation,  stated 
that  the  proposed  legislation  "  involved 
serious  matters  of  international  law  .  .  . 
and  ought  to  be  disagreed  to  and  aban- 
doned, and  considered  more  carefully 
hereafter."  Subsequently,  by  virtue  of  a 
conference  report,  an  act  was  passed  de- 
claring Section  1,956  to  include  and  ap- 
ply '■  to  all  tlie  dominion  of  the  United 
States  in  the  waters  of  Bering  Sea." 

The  seizure  and  condemnation  of  ves- 
sels, as  stated,  constitute  the  origin  and 
foundation  of  the  complaint  of  the  British 
government,  and  of  the  lengthy  corre- 
spondence and  negotiations  which  resulted 

3 


in  the  arbitration  at  Paris.  These  seizures 
were  the  act  of  the  administration  of 
I'resident  Cleveland,  and  had  the  endorse- 
ment of  the  executive,  politico-judicial, 
and  legislative  departments  of  that  ad- 
n)inistration.  In  so  far  as  the  views  of  the 
opposing  political  party  may  be  inferred 
from  the  attitude  of  Secretary  Boutwell 
and  Senator  Sherman,  they  were  against 
the  legality  or  wisdom  of  the  policy. 

The  complaint  of  Great  Britain  in  1887 
was  followed  by  a  diplomatic  correspond- 
ence, in  which  Secretary  Bayard,  without 
discussing  or  yielding  the  grounds  upon 
which  the  seizures  had  been  made,  pro- 
posed an  international  arrangement  for 
the  protection  of  the  seals  from  exter- 
mination. With  this  proposition  pend- 
ing, and  with  all  the  questions  arising  out 
of  the  seizures  unsettled,  the  executive 
government  of  the  United  States  passed 
into  the  hands  of  President  Harrison.  Mr. 
Blaine,  on  assuming  the  duties  of  Secre- 
tary of  State,  sought  to  carry  into  effect 
the  proposition  of  his  predecessor  for  an 
international  agreement.  He  found  that 
few  of  the  governments  approached  had 
shown  any  interest  in  the  proposition,  but 
early  in  the  administration  he  pressed  the 
subject  upon  the  attention  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  as  soon  as  possible  secured  a  joint 
conference  at  Washington  with  the  Brit- 
ish and  Russian  ministers.  After  pro- 
longed interviews  the  conference  proved 
a  failure,  as  Great  Britain  was  unwilling 
to  enter  into  any  international  agreement 
which  the  two  other  interested  powers  felt 
was  at  all  adequate  to  protect  the  seals 
from  extermination. 

The  measure  which  Secretary  Bayard 
had  initiated  for  the  settlement  of  the 
questions  arising  out  of  the  seizure  of 
British  vessels  having  proved  impossible 
of  realization,  there  seemed  no  other  al- 
ternative but  to  defend  the  action  of  the 
previous  administration ;  and  thereupon 
followed  the  notable  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence between  ]\Ir.  Blaine  and  Lord 
Salisbury,  in  which  the  former  sought 
with  all  his  recognized  forensic  skill  to 
defend  the  action  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  ordering  the  seizures  and,  as 
far  as  he  felt  it  possible  to  do  so,  to  sus- 
tain the  correctness  in  international  law 
of  the  attitude  of  the  Attorney-General 
and  the  judge  of  the  federal  court  of 
28 


BERING    SEA   ARBITRATION 


Alaska.  In  no  part  of  that  statesman's 
career  did  his  devotion  to  his  country 
more  conspicuously  rise  above  partisan- 
ship than  in  that  correspondence.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  living  American  could 
have  made  a  more  brilliant  or  effective 
defence  of  the  action  of  his  government, 
and  whatever  fallacies  exist  in  his  argu- 
ment are  chargeable  to  the  previous  ad- 
ministration which  had  occasioned  the  con- 
troversy and  marked  out  the  line  of  defence. 
The  correspondence  showed  the  two  gov- 
ernments in  hopeless  disagreement.  Three 
courses  were  open  to  President  Harrison, 
and  one  of  them  must  be  chosen  without 
further  delay:  First,  he  could  abandon 
the  claim  of  exclusive  jurisdiction  over 
Bering  Sea  or  protection  of  the  seals  be- 
yond the  3-mile  limit,  recede  from  the  ac- 
tion of  his  predecessor  as  to  seizure  of 
British  vessels,  and  pay  the  damages 
claimed  therefor.  Such  a  course  would 
have  met  with  the  general  disapproval 
of  the  nation,  and  would  have  been  de- 
nounced by  his  political  opponents  as  a 
base  betrayal  of  the  country's  interests. 
Second,  he  could  have  rejected  the  ar- 
guments'and  protests  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment, and  continued  the  policy  initi- 
ated by  his  predecessor  in  the  seizure 
of  all  British  vessels  engaged  in  pelagic 
sealing  in  Bering  Sea.  But  this  course 
had  already  been  pi-oposed  to  President 
Cleveland,  and  decided  to  be  improper. 
The  Hon.  E.  J.  Phelps  who,  as  minister 
to  Great  Britain,  had  conducted  the  ne- 
gotiations with  Lord  Salisbury  growing 
out  of  the  seizures  of  1886  and  1887,  in  a 
lengthy  despatch  to  Secretary  Bayard,  re- 
viewing the  conduct  of  Canada  which  had 
prevented  an  adjustment  once  accepted  by 
Lord  Salisbury,  made  the  following  recom- 
mendation :  "  Under  these  circumstances, 
the  government  of  the  United  States  must, 
in  my  opinion,  either  submit  to  have 
these  valuable  fisheries  destroyed,  or  must 
take  measures  to  prevent  their  destruction 
by  capturing  the  vessels  employed  in  it. 
Between  these  two  alternatives  it  does  not 
appear  to  me  there  should  be  the  slight- 
est hesitation.  ...  I  earnestly  recommend, 
therefore,  that  the  vessels  that  have  been 
seized  while  engaged  in  this  business  be 
firmly  held,  and  that  measures  be  taken 
to  capture  and  hold  every  one  hereafter 
found  concerned  in  it.  .  .  .  There  need  be 


no  fear  that  a  resolute  stand  on  this  sub- 
ject will  at  once  put  an  end  to  the  mis- 
chief complained  of."  But  this  recom- 
mendation of  Mr.  Phelps  was  not  ap- 
proved by  Mr.  Bayard,  who  was  unwill- 
ing to  adopt  a  course  which  might  bring 
about  a  rupture  with  Great  Britain,  the 
probable  outcome  of  which  would  have 
been  an  armed  conflict.  In  view  of  this 
decision  and  the  state  of  public  sentiment, 
with  a  prevailing  opinion  in  a  large  part 
of  the  press  and  with  public  men  that  the 
attitude  of  the  government  was  legally  un- 
sound, and  that  the  interests  involved  did 
not,  under  the  circumstances  stated,  justi- 
fy the  hazard  of  a  great  war  between  these 
two  English-speaking  nations,  the  adop- 
tion of  this  second  alternative  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison  would  have  been  the  height 
of  madness.  The  only  remaining  alterna- 
tive was  arbitration.  President  Harrison 
felt  that  if  we  could  commit  to  an  inter- 
national tribunal  the  far  greater  interests 
and  principles  involved  in  the  Alabama 
claims,  it  would  be  the  part  of  wisdom 
to  adopt  the  same  course  as  to  the  pend- 
ing questions  of  diff"erence,  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  sober  judgment  of 
the  country  confirms  his  action. 

If,  therefore,  the  Paris  arbitration  was 
unwise  in  any  of  its  features,  it  must  have 
been  in  the  manner  of  submission  of  the 
questions  to  the  tribunal.  But  in  this  re- 
spect, also,  the  conduct  of  President  Har- 
rison was  greatly  restricted  by  the  action 
of  his  predecessor.  He  was  required  to 
formulate  for  the  decision  of  the  tribunal 
the  contentions  upon  which  the  seizures 
were  made,  and  the  first  four  points  em- 
braced in  Article  VI.  of  the  treaty  will 
be  found  to  cover  accurately  the  grounds 
upon  which  the  Attorney-General  in  1887 
asked  for,  and  the  federal  judge  based, 
the  condemnation  of  the  British  vessels. 
It  is  a  singular  incident  that  when  the 
case  of  the  United  States  came  to  be 
prepared  and  the  Russian  archives  were 
examined,  what  had  been  assumed  in  the 
legal  proceedings  to  be  historical  facts 
could  scarcely  be  substantiated  by  a  sin- 
gle official  document.  It  is  also  notable 
that  the  only  additional  question  intro- 
duced in  the  treaty  provision  for  submis- 
sion to  the  tribunal — that  embraced  in  the 
fifth  point,  to  wit,  the  right  of  protection 
or   property   in   the   seals,   and   which    in 


329 


BERING     SEA    ABBITRATION 


the  judgment  of  the  counsel  of  the  United 
States  became  the  leading,  if  not  the  only, 
defence  of  the  seizures — was  not  advanced 
in  the  legal  proceedings  of  1887,  and  was 
not  mooted  until  a  late  stage  of  Mr. 
Blaine's  controversy  with  Lord  Salisbury. 
The  chief  credit  for  the  development  of 
this  point  is  due  to  Mr.  Tracy,  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  who  submitted  a  paper  of 
rare  legal  ability  on  the  subject  to  the 
President.  The  treaty  after  having  under- 
gone the  careful  scrutiny  of  the  President 
and  Hon.  E.  J.  Phelps,  whose  advice  had 
been  sought  by  the  President,  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  Senate  and  approved  by  that 
body  without  a  single  dissenting  voice,  so 
far  as  is  known.  If  the  conduct  of  the 
President,  in  the  management  of  the  con- 
troversy created  by  his  predecessor,  had 
not  been  in  the  judgment  of  the  country 
wise  and  patriotic,  or  if  the  provisions  of 
the  treaty  had  not  been  properly  framed, 
it  would  scarcely  have  escaped  the  attention 
of  his  political  opponents  in  the  Senate. 

Hence,  the  only  remaining  criticism 
which  might  be  advanced  against  the  ar- 
bitration must  relate  to  the  management 
of  the  case  before  the  tribunal.  But  in 
this  respect  also  it  must  be  recognized 
that  the  President's  action  was  circum- 
spect and  free  from  all  partisanship.  In 
naming  the  arbitrators  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  he  chose,  with  the  cordial 
approval  of  the  Chief-Justice  and  his  as- 
sociates, Mr.  Justice  Harlan,  of  the  Su- 
preme Court,  as  senior  American  member 
of  the  tribunal.  In  filling  the  second 
place  he  selected  Senator  Morgan,  the  rec- 
ognized leader  of  all  international  ques- 
tions in  the  Senate  of  the  party  whose 
officials  had  originated  the  subject-matter 
of  arbitration.  Hon.  E.  J.  Phelps,  Presi- 
dent Cleveland's  minister  in  London,  an 
experienced  diplomatist,  and  a  lawyer  of 
national  repute,  had  been  consulted  by  the 
President  several  months  before  the  treaty 
had  been  agreed  upon,  and  when  the  case 
came  to  be  prepared  he  was  named  as 
senior  counsel.  With  him  was  associated 
James  C.  Carter,  of  New  York,  the  recog- 
nized leader  of  the  American  bar;  and  be- 
fore the  tribunal  was  organized  Frederic 
B.  Coudert,  an  accomplished  French 
scholar  and  a  prominent  jurist,  was  added 
to  the  list.  These  three  gentlemen  were 
the    political    friends    of    Mr.    Cleveland. 


With  them  was  joined  a  single  party 
friend  of  President  Harrison,  H.  W. 
Blodgett,  for  many  years  a  distinguished 
judge  of  the  Federal  Court.  Senator  Mor- 
gan, in  a  subsequent  letter,  wrote :  "  Our 
party  was  and  is  responsible  for  using  the 
means  that  were  employed  both  for  the 
raising  and  the  settlement  of  these  ques- 
tions, and  it  was  a  just  measure  of  respon- 
sibility that  Mr.  Harrison  devolved  upon 
us  when,  out  of  a  body  of  arbitrators  and 
counsel,  and  Mr.  Secretary  Foster,  the 
agent,  selected  by  him — seven  in  all — he 
selected  four  Democrats  and  three  Re- 
publicans." As  to  the  manner  in  which 
these  gentlemen  discharged  their  trust,  we 
have  the  following  testimony  of  Mr.  Jus- 
tice Harlan,  in  a  public  address:  "I  may 
say  that  no  government  was  ever  repre- 
sented upon  any  occasion  where  its  inter- 
ests were  involved  with  more  fidelity, 
with  more  industry,  and  with  greater  abil- 
ity than  was  the  United  States  by  its 
agent  and  counsel.  ...  If  more  was  not 
obtained  is  was  solely  because  a  majority 
of  that  tribunal  .  .  .  did  not  see  their 
way  to  grant  more." 

On  five  points  submitted  to  the  tribunal, 
embracing  the  historical  and  legal  ques- 
tions, the  decision  was  unfavorable  to  the 
United  States.  While  the  action  of  the  gov- 
ei-nment  in  making  the  seizures  was  based 
on  the  weakest  ground  of  our  defence, 
which  proved  untenable,  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  motives  which  actuated 
its  conduct  were  patriotic  and  praise- 
worthy. But  had  our  effort  to  save  the 
seals  from  destruction  been  from  the  out- 
set based  upon  a  right  of  protection  and 
property  in  them,  our  case  before  the 
tribunal  would  have  been  much  stronger 
and  the  decision  might  have  been  different. 
Nevertheless,  it  cannot  be  justly  claimed 
that  the  arbitration  was  fruitless  in  its 
results  for  us.  It  is  no  small  matter 
that  a  question  which  threatened  a  rupt- 
ure of  our  peaceful  relations  with  Great 
Britain  was  adjusted  by  a  resort  to  the 
arbitrament  of  reason  and  not  of  force. 
The  Alaskan  seal  herd  is  of  great  value 
to  us  and  to  the  world,  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  our  government  to  be  vigilant  in  pro- 
tecting it  from  destruction;  but  the  legal 
issues  involved  in  our  controversy  with 
Great  Britain  regarding  them  did  not 
seem  to  justify  the  hazard  of  an  armed 


330 


BERING     SEA    ARBITRATION 


conflict,  and  it  was  a  great  gain  to  us 
that  the  controversy  was  peacefully  set- 
tled without  national  dishonor. 

The  decision  of  the  tribunal  was  ad- 
verse to  the  United  States  on  the  legal 
points  in  dispute,  but  the  award  contain- 
ed an  important  provision  for  interna- 
tional regulations,  which  were  intended 
by  the  tribunal  to  be  a  protection  to  the 
seals,  and  which  in  the  judgment  of  the 
majority  of  that  body  would  in  practice 
prove  an  adequate  protection.  The  agent 
and  counsel  of  the  United  States  contend- 
ed that  no  regulations  would  be  a  certain 
protection  of  the  herd  which  did  not  pro- 
hibit all  pelagic  sealing,  and  the  American 
arbitrators  voted  for  such  prohibition,  and 
sustained  their  votes  by  very  able  and 
cogent  opinions;  but  the  majority  of  the 
tribunal  took  a  diflferent  view  of  the  sub- 
ject. The  regulations  adopted  were  op- 
posed both  by  the  American  and  Canadian 
arbitrators.  When  first  published  they 
were  accepted  by  all  the  Americans  who 
participated  in  the  arbitration  as  a  de- 
cided triumph  for  the  United  States,  and 
were  regarded  by  the  Canadian  sealers  as 
a  serious  menace,  if  not  a  death-blow,  to 
their  interests.  If  they  are  carefully  ex- 
amined they  will  be  found  to  be  more 
favorable  to  the  United  States  than  the 
regulations  which  Mr.  Bayard  proposed 
to  Lord  Salisbury  as  a  settlement  of  the 
question,  or  which  Mr.  Blaine  offered  to 
Sir  Julian  Pauncefote.  If,  therefore,  we 
obtained  more  from  the  tribunal  than 
our  government  proposed  to  accept  from 
Great  Britain,  the  arbitration  cannot 
justly  be  characterized  as  fruitless  in  its 
results  for  us.  The  adequacy  of  the  reg- 
ulations cannot  be  properly  judged,  be- 
cause they  have  not  yet  been  put  in  force 
in  their  true  spirit  and  intent.  This  will 
not  be  done  until  they  are  also  made  to 
apply  to  the  Russian  waters,  and  until 
more  stringent  rules  for  their  enforcement 
are  adopted.  It  has  been  a  source  of  dis- 
appointment to  many  who  have  taken  an 
interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  seals 
that  these  rules  have  been  so  lax  and  so 
imperfectly  observed.  The  obstruction  in 
these  respects  is  now,  as  it  has  been  from 
the  beginning,  the  selfish  and  inhuman 
conduct  of  Canada. 

As  it  has  been  shown  by  the  foregoing  re- 
view that  the  Paris  arbitration  was  not  un- 


wisely entered  upon,  that  it  was  not  alto- 
gether fruitless  in  its  results  for  us,  and 
that  the  administration  which  agreed  to  it 
cannot  be  held  culpable  for  the  manner  of 
its  submission  or  management.  But  it 
will  naturally  be  expected  that  something 
be  said  concerning  the  question  of  dam- 
ages, a  subject  which  was  not  settled  by 
the  award.  In  Article  VIII.  of  the  treaty 
it  was  expressly  stipulated  that  "  the  ques- 
tion of  liability  of  each  for  the  injuries 
alleged  to  have  been  sustained  by  the 
other  "  should  not  be  embraced  in  the  arbi- 
tration, but  should  "  be  the  subject  of 
future  negotiation."  In  the  discussion 
following  the  adjournment  of  the  tribunal, 
the  fact  seems  to  have  been  lost  sight 
of  that  the  United  States  preferred  seri- 
ous claims  for  damages  against  Great 
Britain  on  account  of  the  injuries  done 
by  British  pelagic  sealers  to  the  Alaskan 
seal  herd,  and  that  President  Harrison 
proposed  that  this  question  of  damages 
should,  together  with  the  British  claims 
for  seizure  of  vessels,  be  submitted  to  the 
tribunal.  It  was  because  Great  Britain 
refused  to  consent  to  arbitrate  this  claim 
that  the  whole  subject  was  omitted.  The 
award  of  the  tribunal  was  in  effect  that 
in  certain  waters,  and  at  certain  times, 
pelagic  sealing  is  improper  and  should 
not  be  permitted.  How  far  the  claim  of 
the  United  States  subsists  for  injuries  in 
the  past  sustained  by  the  seal  herd  in 
those  times  and  waters  is  one  of  the  ques- 
tions to  be  determined  by  the  "  future  ne- 
gotiations "  contemplated  in  the  treaty; 
and  prominent  persons  well  informed  as 
to  the  controversy  contend  that  it  is  still 
a  vital  question. 

While  the  liability  for  damages  was 
not  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  tri- 
bunal, it  is  generally  admitted  that  the 
effect  of  its  decision  was  to  fix  upon  the 
United  States  a  certain  measure  of  re- 
sponsibility for  damages  on  account  of 
the  seizures,  which  would  have  to  be  met 
through  the  "  future  negotiations."  With- 
out further  investigation  than  the  docu- 
mentary evidence  before  the  Paris  tri- 
bunal, the  sum  of  $425,000  was  agreed 
upon  between  the  Secretary  of  State  and 
the  British  ambassador  as  a  full  satis- 
faction of  the  claims  for  the  seizure  of 
the  British  vessels,  and  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States  was  asked  to  make  an 


331 


BERING    SEA    ARBITRATION— BERKELEY 


appropriation  for  that  purpose.  In  the 
discussion  which  arose  in  the  House  of 
Kepresentatives  when  the  subject  came  be- 
fore that  body,  it  was  most  unfortunate 
that  it  should  have  assumed  a  partisan 
aspect.  When  certain  members  argued 
tliat  the  sum  asked  for  was  greatly  in  ex- 
cess of  the  just  and  legal  claims  of  the 
Canadian  sealers,  and  that  it  was  in  di- 
rect conflict  with  the  views  of  the  agent 
and  counsel  of  the  United  States  before 
the  tribunal,  they  were  taunted  with 
the  charge  that  this  obligation  had  been 
contracted  by  the  administration  of  which 
they  were  supporters.  The  member  of  the 
committee  on  appropriations  who  had  the 
measure  in  charge  said :  "  This  is  not  our 
foreign  policy.  We  are  paying  a  debt 
which  you  gentlemen  gave  us."  Mr. 
McCreary,  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  foreign  afl'airs,  in  advocacy  of  the  ap- 
propriation, used  this  language:  "I  re- 
gret that  we  have  been  placed  in  an  atti- 
tude where  we  have  to  pay  this  amount; 
but  the  gentlemen  on  the  other  side  of 
this  House  cannot  claim  that  we  caused 
the  existing  situation."  How  unwarranted 
were  these  assertions  is  shown  in  the  fore- 
going review. 

It  may  have  been  the  wisest  policy  to 
vote  the  appropriation,  but  it  was  no 
breach  of  our  international  obligations  not 
to  approve  of  that  sum;  and  it  is  not  to 
the  discredit  of  Congress  that  it  exercised 
its  judgment  as  to  the  action  of  the  execu- 
tive in  agreeing  to  a  settlement  with 
Great  Britain  which  altogether  ignored 
the  claim  of  the  United  States  for  dam- 
ages to  the  seals  by  improper  pelagic 
hunting,  and  the  views  of  its  own  repre- 
sentatives before  the  tribunal  as  to  the 
British  claims.  While  a  difference  of 
views  may  properly  exist  between  the 
executive  and  legislative  departments  upon 
these  subordinate  questions,  no  disposi- 
tion has  been  entertained  or  shown  by  any 
portion  of  our  government  or  people  to 
evade  our  just  obligations  under  the 
treaty.  And  the  fact  that  the  spirit  of 
the  award  leads  us  to  pay  out  of  the  na- 
tional treasury  a  sum  by  way  of  damages, 
which  at  the  most  must  be  regarded  as 
insignificant  for  a  great  nation,  should 
certainly  have  no  tendency  to  modify  in 
the  slightest  degree  our  devotion  to  the 
great  policy  of  international  arbitration. 


Berkeley,  George,  Bishop  of  Cloyne; 
born  in  Kilcrin,  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  March 
12,  1684;  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin ;  became  a  Fellow  there ;  and  at 
an  early  age  wrote  on  scientific  subjects. 
Between  1710  and  1713  his  two  famous 
works  appeai'ed,  in  which  he  denies  the 
existence  of  matter,  and  argues  that  it  is 
not  without  the  mind,  but  within  it,  and 
that  that  which  is  called  matter  is  only 
an  impression  produced  by  divine  power 
on  the  mind  by  the  invariable  laws  of  nat- 
ure. On  a  tour  in  France  he  visited  the 
French  philosopher  Malebranche,  who  be- 
came so  excited  by  a  discussion  with 
Berkeley  on  the  non-existence  of  matter 
that,  being  ill  at  the  time,  he  died  a  few 
days  afterwards.  Miss  Vanhomrigh 
( Swift's  "  Vanessa " )  bequeathed  to 
Berkeley  $20,000;  and  in  1728  his  income 
was  increased  $5,500  a  year  by  being  made 
Dean  of  Derry.  Berkeley  conceived  a  plan 
for  establishing  a  college  in  the  Bermudas 
for  the  instruction  of  pastors  for  the 
colonial  churches  and  missionaries  for  the 
Indians.  He  resigned  his  offices  to  become 
rector  of  the  projected  college  at  a  salary 
of  $500  a  year.  The  House  of  Commons 
authorized  the  appropriation  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  money  to  be  obtained  from 
the  sale  of  lands  in  St.  Kitt's  (St.  Chris- 
topher's), which  had  been  ceded  to  Eng- 
land for  the  establishment  of  the  institu- 
tion. With  these  assurances  Berkeley 
went  to  Newport,  R.  I.  (1729),  bought 
a  farm  and  built  a  house,  intending  to  in- 
vest the  college  funds,  when  received,  in 
American  lands,  and  then  to  make  ar- 
rangements for  a  supply  of  pupils.  He 
had  just  married,  and  brought  his  bride 
with  him.  The  scheme  for  the  college 
failed  for  lack  of  government  co-opera- 
tion after  the  death  of  the  King,  who  fa- 
vored it.  In  1734  Berkeley  was  made 
Bishop  of  Cloyne,  which  place  he  held  for 
almost  twenty  years.  He  gave  to  Yale 
College  his  estate  in  Rhode  Island,  known 
as  "  White  Hall,"  and  also  880  volumes 
for  its  library.  He  died  in  Oxford, 
Jan.  14,  1753.  Pope  ascribed  to  him  "  ev- 
ery virtue  under  the  sun."  It  was  in 
view  of  the  establishment  of  the  college 
that  he  wrote  his  famous  lines  On  the 
Prospect  of  Plmiting  Arts  and  Learning 
in  America,  in  which  occur  these  often- 
quoted  lines, 


332 


BERKELEY 


"Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  waj';  In  religions  matters  there  was  soon  per- 

The  first  four  acts  already  past,  ceived  the  spirit  of  persecution  in  the  char- 

A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day;  acter  of  the  governor.     The  Puritans  were 

Time's  noblest  offspring  is  the  last."  tj^gn  ^^^^  only  tolerated  in  Virginia,  but 

Berkeley,  Sir  John,  a  proprietor  of  had  been  invited  to  settle  there.  The  civil 
New  Jersey;  born  in  1607;  was  in  the  war  drew  a  line  of  clear  demarcation  be- 
military  service  of  Charles  I.  when  the  tween  churchmen  and  non-conformists.  A 
King  knighted  him  at  Berwick  on  the  large  majority  of  the  people  of  Virginia 
Tweed.  In  the  civil  war  that  afterwards  were  attached  to  the  Church  of  England; 
ensued,  he  bore  a  conspicuous  part,  and  so  was  the  governor.  In  England  the 
he  remained  in  exile  with  the  royal  Puritans  were  identified  Avith  the  republi- 
family  many  years.  In  1653  Berkeley  cans,  and  Berkeley  thought  it  to  be  his 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Duke  of  duty  to  suppress  them  in  his  colony  as 
York's  establishment;  and  two  years  be-  enemies  to  royalty.  So  he  first  decreed 
fore  the  Restoration  (1660),  of  that  of  that  no  Puritan  minister  should  preach 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  who,  when  crowned  except  in  conformity  to  the  rules  of  the 
king  (Charles  II.),  raised  Berkeley  to  the  Church  of  England;  and,  finally,  all  non- 
peerage  as  Baron  Berkeley  of  Stratton,  in  conformists  were  banished  from  Virginia, 
the  county  of  Somerset.  On  the  Restora-  In  the  war  with  the  Indians  in  1644,  in 
tion  he  became  one  of  the  privy  council,  which  Opechancanough  {q.  v.)  led  the 
and  late  in  1699  he  was  appointed  lord-  savages,  the  governor  behaved  with 
lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He  was  then  one  promptness  and  efficiency,  and  soon  crush- 
of  the  proprietors  of  New  Jersey,  and  was  ed  the  invaders.  Then  the  colonists  had 
not  above  suspicion  of  engaging  in  the  peace  and  prosperity  for  some  years.  In 
corrupt  practice  of  selling  offices.  Samuel  1648  they  numbered  20,000.  "  The  cot- 
Pepys,  who  was  secretary  of  the  Admi-  tages  were  filled  with  children,  as  the 
ralty  (1664),  speaks  of  him  in  his  Diary  ports  with  ships  and  emigrants."  The 
as  "  the  most  hot,  fiery  man  in  his  dis-  people  were  loyal  to  the  King ;  and  when 
course,  without  any  cause,"  he  ever  saw.  the  latter  lost  his  head,  and  royalty  Avas 
Lord  Berkeley  AA'as  appointed  ambassador  abolished  in  England,  they  opened  Avide 
extraordinary  to  the  Court  of  Versailles  their  arms  to  receive  the  caA'aliers  (many 
in  1675,  and  died  Aug.  28,  1678.  See  of  them  of  the  gentry,  nobility,  and  cler- 
Carteret,  Sir  George.  gy  of  the  realm)   who  fled  in  horror  from 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  colonial  gov-  the  wrath  of  republicans.  They  brought 
ernor;  born  near  London  about  1610;  was  refinement  in  manners  and  intellectual 
brother  of  Lord  John  Berkeley,  one  of  the  culture  to  Virginia,  and  strengthened  the 
early  English  proprietors  of  Ncav  Jersey,  loyalty  of  the  colonists.  When  the  King 
Appointed  goA^ernor  of  Virginia,  he  ar-  was  slain  they  recognized  his  exiled  son 
rived  there  in  February,  1642.  Berkeley  as  their  sovereign,  and  Berkeley  pro- 
was  a  fine  specimen  of  a  young  English  claimed  him  King  of  Virginia.  Sir  Will- 
courtier.  He  Avas  then  thirty-tAvo  years  iam  administered  the  government  under  a 
of  age.  Avell  educated  at  Oxford,  handsome  commission  sent  by  Charles  from  his 
in  person,  polished  by  foreign  traA^el,  and  place  of  exile  (Breda,  in  Flanders), 
possessing  exquisite  taste  in  dress.  He  Virginia  was  the  last  territory  belonging 
Avas  one  of  the  most  accomplished  cavaliers  to  England  that  submitted  to  the  govern- 
of  the  day.  He  adopted  some  salutary  ment  of  the  republicans  on  the  downfall 
measures  in  Virginia  which  made  him  of  monarchy.  This  persistent  attach- 
popular;  and  at  his  mansion  at  Green  ment  to  the  Stuarts  offended  the  republi- 
Spring,  not  far  from  Jamestown,  he  dis-  can  Parliament,  and  they  sent  Sir  George 
pensed  generous  hospitality  for  many  Ayscue  Avith  a  strong  fleet,  early  in  the 
years.  Berkeley  Avas  a  stanch  but  not  a  spring  of  1652,  to  reduce  the  Virginians 
bigoted  royalist  at  first;  and  during  the  to  submission.  The  fleet  bore  commis- 
civil  war  in  England  he  managed  public  sioners  authorized  to  use  harsh  or  con- 
affairs  in  Virginia  Avith  so  much  pru-  ciliatory  measures — to  make  a  compro- 
dence  that  a  greater  proportion  of  the  colo-  mise,  or  to  declare  the  freedom  of  the 
nists  were  in  sympathy  with  him.  slaA^es  of  the  royalists,  put  arms  in  their 

333 


BERKELEY 


hands,  and  make  war.  The  commissioners  troops  were  sent  to  America  to  suppress 
were  met  with  firmness  by  Berlceley.  the  aspirations  of  the  people  for  freedom. 
Astonished  by  the  boldness  of  the  governor  Feeling  strong,  Berkeley  pursued  the  ad- 
and  his  adherents,  they  deemed  it  more  herents  of  Bacon  with  malignant  severity 
prudent  to  compromise  than  to  attempt  until  twenty-two  of  them  were  hanged, 
coercion.  The  result  was,  the  political  The  first  martyr  was  Thomas  Hanford,  a 
freedom  of  the  colonists  was  guaranteed,  gallant  yoimg  native  of  Virginia.  Stand- 
Berkeley  regarding  those  whom  the  com-  ing  before  the  governor,  he  boldly  avowed 
missioners  represented  as  usurpers,  he  his  republicanism;  and  when  sentenced 
would  make  no  stipulations  with  them  to  be  hanged,  he  said,  "  I  ask  no  favor 
for  himself,  and  he  withdrew  from  the  but  that  I  may  be  shot  like  a  soldier,  and 
governorship  and  lived  in  retirement  on  not  hanged  like  a  dog."  At  the  gallows 
his  plantation  at  Green  Spring  until  the  he  said,  "  Take  notice  that  I  die  a  loyal 
restoration  of  monarchy  in  England  in  subject  and  a  lover  of  my  country."  Ed- 
1660,  when  the  loyalty  of  the  Virginians  mund  Cheeseman,  when  arraigned  before 
was  not  forgotten  by  the  new  monarch.  the  governor,  was  asked  why  he  engaged 
The  people  elected  Richard  Bennett  gov-  in  the  wicked  rebellion,  and  before  he 
ernor;  and  he  was  succeeded  by  two  others  could  answer  his  young  wife  stepped  for- 
— Edward  Diggs  (1055)  and  Samuel  Mat-  ward  and  said,  "My  provocations  made 
thews  (1650),  the  latter  appointed  by  my  husband  join  in  the  cause  for  which 
Oliver  Cromwell.  At  his  death  (1660)  the  Bacon  contended;  but  for  me,  he  had 
people  elected  Berkeley,  but  he  refused  never  done  what  he  has  done.  Since  what 
to  serve  excepting  under  a  royal  commis-  is  done,"  she  said,  as  she  knelt  before  the 
sion,  and  he  went  to  England  to  con-  governor,  with  her  bowed  head  covered 
gratulate  Charles  11.  on  his  restoration  with  her  hands,  "  was  done  by  my  means, 
to  the  throne.  Charles  gave  Berkeley  a  I  am  most  guilty;  let  me  bear  the  punish- 
commission,  and  he  returned  to  Virginia  ment;  let  me  be  hanged;  let  my  husband 
to  execute  his  master's  will  with  vigor,  be  pardoned."  The  governor  cried  out, 
He  enforced  various  oppressive  laws,  for  angrily,  "Away  with  you!"  The  poor 
he  was  less  tolerant  than  when  he  was  young  wife  swooned,  and  her  husband 
younger  and  politically  weaker,  and,  with  was  led  to  the  gallows.  When  the  brave 
the  cavaliers  around  him,  he  hated  every-  Drummond  was  brought  before  the  govern- 
thing  that  marked  the  character  of  the  or,  Berkeley,  with  wicked  satire,  made  a 
Puritans.  These  cavaliers  despised  the  low  bow  and  said,  "  You  are  very  welcome ; 
"  common  people  "  of  New  England,  and  I  am  more  glad  to  see  you  than  any  man 
opposed  the  ideas  of  popular  education,  in  Virginia;  you  shall  be  hanged  in  half 
Berkeley  wrote  to  his  government  in  1665,  an  hour."  Drummond  replied,  with  dig- 
"I  thank  God  there  are  no  free  schools  nity,  "  I  expect  no  mercy  from  you.  I  have 
nor  printing  in  Virginia,  and  I  hope  we  followed  the  lead  of  my  conscience,  and 
shall,  not  have  them  these  hundred  years;  done  what  I  might  to  free  my  country 
for  learning  has  brought  heresy  and  dis-  from  oppression."  He  was  condemned  at 
obedience  and  sects  into  the  world,  and  one  o'clock  and  hanged  at  four;  and  his 
printing  hath  divulged  them,  and  libels  brave  wife,  Sarah,  was  denounced  as  a 
against  the  best  government ;  God  keep  us  "  traitor  "  and  banished,  with  her  chil- 
from  both!"  Oppression  of  the  people  dren,  to  the  wilderness,  there  to  subsist 
finally  produced  civil  war  in  1676,  the  on  the  bounty  of  friends.  When  these 
events  of  which  soured  Berkeley,  who  had  things  were  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
then  grown  old  (see  Bacon,  Nathaniel)  ;  profligate  monarch,  even  he  was  disgusted 
and  after  it  was  over,  and  he  was  firmly  with  Berkeley's  cruelties,  and  said,  "  The 
seated  in  power,  he  treated  the  principal  old  fool  has  taken  more  lives  in  that 
abettors  of  the  insurrection  with  harsh-  naked  country  than  I  have  taken  for  the 
ness  and  cruelty.  His  King  had  proclaim-  murder  of  my  father;"  and  Berkeley  was 
ed  Bacon  (the  leader  of  the  insurrection)  a  ordered  to  desist.  But  he  continued  to 
traitor,  and  sent  an  armament  imder  Sir  fine  and  imprison  the  followers  of  Bacon 
John  Berry  to  assist  in  crushing  the  re-  until  he  was  recalled  in  the  spring  of 
bellion.      This   was   the   first   time    royal  1677,  and  went  to  England  with  the  re- 

334 


BERLIN  ARBITRATION— BERLIN  DECREE 


turning    fleet    of    Sir    John    Berry.      The   neutral  trade  with  France  or  her  allies,  un- 


colonists  fired  great  guns  and  lighted 
bonfires  in  token  of  their  joy  at  his  de- 
parture. In  England  his  cruelties  were 
severely  censured,  and  he  died  (July  13, 
1677)  of  grief  and  mortified  pride. 

Berlin  Arbitration.     See  San  Juan. 

Berlin  Decree,  The.  In  1803  England 
joined  the  Continental  powers  against  Na- 
poleon. England,  off"ended  because  of  the 
seizure  of  Hanover  by  the  Prussians,  at  the 
instigation  of  Napoleon,  made  the  act  a 
pretext,  in  1806,  for  employing  against 
France  a  measure  calculated  to  starve  the 
empire.  By  Orders  in  Council  (May  16) 
the  whole  coast  of  Europe  from  the  Elbe, 
in  Germany,  to  Brest,  in  France,  a  distance 
of  about  800  miles,  was  declared  to  be  in  a 
state  of  blockade,  when,  at  the  same  time, 
the  British  navy  could  not  spare  vessels 
enough  from  other  fields  of  service  to  en- 
force the  blockade  over  a  third  of  the  pre- 
scribed coast.  It  was  essentially  a  "  paper 
blockade."  The  almost  entire  destruction 
of  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  at  Trafal- 
gar, a  few  months  before,  had  annihilated 
her  rivals  in  the  contest  for  the  sovereignty 
of  the  seas,  and  she  now  resolved  to  con- 
trol the  trade  of  the  world.  Napoleon  had 
dissolved  the  German  Empire,  prostrated 
Prussia  at  his  feet,  and,  from  the  "  Im- 
perial Camp  at  Berlin,"  he  issued  (Nov. 
21,  1806)  the  famous  decree  in  which  he 
declared  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of 
blockade;  forbade  all  correspondence  or 
trade  with  England;  deflned  all  articles 
of  English  manufacture  or  produce  as  con- 
traband, and  the  property  of  all  British 
subjects  as  lawful  prize  of  war.  He  had 
scarcely  a  ship  afloat  when  he  made  this 
decree.  This  was  the  beginning  of  what 
was  afterwards  called  "  the  Continental 
System,"  commenced  avowedly  as  a  re- 
taliatory measure,  and  designed,  primarily, 
to  injure,  and,  if  possible,  to  destroy,  the 
property  of  England.  By  another  Order  in 
Council  (January,  1807)  Great  Britain  re- 
strained neutrals  from  engaging  in  the 
coasting-trade  between  one  hostile  port  and 
another,  a  commerce  hitherto  allowed, 
with  some  slight  exceptions.  This  was  but 
the  extension  to  all  hostile  pojts  of  the 
blockade  of  the  coast  from  the  Elbe  to 
Brest  established  by  a  former  order.  On 
Nov.  17,  1807,  another  British  Order  in 
Council  was  issued,  which  prohibited  all 


less  through  Great  Britain.  In  retaliation 
for  these  orders  Napoleon  promulgated, 
Dec.  17,  1807,  from  his  "  Palace  at  Milan," 
a  decree  which  extended  and  made  more 
vigorous  that  issued  at  Berlin.  It  declared 
every  vessel  which  should  submit  to  be 
searched  by  British  cruisers,  or  should  pay 
any  tax,  duty,  or  license  money  to  the 
British  government,  or  should  be  found  on 
the  high  seas  or  elsewhere  bound  to  or 
from  any  British  port,  denationalized  and 
forfeit.  With  their  usual  servility  to  the 
dictates  of  the  conqueror,  Spain  and  Hoi* 
land  issued  similar  decrees. 

In  March,  1810,  information  reached  the 
President  of  the  United  States  that  the 
French  minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  in  a 
letter  to  Minister  Armstrong,  had  said 
that  if  England  would  revoke  her  blockade 
against  France,  the  latter  would  revoke 
her  "  Berlin  Decree."  Minister  Pinkney,  in 
London,  approached  the  British  minister 
on  the  subject,  and,  to  aid  in  the  peaceful 
negotiations.  Congress  repealed  the  non- 
intercourse  and  non-importation  laws  on 
May  1,  1810.  For  these  they  substituted 
a  law  excluding  both  British  and  French 
armed  vessels  from  the  waters  of  th^ 
United  States.  The  law  provided  that,  in 
case  either  Great  Britain  or  France  should 
revoke  or  so  modify  their  acts  before 
March  3,  1811,  as  not  to  violate  the  neutral 
commerce  of  the  United  States,  and  if  the 
other  nation  should  not,  within  three 
months  thereafter,  in  like  manner  revoke 
or  modify  its  edicts,  the  provisions  of  the 
non-intercourse  and  non-importation  acts 
should,  at  the  expiration  of  the  three 
months,  be  revived  against  the  nation  so 
neglecting  or  refusing  to  comply.  The 
French  minister  thereupon,  on  Aug.  5  fol- 
lowing, officially  declared  that  the  Berlin 
and  Milan  decrees  had  been  revoked,  and 
would  be  inoperative  after  Nov.  1,  it  being 
understood  that,  in  consequence  of  that 
revocation,  the  English  should  revoke  the 
Orders  in  Council.  Having  faith  in  these 
declarations,  the  President  issued  a  proc- 
lamation on  Nov.  2,  announcing  this  revo- 
cation of  the  French  decrees  and  declaring 
the  discontinuance,  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States,  of  all  commercial  restric- 
tions in  relation  to  France.  But  the 
French  were  playing  false,  and  England 
suspected  it,  for  she  had  many  reasons  for 


33.5 


BERMUDA     HtTNDRED— BERRY 


doubting  Gallic  faith.  So  had  the  Ameri- 
cans, but  still  they  were  willing  to  trust 
France  once  again.  They  were  deceived; 
the  decrees  were  not  revoked,  and  a  later 
one,  issued  at  Rambouillet,  was  only  sus- 
pended. The  English  refused  to  rescind  on 
the  faith  of  only  a  letter  by  the  French 
minister;  and  this  attempt  on  the  part  of 
the  Americans  to  secure  peace  and  justice 
was  futile.  See  Embakgo  Act,  First;  Or- 
ders IN  Council. 

Bermuda  Hundred,  Operations  near. 
General  Butler  had  intrenched  a  greater 
portion  of  the  Army  of  the  James  at  Ber- 
muda Hundred,  at  the  junction  of  the 
James  and  Appomattox  rivers,  early  in 
May,  1864,  to  co-operate  with  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac,  approaching  from  the 
north.  His  chief  care  was  at  first  to  pre- 
vent reinforcements  being  sent  to  Lee  from 
Petersburg  and  the  South.  For  this  pur- 
pose Butler  proceeded  to  destroy  the  rail- 
way between  Petersburg  and  Richmond, 
and  so  to  cut  off  direct  communication  be- 
tween the  Confederate  capital  and  the 
South.  When  it  was  known  that  General 
Gillmore  had  withdrawn  his  troops  from 
before  Charleston  to  join  Butler,  Beaure- 
gard was  ordered  to  hasten  northward  to 
confront  the  Army  of  the  James.  He  had 
arrived  at  Petersburg,  and  was  hourly  re- 
inforced. Some  of  these  troops  he  massed 
in  front  of  Butler,  under  Gen.  D.  H.  Hill; 
and  finally,  on  the  morning  of  May  16,  un- 
der cover  of  a  dense  fog,  they  attempted  to 
turn  Butler's  right  flank.  A  sharp  con- 
flict ensued  between  about  4,000  Nationals 
and  3,000  Confederates,  which  resulted  in 
the  retirement  of  Butler's  forces  within 
their  intrenchments.  For  several  days 
afterwards  there  was  much  skirmishing  in 
front  of  Butler's  lines,  when  he  received 
orders  to  send  nearly  two-thirds  of  his  ef- 
fective force  to  the  north  side  of  the  James 
to  assist  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  then 
contending  with  Lee's  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia.  Butler  complied  with  the 
requisition,  which  deprived  him  of  all 
power  to  make  any  further  offensive  move- 
ments. "  The  necessities  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac,"  he  said,  "  have  bottled  me 
up  at  Bermuda  Hundred."  This  expression 
was  afterwards  used  to  his  disadvantage. 
See  Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin. 

Bermudas,  First  English  in  the. 
Henry  May,  an  English  mariner,  return- 


ing from  a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies  in  a 
French  ship,  was  wrecked  (Dec.  17,  1593) 
on  one  of  the  islands.  He  and  his  com- 
panions in  distress  remained  there  five 
months,  when  they  rigged  a  small  vessel 
of  18  tons  from  the  material  of  the  ship, 
put  in  thirteen  live  turtles  for  provisions, 
sailed  to  Newfovmdland,  and  thence  re- 
turned to  England.  These  islands  were 
named  in  honor  of  Juan  Bermudez,  a 
Spaniard,  who  was  wrecked  there  in  1522. 
May  was  the  first  Englishman  who  set 
foot  upon  them.     See  Somers's  Islands. 

Bernard,  Sir  Francis,  colonial  govern- 
or; born  in  Nettleham,  Lincoln  co.,  Eng- 
land, in  1714;  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  was  graduated  in  1736.  The  law 
was  his  chosen  profession.  In  1758  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  New  Jersey ;  and  in 
1760  he  was  transferred  to  the  chief  mag- 
istracy of  Massachusetts,  where  he  was 
a  most  obedient  servant  of  the  crown  and 
ministry  in  the  support  of  measures  ob- 
noxious to  the  colonists.  After  a  stormy 
administration  of  nearly  nine  years  Ber- 
nard was  recalled,  when  he  was  created  a 
baronet,  chiefly  because  of  his  recommen- 
dation to  transfer  the  right  of  selecting 
the  governor's  council  from  the  colonial 
legislature  to  the  crown.  Bernard  was 
a  friend  of  learning,  and  gave  a  part  of 
his  library  to  Harvard  College.  He  had 
become  so  thoroughly  unpopular  that 
when  he  left  Boston  the  bells  were  rung, 
cannon  were  fired,  and  "  Liberty-tree " 
was  hung  with  flags,  in  token  of  the  joy 
of  the  people.  He  died  in  Aylesbury, 
England,  June  16,  1779. 

Berry,  Hiram  George,  military  officer; 
born  in  Thomaston  ( now  Rockland ) ,  Me., 
Aug.  27,  1824;  was  first  a  carpenter,  then 
a  navigator,  and  finally  became  a  State 
legislator  and  mayor  of  Rockland.  He 
was  colonel  of  Maine  volunteers  in  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run;  became  brigadier- 
general  in  May,  1862;  and  was  active  in 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  throughout  the 
campaign  on  the  Peninsula  in  1862  and 
until  the  battle  of  Chancellorsville  (May 
2,  1863  ^  were  he  was  killed.  His  bri- 
gade was  especially  distinguished  in  the 
battle  of  Fredericksburg,  in  December, 
1862.  In  March,  1863,  he  was  made  major- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  was  command- 
ing a  division  in  the  3d  Corps  when  he 
fail. 


336 


BERTILLON— BIBLE 

Bertillon,    Alphonse,    anthropologist;  iron  and  steel  was  exported.     Of  this  total 

born  in  Paris,  France,  in   1853;    founded  the  value  of  steel  rails  alone  aggregated 

a   new   system  of  identification   of   crimi-  $12,000,000. 

nals,  by  a  series  of  measurements  which  Beveridge,  Albert  Jeremiah,  lawyer; 

gave    marvellous    results,    while    chief    of  born  in  Highland  county,  0.,  Oct.  6,  1862; 

the  Bureau  of  Identification  in  the  Pre-  was   graduated   at   De    Pauw   University, 

fecture   of   Police.      The   system   is   based  and   began   the   practice   of   law   in   Indi- 

on  the  assumption  that  the  bones  of  the  anapolis.     In  1883  he  became  a  politician, 

human   body   undergo   no   further   change  and  soon  stood  in  the  front  rank  of  ef- 

when  an  adult  age  is  reached.     In  apply-  fective   orators.      He   was    elected   to    the 

ing   the   system   to   a    supposed   criminal,  United    States    Senate    as    a    Republican, 

accurate   measurements   are   made   of   the  Jan.  17,  1899.     After  his  election  he  went 

head,  ears,   feet,  middle  fingers,  extended  to   the  Philippine  Islands  to   study  their 

forearms,  height,  breadth,  and  the  trunk,  material    and    political    conditions.      Re- 

These    measurements,    when    placed    upon  turning,    he    delivered    a    most    thrilling 

a  card,   accompanied  by  a  photograph  of  address   in   favor   of   the   administration's 

the  subject,  provide  means  said  to  be  un-  policy   towards   these   new   possessions   at 

failing   for   recognizing   the   subject   after  the  December  session  of  Congress, 

several  years  have  elapsed.     This  system  Beverly,    Robert,    historian;    born    in 

has  been  introduced  in  the  principal  cities  Virginia    about    1675.      During  'Sir    Ed- 

of  the  United  States.  mund    Andros's    administration    he    was 

Bessemer  Steel.     During  the  last  few  clerk   of  the   council,  an  office  his   father 

years   the   United   States   has  made   a   re-  had  held  before  him.     He  wrote   History 

markable  advance  in  the  production  and  of  the  Present  State  of  Virgmia   (4  vol- 

manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  and  in  no  umes,  published  in  London  in  1705).     This 

line  has  this  progress  been  so  marked  as  included  an  account  of  the  first  settlement 

in  the  yield  of  Bessemer  steel,  that  form  of  Virginia,   and   the  history  of  the  gov- 

made   from   pig-iron    from   which   all   the  ernment  until  that  time.     Mr.  Beverly  is 

carbon    has    been    removed.      The    process  said    to    have    been    the    first    American 

was    invented    by    Sir    Henry    Bessemer  citizen  in  whose  behalf  the  habeas  corpus 

(born    in    Charlton,    England,    Jan.     13,  act    was    brought    into    requisition.      He 

1813;    died   in  London,   March   14,   1898),  died  in   1716. 

and  consists  of  forcing  a  current  of  air  Biard,  Peter,  missionary;  born  in 
through  the  molten  mass  of  iron.  Dur-  Grenoble,  France,  in  1565 ;  came  to  Amer- 
ing  the  calendar  year  1899,  the  produc-  ica  as  a  missionary  priest  of  the  Jesuits 
tion  of  this  form  of  steel  in  the  United  in  1611;  ascended  the  Kennebec  River, 
States  amounted  to  7,586,354  gross  tons  and  made  friends  with  the  natives  in 
in  ingots,  an  increase  in  a  year  of  more  1612;  went  up  the  Penobscot  River  and 
than  14  per  cent.,  and  more  than  double  started  a  mission  among  the  natives  there 
the  productions  of  1894  and  1896.  In  1899  in  the  following  year;  and  soon  afterwards 
the  maximimi  production  of  Bessemer  founded  a  colony  on  Mount  Desert  Isl- 
steel  rails  was  reached,  when  the  output  and,  which  was  destroyed  by  Samuel 
was  2,240,767  gross  tons.  In  the  produc-  Argall  {q.  v.).  In  this  attack  by  the 
tion  of  ingots  Pennsylvania  ranked  first,  English  Biard  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
with  3,968,779  tons;  Ohio  second,  with  the  act  was  one  of  the  earliest  causes  of 
1,679,237;  and  Illinois  third,  with  1,211,-  the  hostilities  between  the  colonists  in 
246;  and  in  the  production  of  Bessemer  America  from  France  and  England.  Fa- 
steel  rails  Pennsylvania  ranked  first,  with  ther  Biard  was  author  of  Relations  de 
1.224,807  tons,  the  remainder  being  di-  la  nouvelle  France,  which  was  the  first 
vided  between  the  other  States.  A  fur-  work  in  the  historical  series  known  as 
ther  evidence  of  the  remarkable  growth  the  Jesuit  Relations.  He  died  in  France 
of   the   allied   iron   and   steel   industry   is  in  1622. 

found   in   the   commercial   returns   of   the  Bible.      The     first     Bible     printed     in 

United    States    Treasury   Department    for  America   was    Eliot's    Indian    translation, 

the  first  ten  months  of  1900,  which  show  issued  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in   1663.     A 

that    more    than    $100,000,000    worth    of  German  edition  of  the  Bible,  in  quarto, 
I.— Y                                                         337 


BIBLE    SOCIETY— BIDDLE 


was  printed  at  Gerraantown,  near  Phila-  Jesso;  Sketcli,  of  a  Journey  from  Canton 

delphia,    in    1743,    by   Christopher    Sauer.  to  Hangkoiv,  etc. 

In  1782  Robert  Aitkin,  printer  and  book-  Bicknell,  Thomas  William,  educator; 

seller  in  Philadelphia,  published  the  first  born  in  Barrington,  R.  I.,  Sept.  6,   1834; 

American    edition    of    the    Bible    in    Eng-  was    graduated    at    Brown    University    in 

lish,   also   in   quarto   form:    and   in    1791  1860;   teacher  and  principal  of  schools  in 

Isaiah  Thomas  printed  the  Bible  in  Eng-  1800-69;   and  Commissioner  of  Education 

lish,   in   folio   form,   at   Worcester,   Mass.  in  Rhode  Island  in  1869-75.     He  was  the 

This   was    the   first   in   that   form    issued  founder,    editor,    and    proprietor    of    the 

from  the  press  in  the  United  States.     The  Isleio  England  Journal  of  Education;  Edu- 

same  year  Isaac  Collins  printed  the  Eng-  cation,  and  Primary  Teacher,  and  a  found- 

lish  version,  in  quarto  form,  at  Trenton,  er  of  the  National  Council  of  Education. 

N.  J.  In   1860  he  was  a  member  of  the  Rhode 

Bible  Society,  American.  The  first  Island  legislature,  and  in  1888-90  of  the 
Bible  Society  in  the  United  States  was  Massachusetts  legislature.  He  is  author 
formed  in  Philadelphia  in  1802.  When,  of  State  Educational  Reports;  John  Myles 
in  1816,  the  American  Bible  Society  was  and  Religious  Toleration;  Life  of  W.  L. 
organized,  there  were  between  fifty  and  Noyes;  Brief  History  of  Barrington ;  Bar- 
sixty  societies  in  the  Union.  Delegates  rington  in  the  Revolution;  The  Bicknells, 
from    these   met    in    New   York    in    May,  etc. 

1816,  and  founded  the  "American  Bible  Biddle,  Clement,  military  officer; 
Society."  Elias  Boudinot  {q.  v.)  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  10,  1740; 
chosen  president,  and  thirty-six  man-  was  descended  from  one  of  the  early 
agers  were  appointed,  all  of  whom  were  Quaker  settlers  in  western  New  Jersey,  and 
laymen  of  seven  different  denominations,  when  the  war  for  independence  broke  out 
The  avowed  object  of  the  society  was  to  he  assisted  in  raising  a  company  of  soldiers 
•■'  encourage  a  wider  circulation  of  the  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  deputy  quarter- 
Holy  Scriptures  without  note  or  com-  master-general  of  Pennsylvania  militia  in 
ment."  In  the  first  year  of  its  exist-  1776,  and  commissary  of  forage  under 
ence  it  issued  6,410  copies  of  the  Script-  General  Greene.  On  the  organization  of 
iires.  In  1898-99  the  issues  aggregated  the  national  government  he  was  appointed 
1,380,892  copies,  and,  in  the  eighty-  United  States  marshal  for  Pennsylvania, 
three  years  of  its  existence  then  closed.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  14,1814. 
65,962,505  copies.  In  1836  the  Baptists  Biddle,  James,  naval  officer;  born  in 
seceded  from  the  American  Bible  Society,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  29,  1783;  was  ed- 
and  founded  the  "American  and  For-  ucated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
eigTi  Bible  Society,'"  conducted  entirely  and  entered  the  navy,  as  midshipman,  Feb. 
by  that  denomination.  A  secession  from  12,  1800.  He  was  wrecked  in  the  frigate 
this  Baptist  Bible  Society  occurred  in  Philadelphia,  off  Tripoli,  in  October,  1803. 
1850,  when  the  "  American  Bible  Union  "  and  was  a  prisoner  nineteen  months.  As 
was  formed.  first  lieutenant  of  the  Wasp,  he  led  the 

Bickmore,  Albert  Smith,  educator;  boarders  in  the  action  with  the  Frolic, 
born  in  St.  George,  Me.,  Mai'ch  1,  1839;  Oct.  18,  1812.  Captured  by  the  Poictiers, 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1860,  he  was  exchanged  in  March,  1813:  and 
and  studied  under  Professor  Agassiz  at  was  made  master  commander  in  charge 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  in  Cam-  of  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  in  the  Delaware 
bridge,  Mass.  In  1865-69  he  travelled  in  River  soon  afterwards.  In  command  of 
the  Malay  Archipelago  and  in  eastern  the  Hornet  he  captured  the  Penguin, 
Asia.  Returning,  he  was  appointed  Pro-  March  23,  1813.  For  this  victory  Con- 
fessor of  Natural  History  at  Madison  gress  voted  him  a  gold  medal.  Made 
University.  In  1885  he  became  professor  captain  in  February,  1815,  he  held  im- 
in  charge  of  the  Department  of  Public  In-  portant  commands  in  different  parts  of 
struction  in  the  American  Museum  of  the  world.  While  in  command  of  a  squad- 
Natural  History  in  New  York.  He  is  the  ron  in  the  Mediterranean  (1830-32),  he 
author  of  Travels  in  the  East  Indian  was  given  a  commission  to  negotiate  a 
Arehipelaqo ;  The  Ainos,  or  Hairy  Men  of  commercial  treaty  with  the  Turkish  gov- 

338 


BIDDLE— BIENVILLE 


ernment.  In  1845  he  performed  diplo- 
matic service  in  China,  and  visited  Japan. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  1,  1848. 


JAMES    BIDDLE. 


Biddle,     Nicholas,     banker;     born     in 
Philadelphia,  Jan.   8,   1786;   graduated  at 


Biddle,  Nicholas,  naval  officer;  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  10,  1750;  made 
a  voyage  to  Quebec  before  he  was  fourteen 
years  of  age.  He  entered  the  British  navy 
in  1770.  While  a  midshipman,  he  abscond- 
ed, and  became  a  sailor  before  the  mast 
in  the  Carcass,  in  the  exploring  expedi- 
tion of  Captain  Phipps  in  which  Horatio 
Nelson  served.  Returning  to  Philadelphia, 
he  commanded  the  brig  Andrea  Doria,  un- 
der Commodore  Hopkins.  In  1776  he  capt- 
ured two  transports  from  Scotland,  with 
400  Highland  troops  bound  for  America. 
In  February,  1777,  he  sailed  from  Phila- 
delphia in  the  frigate  Randolph,  and  soon 
carried  four  valuable  prizes  into  Charles- 
ton. Then  he  cruised  in  the  West  India 
waters.  In  an  action  with  a  British  64- 
gun  ship,  March  7,  1778,  he  was  wounded. 
A  few  minutes  afterwards  the  Randolph 
was  blown  up ;  and  of  the  entire  crew,  con- 
sisting of  315  men,  only  four  escaped. 

Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste  Le  Moyne, 
pioneer ;  brother  of  Le  Moyne  Ibervillej 
who  founded  a  French  settlement  at  Biloxi, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  in  1698; 
born  in  Montreal,  Feb.  23,  1680.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  in  the  French  naval  ser- 
vice with  Iberville,  and  accompanied  him 
with  his  brother  Sauville  to  Louisiana. 
In    1699    Bienville    explored    the    country 


MEDAL    PRESENTED    TO    JAMES    BIDDLE    BY    CONGRESS. 


Princeton  in  1801;  appointed  president  of  around  Biloxi.  Sauville  was  appointed 
the  United  States  Bank  in  1822;  resigned  governor  of  Louisiana  in  1699,  and  the 
in  1839.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  27,  next  year  Bienville  constructed  a  fort  54 
1844.  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river.     Sau- 

339 


BIG   BETHEL 


ville   died   in    1701,    when   Bienville   took  News.     He  sent    (May  27,   1861)    Colonel 

charge  of  the  colony,  transferring  the  seat  Phelps   thither   in   a   steamer   with   a   de- 

of  government  to  Mobile.     In  1704  he  was  tachment  to   fortify  that  place.     He  was 

joined    by    his    brother    Chateaugay,    who  accompanied  by  Lieut.  John  Trout  Greble, 
brought    seventeen    settlers    from    France. 


GREBLE 
TOWNSEND'S   HALT 

a»_- :;CORNFIECD-- 


To  Back  R. 
ZOUAVES 


.      :    Lane  <^  <? 


3- '3 


TOWNSEND 
BENDIX  = 


ZOUAVES'^^'-'i    ^      -^ 


MAP    OF  THE    BATTLE    AT   BIG    BETHEL. 


Soon   afterwards   a    ship   brought   twenty  F^^ 

young  women  as  wives  for  settlers  at  Mo- 
bile. Iberville  soon  afterwards  died,  and 
Bienville,  charged  with  misconduct,  was 
dismissed  from  office  in  1707.  His  succes- 
sor dying  on  his  way  from  France,  Bien- 
ville retained  the  office.  Having  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  cultivate  the  land  by 
Indian  labor,  Bienville  proposed  to  the 
government  to  exchange  Indians  for  ne- 
groes in  the  West  Indies,  at  the  rate  of 
three  Indians  for  one  negro.  Bienville 
remained  at  the  head  of  the  colony  until 
1713,  when  Cadillac  arrived,  as  governor, 
with  a  commission  for  the  former  as 
lieutenant-governor.  Quarrels  between 
them  ensued.  Cadillac  was  superseded  in 
1717  by  Epinay,  and  Bienville  received 
the  decoration  of  the  Cross  of  St.  Louis. 
In  1718  he  founded  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans;    and    war    breaking    out    between 

France  and  Spain,  he  seized  Pensacola  and  an  accomplished  young  graduate  of  West 
put  his  brother  Chateaugay  in  command  Point,  whom  he  appointed  master  of  ord- 
there.  He  was  summoned  to  France  in  nance,  to  superintend  the  construction 
1724  to  answer  charges,  where  he  remain-  of  fortifications  there  which  commanded 
ed  until  1733,  when  he  was  sent  back  to  the  ship-channel  of  the  James  River  and 
Louisiana  as  governor.  Having  made  un-  the  mouth  of  the  Nansemond.  The  forced 
successful  expeditions  against  the  Chicka-  inaction  of  the  National  troops  at  Fort 
saws,  he  was  superseded  in  1743,  and  re-  Monroe,  and  the  threatening  aspect  of 
turned  to  France,  where  he  died  in  1765.  affairs  at  Newport  News,  made  the  armed 
See  Celoron.  Confederates   under   Col.   J.   B.   Magruder 

Big  Bethel,  Battle  at.  When  Gen-  bold,  active,  and  vigilant.  Their  principal 
eral  Butler  arrived  at  his  headquarters  at  rendezvous  was  at  Yorktown,  on  the  York 
Fort  Monroe  (May,  1861),  he  first  estab-  River,  which  they  were  fortifying.  They 
lished  Camp  Hamilton,  near  the  fort,  as  pushed  down  the  peninsula  to  impress 
a,  rendezvous  for  troops  gathering  there,  slaves  into  their  service,  and  to  force 
There  were  gathered  Phelps's  Vermont  Union  men  into  their  ranks.  At  Big  and 
regiment,  and  another  from  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  Little  Bethel  (two  churches  on  the  road 
and  soon  afterwards  they  were  joined  by  between  Yorktown  and  Hampton)  they 
a  well-disciplined  regiment  of  Zouaves,  un-  made  fortified  outposts.  It  was  evident 
der  Col.  Abraham  Duryee,  of  New  York  tliat  Magruder  was  preparing  to  seize 
City.  Duryee  was  assigned  to  the  com-  Newport  News  and  Hampton,  and  confine 
mand  of  the  camp  as  acting  brigadier-  Butler  to  Fort  Monroe.  The  latter  deter- 
general.  Butler  conceived  a  plan  of  taking  mined  on  a  countervailing  movement  by 
possession  of  the  country  between  Suffolk  an  attack  on  these  outposts.  Gen.  E.  W. 
and  Petersburg  and  Norfolk,  and  so  threat-  Pearee,  of  Massachusetts,  was  placed  in 
ening  the  Weldon  Railroad,  the  great  high-  command  of  an  expedition  for  that  pur- 
way  between  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  pose,  composed  of  Duryee's  Zouaves  and 
But,  lacking  troops,  he  contented  himself  the  Troy  troops  at  Camp  Hamilton,  Ver- 
with  taking  possession  of  and  fortifying  mont  and  Massachusetts  troops,  some  Ger- 
the  important  strategic  point  of  Newport    man  New  York  troops,  under  Colonel  Ben- 

340 


BIG    BETHEL— BIG    BLACK    EIVER 


dix,  and  two  6-pounders  (field-pieces), 
under  Lieutenant  Greble,  from  Newport 
News.  The  latter  had  under  him  eleven 
regular  artillerymen.  The  troops  from 
the  two  points  of  departure  were  to  be 
joined,  in  the  night,  near  Little  Bethel. 

The  soldiers  wore  on  their  left  arms  a 
white  rag  or  handkerchief,  so  that  they 
might  recognize  each  other  in  the  dark. 
Their  watchword  was  "  Boston."  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel Washburne  led  the  column 
from  Newport  News,  followed  by  Bendix 
with  his  Germans.  Duryee  pushed  for- 
ward, followed  by  Colonel  Townsend  with 
the  Troy  troops.  The  latter  and  Bendix 
approached  each  other  in  the  gloom,  near 
Little  Bethel,  the  appointed  place  of  junc- 
tion. Bendix  and  his  men,  ignorant  of  the 
order  to  wear  a  white  badge,  were  without 
it,  and  the  two  columns  mistook  each 
other  for  enemies.  The  Germans  opened 
fire  on  Townsend's  column.  After  a  short 
skirmish,  in  which  two  men  were  killed 
and  several  wounded,  the  mistake  was  dis- 
covered. Duryee  and  Washburne,  hearing 
the  firing,  hastened  their  march,  and  soon 
joined  the  confused  regiments.  The  Con- 
federates had  been  warned  of  the  ap- 
proaching troops  by  the  firing,  and  Brig- 
adier-General Pearce,  in  chief  command, 
sent  back  for  reinforcements,  as  a  surprise 
was  then  out  of  the  question.  The  Con- 
federates at  Little  Bethel  fell  back  to  Big 
Bethel,  4  or  5  miles  distant,  and  all  of 
them  at  the  latter  place  were  on  the  alert. 
There  were  about  1,800  Confederates  be- 
hind works,  with  several  pieces  of  cannon 
in  battery.  The  Nationals,  about  2,500 
strong,  attacked  them  between  nine  and 
ten  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  June  10, 
1S6L  Troops  under  Captains  Kilpatrick, 
Bartlett,  and  Winslow  (all  of  which  were 
imder  Lieut. -Col.  G.  K.  Warren,  of  the 
Zouaves)  were  thrown  out  on  each  side 
of  the  road,  while  Lieutenant  Greble,  with 
his  two  little  field-pieces,  kept  the  road. 
The  troops  on  each  side  of  the  road  were 
finally  driven  to  the  shelter  of  the  woods 
by  a  storm  of  shot  and  shell;  but  Greble 
continued  advancing,  and  poured  a  rapid 
and  effective  storm  of  grape  and  canister 
shot  from  his  battery.  He  held  his  posi- 
tion while  the  rest  of  the  army  was  pre- 
paring for  a  general  assault.  At  about 
noon  a  charge  was  sounded,  with  instruc- 
tions to  dash  across  a  morass,  flank  the 


works  of  the  Confederates,  and  drive  out 
the  occupants  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 

The  Nationals  were  nearly  successful, 
when  a  portion  of  them  were  driven  back 
by  a  murderous  fire  from  the  Confeder^ 
ates.  This  and  other  adverse  circum- 
stances caused  Pearce  to  order  a  retreat. 
All  of  Greble's  men  had  been  disabled  but 
five,  and  he  could  only  work  one  gun. 
He  was  just  limbering  them  up,  when  a 
shot  from  the  Confederates  struck  a 
glancing  blow  on  his  head,  and  he  fell 
dead.  Maj.  Theodore  Winthrop,  one  of 
General  Butler's  aides,  was  also  instantly 
killed  by  a  bullet  from  a  North  Caro- 
lina drummer  -  boy.  Greble's  body  was 
taken  to  Philadelphia,  where  it  lay  in 
state  in  Independence  Hall;  was  the 
first  officer  of  the  regiflar  array  of  the 
L'nited  States  who  fell  in  the  Civil 
War.  The  result  of  the  expedition  to  Big 
Bethel  was  national  exasperation  and  mor- 
tification. The  Unionists  lost  sixteen 
killed,  thirty-four  woimded,  and  five  miss- 
ing.    The  Confederate  loss  was  trifling. 

Big  Black  River,  Battle  at.  From 
Champion  Hills,  the  Confederates  were 
pursued,  and  bivouacked  during  the  night 
of  May  16,  1863,  on  the  hill  overlooking 
Edward's  Station  and  the  fertile  plain 
between  it  and  the  Big  Black  River.  The 
pursuit  was  renewed  in  the  morning,  but 
the  Confederates  were  soon  found  well 
posted  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  near  the 
railway  bridge,  and  were  strongly  forti- 
fied. Behind  their  defences  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  river  were  several  brigades; 
and  above  the  bridge  Pemberton  had  con- 
structed a  passage-way  for  troops,  com- 
posed of  the  hulks  of  steamboats.  Gen- 
eral Carr's  division  led  the  Nationals,  and 
first  engaged  in  battle;  and  soon  there 
was  a  fierce  struggle  between  the  two  ar- 
mies in  the  forest  for  three  hours,  when 
General  Lawler,  commanding  Carr's  right, 
gave  an  order  for  his  brigade,  composed  of 
Iowa  and  Wisconsin  troops,  to  charge. 
They  sprang  forward  and  drove  the  Con- 
federates to  their  intrenchments,  but  suf- 
fered fearfully  from  an  enfilading  fire 
from  a  curtain  of  the  Confederates'  breast- 
works, which  prostrated  150  of  their  num- 
ber. The  assailants  waded  a  shallow 
bayou,  and  charged  on  the  works  before 
the  Confederates  had  time  to  reload. 
Meanwhile,    many    of    those    within    fled 


341 


BIG    BLACK    RIVER— BIG    BLUE    LICK 

across  the  river,  and  communicated  their  the  river  covered  the  retreat  of  the  Con- 
own  panic  to  the  troops  there.  They  ex-  federates,  and  for  hours  kept  the  Nation- 
pected   the  Nationals   would   immediately    als    from    constructing    floating    bridges. 


BATTLE    AT    BIG    BI-ACK    KIVKR. 


cross  the  stream;  so  they  burned  both 
bridges — cutting  off  the  retreat  of  their 
comrades,  who  were  yet  fighting.  They 
lied  pell-mell  towards  the  defences  around 
Vicksburg.  The  assailed  garrison,  about 
1,500  strong,  was  captured,  with  seventeen 
guns,  several  thousand  small-arms,  and  a 
large  quantity  of  stores.  They  lost,  in 
killed  and  wounded,  202  men.  General 
Osterhaus,  of  the  Nationals,  was  wounded, 


Grant's  pontoon  train  was  with  Sherman, 
who  had  been  making  his  way  from  Jack- 
son to  another  point  (above)  on  the  Big 
Black  River.  The  Confederates  at  the 
bridge  fled  to  Vicksburg.  A  floating 
bridge  was  constructed,  and  at  the  same 
time  (May  18,  1863)  the  three  corps  cross- 
ed the  river,  and  began  the  siege  of  Vicks- 
burg. 

Big   Blue   Lick,    Battle   at.     Parties 


VIEW    ON    THE    BIG    BLACK    RIVER. 


and  the  command  of  his  troops  devolved  of  Indians  and  Tories,  from  north  of  .the 
upon  Brig.-Gen.  A.  L.  Lee.  Sharp-shoot-  Ohio,  greatly  harassed  the  settlements  in 
ers  in  the  works  on  the  high  banks  across    Kentucky  in  1782.     A  large  body  of  these, 

342 


BIGELOW— BILLINGS 


lieaded  by  Simon  Girty,  a  cruel  white  mis-  den,  Ulster  co.,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  25,  1817;  was 
creant,  entered  these  settlements  in  Au-  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1835;  and 
gust.  They  were  pursued  by  about  180  became  a  lawyer.  In  1849-61  he  was  one 
men,  under  Colonels  Todd,  Trigg,  and  of  the  editors  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Boone,  who  rashly  attacked  them  (Aug.  Post.  He  was  United  States  consul  at 
19)  at  the  Big  Blue  Lick,  where  the  road  Paris  in  1861-64;  minister  to  France  in 
from  Maysville  to  Lexington  crosses  the  1864-67,  and  secretary  of  state  of  New 
Licking  Eiver  in  Nicholas  county.  One  York  in  1875-77.  He  was  the  biographer 
of  the  most  sanguinary  battles  ever  fought  and  trustee  of  the  late  Samuel  J.  Tilden: 
in  Kentucky  then  and  there  occurred.  The  and  in  1900  was  president  of  the  board 
Kentuckians  lost  sixty-seven  men,  killed,  of  trustees  of  the  New  York  Public  Li- 
wounded,  and  prisoners;  and,  after  a  se-  brary  (q.  v.).  He  is  author  of  Moli- 
vere  struggle,  the  rest  escaped.  The  nos  the  Quietist;  France  and  the  (Jon- 
slaughter  in  the  river  was  great,  the  ford  federate  Navy;  Life  of  William  Cullen 
being  crowded  with  white  people  and  Ind-  Bryant;  Life  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden;  Some 
ians,  all  fighting  in  horrid  confusion.  The  Recollections  of  Edouard  Laboulaye ;  The 
fugitives  were  keenly  pursued  for  20  miles.  Mystery  of  Sleep,  and  editor  of  A  Life  of 
This  was  the  last  incursion  south  of  the  Franklin;  Writings  and  Speeches  of  Sam- 
Ohio  by  any  large  body  of  barbarians.  uel  J.  Tilden,  etc. 

Bigelow,  Erastus  Brigham,  inventor;        Bigelow,     Timothy,     military    officer; 

born   in  West  Boyleston,  Mass.,   April   2,  born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  Aug.  12,   1739; 

1814.     His  father  was  a  cotton  manufact-  was  a  blacksmith  and  a  zealous  patriot; 

urer;  and  this  son,  before  he  was  eighteen  member   of   the   Provincial   Congress;    led 

years   of   age,   had   invented   a   hand-loom  minute-men    to    Cambridge;    and    accom- 

for  weaving  suspender  webbing.     In  1838  panied   Arnold   in   his   notable   expedition 

he    obtained    a    patent    for    an    automatic  to  Quebec  in  1775,  where  he  was  made  a 

loom   for   weaving   knotted    counterpanes,  prisoner.     As   colonel,   he   assisted   in  the 

but   soon   made   great   improvements.      In  capture  of   Burgoyne,   and  was   active   in 

1839   he   entered   into   a   contract   with   a  some  of  the  stirring  scenes  of  the  war  af- 

Lowell    manufacturing    company    to    con-  terwards.    'Colonel  Bigelow  was  in  charge 

struct  a  power-loom  for  weaving  two-ply  of  the  Springfield  Arsenal  after  the  war, 

ingrain  carpets    (that  were  before  woven  and  was  one  of  the  original  grantees  of 

exclusively  by  the  hand-loom,  which  could  Montpelier,    Vt.     He    died    in    Worcester, 

produce   only   8   yards   a   day).     He   died  Mass.,  March  31,  1790. 


in  Boston,  Mass.,  Dec.  6,  1879. 

Bigelow,   John,   author;   born  in  Mai 


JOHN    BIGELOW. 


Billings,  John  Shaw,  surgeon  and  li- 
■  brarian;  born  in  Switzerland  county,  Ind., 
April  12,  1839;  was  graduated  at  Miami 
University  in  1857;  was  Demonstrator  of 
Anatomy  at  the  Medical  College  of  Ohio 
in  1860-61 ;  served  in  the  medical  depart- 
ment during  the  Civil  War,  rising  to  the 
rank  of  deputy  surgeon-general  in  1864. 
After  the  war  he  was  on  duty  in  the  office 
of  the  surgeon-general  in  Washington  till 
his  retirement  from  the  service  in  1895. 
He  was  Professor  of  Hygiene  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1893-96,  and 
in  the  last  year  became  director  of  the 
New  York  Public  Library.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  numerous  scientific  societies,  both 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  He 
has  published  Prhiciples  of  Ventilation 
and  Heating;  Index  Catalogue  of  the  Li- 
brary of  the  Surgeon-General's  Office;  Na- 
tional Medical  Dictionary,  etc.  See  New 
York  Public  Library. 
343 


BILLINGS— BILL    OF    RIGHTS 


Billings,     Josh.     See     Shaw,     Henry    nisable  only  in  Parliament,  and  by  divers 


Wheeler. 

Bill  of  Rights.  The  title  of  an  act  of 
Parliament  declaring  the  rights  and  lib- 
erties of  the  people  and  defining  the 
power  of  the  King,  passed  in  1689. 


Whereas  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons,  assembled  at  West- 
minster, lawfully,  fully,  and  freely  repre- 
senting all  the  estates  of  the  people  of 
this  realm,  did  upon  the  Thirteenth  day 
of  February,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
One  Thousand  Six  Hundred  Eighty-eight 
[o.  s.],  present  unto  their  Majesties,  then 
called  and  known  by  the  names  and  style 
of  William  and  Mary,  Prince  and  Princess 
of  Orange,  being  present  in  their  proper 
persons,  a  certain  Declaration  in  writing, 
made  by  the  said  Lords  and  Commons,  in 
the  words  following,  viz.: 

Whereas  the  late  King  James  II.,  by 
the  assistance  of  divers  evil  counsellors, 
judges,  and  ministers  employed  by  him, 
did  endeavour  to  subvert  and  extirpate 
the  Protestant  religion,  and  the  laws  and 
liberties  of  this  kingdom: 

1.  By  assimiing  and  exercising  a  power 
of  dispensing  with  and  suspending  of  laws, 
and  the  execution  of  laws,  without  con- 
sent of  Parliament. 

2.  By  committing  and  prosecuting  di- 
vers worthy  prelates  for  humbly  petition- 
ing to  be  excused  from  concurring  to  the 
said  assumed  power. 

3.  By  issuing  and  causing  to  be  exe- 
cuted a  commission  under  the  Great  Seal 
for  erecting  a  court,  called  the  Court  of 
Commissioners   for   Ecclesiastical   Causes. 

4.  By  levying  money  for  and  to  the 
use  of  the  Crown  by  pretence  of  prerog- 
ative, for  other  time  and  in  other  man- 
ner than  the  same  was  granted  by  Parlia- 
ment. 

5.  By  raising  and  keeping  a  standing 
army  within  this  kingdom  in  time  of 
peace,  without  consent  of  Parliament,  and 
employed  contrary  to  law. 

6.  Bj'  causing  several  good  subjects,  be- 
ing Protestants,  to  be  disarmed,  at  the 
same  time  when  Papists  were  both  armed 
and  employed  contrary  to  law. 

7.  By  violating  the  freedom  of  election 
of  members  to  serve  in  Parliament. 

8.  By  prosecutions  in  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  for  matters  and  causes  cog- 


other  arbitrary  and  illegal  causes. 

9.  And  whereas  of  late  years,  partial, 
corrupt,  and  unqualified  persons  have  been 
returned,  and  served  on  juries  in  trials, 
and  particularly  divers  jurors  in  trials 
for  high  treason,  which  were  not  free- 
holders. 

10.  And  excessive  bail  hath  been  re- 
quired of  persons  committed  in  criminal 
cases,  to  elude  the  benefit  of  the  laws  made 
for  the  liberty  of  the  subjects. 

11.  And  excessive  fines  have  been  im- 
posed; and  illegal  and  cruel  punishments 
inflicted. 

12.  And  several  grants  and  promises 
made  of  fines  and  forfeitures  before  any 
conviction  or  judgment  against  the  per- 
sons upon  whom  the  same  were  to  be 
levied. 

All  which  are  utterly  and  directly  con- 
trary to  the  known  laws  and  statutes,  and 
freedom  of  this  realm. 

And  whereas  the  said  late  King  James 
II.  having  abdicated  the  government,  a.nd 
the  throne  being  thereby  vacant,  his  High- 
ness the  Prince  of  Orange  (whom  it  hath 
pleased  Almighty  God  to  make  the  glori- 
ous instrument  of  delivering  this  kingdom 
from  Popery  and  arbitrary  power)  did  (by 
the  advice  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  divers  principal  persons  of 
the  Commons)  cause  letters  to  be  written 
to  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal, 
being  Protestants,  and  other  letters  to 
the  several  counties,  cities,  universities, 
boroughs,  and  cinque  ports,  for  the  choos- 
ing of  such  persons  to  represent  them  as 
were  of  right  to  be  sent  to  Parliament,  to 
meet  and  sit  at  Westminster  upon  the 
two-and-twentieth  day  of  January,  in  this 
year  One  Thousand  Six  Hundred  Eighty 
and  Eight,  in  order  to  such  an  establish- 
ment, as  that  their  religion,  laws,  and  lib- 
erties might  not  again  be  in  danger  of  be- 
ing subverted ;  upon  which  letters  elec- 
tions have  been  accordingly  made. 

And  thereupon  the  said  Lords  Spiritual 
and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  pursuant 
to  their  respective  letters  and  elections, 
being  now  assembled  in  a  full  and  free 
representation  of  this  nation,  taking  into 
their  most  serious  consideration  the  best 
means  for  attaining  the  ends  aforesaid, 
do  in  the  first  place  (as  their  ancestors 
in  like  cases  have  usually  done)    for  the 


344 


BILL    OF    RIGHTS 


vindicating    and    asserting    their    ancient 
rights  and  liberties,  declare: 

1.  That  the  pretended  power  of  suspend- 
ing of  laws,  or  the  execution  of  laws,  by 
regal  authority,  without  consent  of  Par- 
liament, is  illegal. 

2.  That  the  pretended  power  of  dispens- 
ing with  laws,  or  the  execution  of  laws 
by  regal  authority,  as  it  hath  been  as- 
sumed and  exercised  of  late,  is  illegal. 

3.  That  the  commission  for  erecting  the 
late  Court  of  Commissioners  for  Ecclesias- 
tical Causes,  and  all  other  commissions 
and  courts  of  like  nature,  are  illegal  and 
pernicious. 

4.  That  levying  money  for  or  to  the  use 
of  the  Crown  by  pretence  and  prerogative, 
without  grant  of  Parliament,  for  longer 
time  or  in  other  manner  than  the  same  is 
or  shall  be  granted,  is  illegal. 

5.  That  it  is  the  right  of  the  .subjects 
to  petition  the  King,  and  all  commitments 
and  prosecutions  for  such  petitioning  are 
illegal. 

6.  That  the  raising  or  keeping  a  stand- 
ing army  within  the  kingdom  in  time  of 
peace,  unless  it  be  with  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment, is  against  law. 

7.  That  the  subjects  which  are  Protes- 
tants may  have  arms  for  their  defence 
suitable  to  their  conditions,  and  as  al- 
lowed by  law. 

8.  That  election  of  members  of  Parlia- 
ment ought  to  be  free. 

9.  That  the  freedom  of  speech,  and  de- 
bates or  proceedings  in  Parlia.ment,  ought 
not  to  be  impeached  or  questioned  in  any 
court  or  place  out  of  Parliament. 

10.  That  excessive  bail  ought  not  to  be 
required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed;  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

11.  That  jurors  ought  to  be  duly  im- 
panelled and  returned,  and  jurors  which 
pass  upon  men  in  trials  for  high  treason 
ought  to  be  freeholders. 

12.  That  a.ll  grants  and  promises  of 
fines  and  forfeitures  of  particular  persons 
before  conviction  are  illegal  and  void. 

13.  And  that  for  redress  of  all  griev- 
ances, and  for  the  amending,  strengthen- 
ing, and  preserving  of  the  laws.  Parlia- 
ment ought  to  be  held  frequently. 

And  they  do  claim,  demand,  and  insist 
upon  all  and  singular  the  premises,  as 
their  undoubted  rights  and  liberties;  and 
that  no  declarations,  judgments.,  doings  or 


proceedings,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  people 
in  any  of  the  said  premises,  ought  in  any 
wise  to  be  drawn  hereafter  into  conse- 
quence or  example. 

To  which  demand  of  their  rights  they 
are  particularly  encouraged  by  the  declara- 
tion of  his  Highness  the  Prince  of  Or- 
ange, as  being  the  only  means  for  obtain- 
ing a  full  redress  and  remedy  therein. 

Having  therefore  an  entire  confidence 
that  his  said  Highness  the  Prince  of  Or- 
ange will  perfect  the  deliverance  so  far  ad- 
vanced by  him,  and  will  still  preserve  them 
from  the  violation  of  their  rights,  which 
they  have  here  asserted,  and  from  all  other 
attempts  upon  their  religion,  rights,  and 
liberties : 

II.  The  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons,  assembled  at  West- 
minster, do  resolve,  that  William  and 
Mary,  Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange,  be, 
and  be  declared.  King  and  Queen  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Ireland,  and  the  do- 
minions thereunto  belonging,  to  hold  the 
crown  and  royal  dignity  of  the  said  king- 
doms and  dominions  to  them  the  said 
Prince  and  Princess  during  their  lives,  and 
the  life  of  the  survivor  of  them;  and  that 
the  sole  and  full  exercise  of  the  regal 
power  be  only  in,  and  executed  by,  the 
said  Prince  of  Orange,  in  the  names  of  the 
said  Prince  and  Princess,  during  their 
joint  lives;  and  after  their  deceases,  the 
said  crown  and  royal  dignity  of  the  said 
kingdoms  and  dominions  to  be  to  the  heirs 
of  the  body  of  the  said  Princess;  and  for 
default  of  such  issue  to  the  Princess  Anne 
of  Denmark,  and  the  heirs  of  her  body; 
and  for  default  of  such  issue  to  the  heirs 
of  the  body  of  the  said  Prince  of  Orange. 
And  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal, 
and  Commons,  do  pray  the  said  Prince 
and  Princess  to  accept  the  same  accord- 
ingly. 

III.  And  that  the  oaths  hereafter  men- 
tioned be  taken  by  all  persons  of  whom 
the  oaths  of  allegiance  and  supremacy 
might  be  required  by  law  instead  of  them; 
and  that  the  said  oaths  of  allegiance  and 
supremacy  be  abrogated. 

"  I,  A.  B.,  do  sincerely  promise  and 
swear.  That  I  will  be  faithful  and  bear 
true  allegiance  to  their  Majesties  King 
William  and  Queen  Mary: 

"  So  help  me  God." 

"  I,  A.  B.,  do  swear,  That  I  do  from  my 


545 


BILL     OF     RIGHTS 


heart  abhor,  detest,  and  abjure  as  impious 
and  heretical  that  damnable  doctrine  and 
position,  that  princes  excommunicated  or 
deprived  by  the  Pope,  or  any  authority  of 
the  See  of  Rome,  may  be  deposed  or  mur- 
dered by  their  subjects,  or  any  other  what- 
soever. And  I  do  declare,  that  no  foreign 
prince,  person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate 
hath,  or  ought  to  have,  any  jurisdiction, 
power,  superiority,  pre-eminence,  or  au- 
thority, ecclesiastical  or  spiritual,  within 
this  realm: 

"  So  help  me  God." 

IV.  Upon  which  their  said  Majesties  did 
accept  the  crown  and  royal  dignity  of  the 
kingdoms  of  England,  France,  and  Ire- 
land, and  the  dominions  thereunto  belong- 
ing, according  to  the  resolution  and  de- 
sire of  the  said  Lords  and  Commons  con- 
tained in  the  said  declaration. 

V.  And  thereupon  their  Majesties  were 
pleased,  that  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  being  the  two 
Houses  of  Parliament,  should  continue  to 
sit,  and  with  their  Majesties'  royal  con- 
currence make  effectual  provision  for  the 
settlement  of  the  i-eligion,  laws,  and  lib- 
erties of  this  kingdom,  so  that  the  same 
for  the  future  might  not  be  in  danger 
again  of  being  subverted;  to  which  the 
said  Lords  Suiritual  and  Temporal,  and 
Commons,  did  agree  and  proceed  to  act 
accordingly. 

VI.  Now  in  pursuance  of  the  premises, 
the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal, 
and  Commons,  in  Parliament  assembled, 
for  the  ratifying,  confirming,  and  estab- 
lishing the  said  declaration,  and  the  arti- 
cles, clauses,  matters,  and  things  therein 
contained,  by  the  force  of  a  law  made  in 
due  form  by  authority  of  Parliament,  do 
pray  that  it  may  be  declared  and  enacted, 
That  all  and  singular  the  rights  and  liber- 
ties asserted  and  claimed  in  the  said  decla- 
ration are  the  true,  ancient,  and  indubi- 
table rights  and  liberties  of  the  people  of 
this  kingdom,  and  so  shall  be  esteemed,  al- 
lowed, adjudged,  deemed,  and  taken  to  be, 
and  that  all  and  every  the  particulars 
aforesaid  shall  be  firmly  and  strictly  hold- 
en  and  observed,  as  they  are  expressed  in 
the  said  declaration ;  and  all  officers  and 
ministers  whatsoever  shall  serve  their 
Majesties  and  their  successors  according 
to  the  same  in  all  times  to  come. 

VII.  And  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and 


Temporal,  and  Commons,  seriously  con- 
sidering how  it  hath  pleased  Almighty 
God,  in  his  marvellous  providence,  and 
merciful  goodness  to  this  nation,  to  pro- 
vide and  preserve  their  said  Majesties' 
royal  persons  most  happily  to  reign  over 
us  upon  the  throne  of  their  ancestors,  for 
which  they  render  unto  Him  from  the 
bottom  of  their  hearts  their  humblest 
thanks  and  praises,  do  truly,  firmly,  as- 
suredly, and  in  the  sincerity  of  their 
hearts,  think,  and  do  hereby  recognise, 
acknowledge,  and  declare,  that  King 
James  II.  having  abdicated  the  Govern- 
ment, and  their  Majesties  having  accepted 
the  Crown  and  royal  dignity  as  afore- 
said, their  said  Majesties  did  become,  were, 
are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  by  the  laws 
of  this  realm,  our  sovereign  liege  Lord 
and  Lady,  King  and  Queen  of  England, 
France,  and  Ireland,  and  the  dominions 
thereunto  belonging,  in  and  to  whose 
princely  persons  the  royal  state,  crown, 
and  dignity  of  the  said  realms,  with  all 
honours,  styles,  titles,  regalities,  preroga- 
tives, powers,  jurisdictions,  and  authori- 
ties to  the  same  belonging  and  appertain- 
ing, are  most  fully,  rightfully,  and  entire- 
ly invested  and  incorporated,  united,  and 
annexed. 

VIII.  And  for  preventing  all  questions 
and  divisions  in  this  realm,  by  reason  of 
any  pretended  titles  to  the  Crown,  and 
for  preserving  a  certainty  in  the  succes- 
sion thereof,  in  and  upon  which  the  unity, 
peace,  tranquillity,  and  safety  of  this  na- 
tion doth,  under  God,  wholly  consist  and 
depend,  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons,  do  beseech  their 
Majesties  that  it  may  be  enacted,  estab- 
lished, and  declared,  that  the  Crown  and 
regal  government  of  the  said  kingdoms 
and  dominions,  with  all  and  singular  the 
premises  thereunto  belonging  and  apper- 
taining, shall  be  and  continue  to  their  Maj- 
esties, and  the  survivor  of  them,  during 
their  lives,  and  the  life  of  the  survivor  of 
them.  And  that  the  entire,  perfect,  and  full 
exercise  of  the  regal  power  and  govern- 
ment be  only  in,  and  executed  by,  his 
Majesty,  in  the  names  of  both  their  Maj- 
esties, during  their  joint  lives ;  and  after 
their  deceases  the  said  Crown  and  prem- 
ises shall  be  and  remain  to  the  heirs  of 
the  body  of  her  Majesty:  and  for  default 
of  such  issue,  to  her  Royal  Highness  the 


346 


BILL    OF    RIGHTS— BILLS    OF    CREDIT 


Princess  Anne  of  Denmark,  and  the  heirs 
of  her  body;  and  for  default  of  such  issue, 
to  the  heirs  of  the  body  of  his  said  Majes- 
ty: And  thereunto  the  said  Lords  Spirit- 
ual and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  do,  in 
the  name  of  all  the  people  aforesaid,  most 
humbly  and  faithfully  submit  themselves, 
their  heirs  and  posterities,  for  ever:  and 
do  faithfully  promise,  that  they  will  stand 
to,  maintain,  and  defend  their  said  Majes- 
ties, and  also  the  limitation  and  succes- 
sion of  the  Crown  herein  specified  and 
contained,  to  the  utmost  of  their  powers, 
with  their  lives  and  estates,  against  all 
persons  whatsoever  that  shall  attempt 
anything  to  the  contrary. 

IX.  And  whereas  it  hath  been  found  by 
experience,  that  it  is  inconsistent  with  the 
safety  and  welfare  of  this  Protestant  king- 
dom to  be  governed  by  a  Popish  prince, 
or  by  any  king  or  queen  marrying  a  Pap- 
ist, the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tempo- 
ral, and  Commons,  do  further  pray  that 
it  may  be  enacted.  That  all  and  every 
person  and  persons  that  is,  are,  or  shall 
be  reconciled  to,  or  shall  hold  communion 
with,  the  See  or  Church  of  Rome,  or  shall 
profess  the  Popish  religion,  or  shall  marry 
a  Papist,  shall  be  excluded,  and  be  for 
ever  incapable  to  inherit,  possess,  or  en- 
joy the  Crown  and  Government  of  this 
realm,  and  Ireland,  and  the  dominions 
thereunto  belonging,  or  any  part  of  the 
same,  or  to  have,  use,  or  exercise,  any 
regal  power,  authority,  or  jurisdiction 
within  the  same;  and  in  all  and  every 
such  case  or  cases  the  people  of  these 
realms  shall  be  and  are  hereby  absolved 
of  their  allegiance,  and  the  said  Crown 
and  Government  shall  from  time  to  time 
descend  to,  and  be  enjoyed  by,  such  per- 
son or  persons,  being  Protestants,  as  should 
have  inherited  and  enjoyed  the  same,  in 
case  the  said  person  or  persons  so  recon- 
ciled, holding  commtmion,  or  professing,  or 
marrying,  as  aforesaid,  were  naturally  dead. 

X.  And  that  every  King  and  Queen  of 
this  realm,  who  at  any  time  hereafter 
shall  come  to  and  succeed  in  the  Imperial 
Crown  of  this  kingdom,  shall,  on  the  first 
day  of  the  meeting  of  the  first  Parliament, 
next  after  his  or  her  coming  to  the  Crown, 
sitting  in  his  or  her  throne  in  the  House 
of  Peers,  in  the  presence  of  the  Lords  and 
Commons  therein  assembled,  or  at  his  or 
her  coronation,  before  such  person  or  per- 

34 


sons  who  shall  administer  the  coronation 
oath  to  him  or  her,  at  the  time  of  his 
or  her  taking  the  said  oath  (which  shall 
first  happen),  make,  subscribe,  and  audi- 
bly repeat  the  declaration  mentioned  in 
the  statute  made  in  the  thirteenth  year 
of  the  reign  of  King  Charles  II.,  intituled 
'■  An  Act  for  the  more  effectual  preserving 
the  King's  person  and  Government,  by  dis- 
abling Papists  from  sitting  in  either 
House  of  Parliament."  But  if  it  shall 
happen  that  such  King  or  Queen,  upon  his 
or  her  succession  to  the  Crown  of  this 
realm,  shall  be  under  the  age  of  twelve 
years,  then  every  such  King  or  Queen 
shall  make,  subscribe,  and  audibly  repeat 
the  said  declaration  at  his  or  her  corona- 
tion, or  the  first  day  of  meeting  of  the 
first  Parliament  as  aforesaid,  which  shall 
first  happen  after  such  King  or  Queen 
shall  have  attained  the  said  age  of  twelve 
years. 

XL  All  which  their  Majesties  are  con- 
tented and  pleased  shall  be  declared,  en- 
acted, and  established  by  authority  of  this 
present  Parliament,  and  shall  stand,  re- 
main, and  be  the  law  of  this  realm  for 
ever;  and  the  same  are  by  their  said  Maj- 
esties, by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and 
Commons,  in  Parliament  assembled,  and 
by  the  authority  of  the  same,  declared, 
enacted,  or  established  accordingly. 

XII.  And  be  it  further  declared  and 
enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid.  That 
from  and  after  this  present  session  of 
Parliament,  no  dispensation  by  non  ob- 
stante of  or  to  any  statute,  or  any  part 
thereof,  shall  be  allowed,  but  that  the 
same  shall  be  held  void  and  of  no  effect, 
except  a  dispensation  be  allowed  of  in 
such  statute,  and  except  in  such  cases  as 
shall  be  specially  provided  for  by  one  or 
more  bill  or  bills  to  be  passed  during  this 
present  session  of  Parliament. 

XIII.  Provided  that  no  charter,  or 
grant,  or  pardon  granted  before  the  three- 
and-twentieth  day  of  October,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  One  thousand  six  hundred 
eighty-nine,  shall  be  any  ways  impeached 
or  invalidated  by  this  Act,  but  that  the 
same  shall  be  and  remain  of  the  same 
force  and  effect  in  law,  and  no  other,  than 
as  if  this  Act  had  never  been  made. 

Bills  of  Credit.  The  first  bills  of 
credit,  or  paper  money,  issued  in  the  Eng- 


BILLS  OF   CBEDIT 

lisli-American  colonies  were  put  forth  by  or  treasury  notes,  varying  from  five  sliil- 
Massachusetts,  in  1690,  to  pay  the  troops  lings  to  five  pounds,  receivable  in  payment 
who  went  on  an  expedition  against  Quebec,    of  taxes,  and  redeemable  out  of  any  money 


oN^L'iip^q^a 


^i>-> 


THF5  Inieut^cL  Bat  of  Twam  ly 
SKvJLUavctt  iue.  from  Qie  Maflackixfetr^ 
Co  Vcmy  to  tke^TofleiTor  Ikall  L  e^pn,  value>.^ 
equal  to  m.onev  8z:fkaU Id  (^ -ace  err d\ngly^ 

fiib 0 TiLnat^. to kiirt  i/rvallPublick  ■^^Y'^^'' 
zs(\A,\oT  a^Y  -J^tock  aJt  aA\y tiyrru^  i/rutrie^QJ>® 
Trea(lt/ry,  Boltorutn^  Atew^-JL  nglauTVoU 
Fet nxa.ry  tke  tkircU  l6c) 0 c^By  OrcW  of 
tke^  Ue/ae/raL  G,OLi/rl>D>c^ 


:] 


omto 


FAC-SIMILE    OP    THE   FIRST    AMERICAIf    PAPER    MONET. 


under  Sir  William  Phipps.  The  expedi- 
tion was  unsuccessful.  The  men  had  suf- 
fered from  sickness;  had  not  gained  ex- 
pected plunder;  and  when  they  arrived 
at  Boston,  disgusted  and  out  of  teinper, 
the  treasury  of  the  colony  had  become  ex- 
hausted, and  there  was  no  money  to  pay 
tliem.  They  threatened  a  riot.  The  Gen- 
eral Court  resolved  to  issue  bills  of  credit. 


in  the  treasury.  The  total  amount  of 
this  paper  currency  issued  was  a  little 
more  than  $13.3,000;  but  long  before  that 
limit  was  reached  the  bills  depreciated  one- 
half.  The  General  Court  revived  their 
credit  in  1G91,  by  making  them  a  legal 
tender  in  all  payments.  The  first  issue 
was  in  February,  1691,  though  the  bills 
were   dated   1690 — the  year,  according  to 


348 


BILLS   or    CREDIT 


TTVENTYFOUR  SHILLIMGS 


^^e^ceof^ 


the  calendar  then  in  use,  not 
beginning    until    March. 

When  an  expedition  for 
the  conquest  of  Canada  was 
determined  on  in  1711,  the 
credit  of  the  English  treas- 
ury, exhausted  by  costly 
wars,  was  so  low  at  Boston 
that  nobody  would  purchase 
bills  upon  it  without  an  en- 
dorsement, which  Massachu- 
setts furnished  in  the  form 
of  bills  of  credit  to  the 
amount  of  about  $200,000, 
advanced  to  the  merchants 
who  supplied  the  fleet  with 
provisions.  The  province  is- 
sued paper  money  to  the 
amount  of  about  $50,000  to 
meet  its  share  of  the  expenses 
of  the  proposed  expedition. 
After  the  affair  at  Lexington 
and  Concord,  the  patriots  of 
Massachusetts  made  vigorous 
preparations  for  war.  On 
May  5,  1775,  the  Provincial 
Congress  formally  renounced 
allegiance  to  the  British 
power,  and  prepared  for  the 
payment  of  an  army  to  re- 
sist all  encroachments  upon 
their  liberties.  They  also  au- 
thorized (in  August)  the  issue  of  bills  graving.  The  literal  translation  of  the 
of  credit,  or  paper  money,  in  the  form  of  words  is,  "  He  seeks  by  the  sword  calm 
treasury  notes,  to  the  amount  of  $375,-  repose  under  the  auspices  of  freedom." 
000,  making  them  a  legal  tender,  the  back  In  1755  the  Virginia  Assembly  voted 
of    which    is    shown    in    the    above    en-    $100,000  towards  the  support  of  the  colo- 


>^ 


Axx^-  IS-  n? s. 


EEVERSE  OF  A  MASSACHUSETTS  TREASURY  NOTE. 


A'jr"^(i  ^"'•^^  ^'^^"'^  'T  ^^""^  "^^"'^  '^trfi.  Second  andTourtSt 
not  paid,  pay  to^^^^e^  ^^vc^<^  e_,  ''  Jrourio^^ 

^rder,  Twenty-foiiTDoJIars,  in  One  Hundred  and  Twenty  Livresl 
Toi^nois,  for  ^nterefi  due  on  money  borrowed  6y  t^e  United  Si 

To  the  Qcmmc^umer  or  Qomm.ffio%eTj  of  the>  ^ 

^mtei  itatcr  of  ^ncnj,  at  SV.V  ( 


CONTINENTAL    DRAFT. 

349 


BILLS     or     EXCHANGE— BIMETALLISM 


nial  service  in  the  impending  French  and  lief  of  this  uncertainty  was  that  an  agree- 
Indian  War.  In  anticipation  of  the  taxes  ment  should  be  established  on  a  broad  in- 
imposed  to  meet  this  amount,  the  Assem-  ternational  basis  to  again  open  the  mints 
bly  authorized  the  issue  of  treasury  notes  of  the  great  countries  of  the  world  for  the 
— the  first  paper  money  put  forth  in  Vir-  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  both  gold 
ginia.  and    silver.      An    International    Monetary 

During  the  war  in  1763  Pontiac  estab-  Congress  was  convened  at  Paris  in  Sep- 
lished  a  commissary  department  with  a  tember,  1889,  and  a  similar  one,  called  by 
careful  head ;  and  during  the  siege  of  the  United  States  "  to  consider  by  what 
Detroit  (1763-64)  he  issued  promissory  means,  if  any,  the  use  of  silver  can  be  in- 
notes,  or  bills  of  credit,  to  purchase  food  creased  in  the  currency  system  of  the  na- 
for  his  warriors.  These  bills  were  writ-  tions,"  met  in  Brussels  in  November,  1892, 
ten  upon  birch  bark,  and  signed  with  his  and  separated  without  practical  results, 
totem — the  figure  of  an  otter;  and  so  On  March  17,  1896,  a  resolution  was 
highly  was  that  chief  esteemed  by  the  passed  by  the  British  House  of  Corn- 
French  inhabitants  for  his  integrity  that  mons,  urging  upon  the  English  govern- 
these  bills  were  received  by  them  without  ment  the  necessity  of  securing  by  inter- 
hesitation.  Unlike  our  Continental  bills  national  agreement  a  solid  monetary  par 
of  credit,  these  Indian  notes  were  all  re-  of  exchange  between  gold  and  silver.  In 
deemed.  April,    1896,    a    Bimetallic    Congress    con-. 

Bills  of  Exchange.  On  Oct.  3,  1776,  vened  at  Brussels,  made  up  of  representa- 
the  Continental  Congress  resolved  to  bor-  tives  from  the  United  States,  Great  Brit- 
row  $5,000,000  for  the  use  of  the  United  ain,  France,  Germany,  Austria  -  Hungary, 
States,  at  the  annual  interest  of  4  per  Belgium,  Denmark,  Holland,  Rumania, 
cent.,  and  directed  certificates  to  be  is-  and  Russia,  and  organized  a  permanent 
sued  accordingly  by  the  manager  of  a  loan  committee,  under  the  belief  that  there 
office  which  was  established  at  the  same  could  be  an  immediate  agreement  if  the 
time.  When  foreign  loans  were  made,  United  States  would  re-establish  bimetal- 
drafts  or  bills  of  exchange  were  used  for  lism,  if  the  Indian  mints  were  reoj^ened 
the  payment  of  interest.  On  the  pre-  for  the  coinage  of  silver,  if  the  Bank  of 
ceding  page  is  shown  fac-simile  of  one  England  would  turn  into  silver  a  part  of 
of  these  drafts,  reduced  in  size.  It  is  its  metallic  reserve,  and  if  the  various 
drawn  on  the  commissioner  of  Congress,  European  countries  would  absorb  a  sufii- 
then  in  Paris,  signed  by  Francis  Hopkin-  cient  amount  of  silver.  The  agitation  of 
son,  the  Treasurer  of  Loans,  and  counter-  the  silver  question  in  the  United  States 
signed  by  Nathaniel  Appleton,  commis-  largely  influenced  the  Presidential  cam- 
sioner  of  the  Continental  Loan  Office  in  paign  of  1896.  It  became  evident  in  the 
Massachusetts.  first  half  of  the  year  that  the  free-silver 

Bimetallism,  a  term  currently  employ-  doctrine  had  won  a  large  part  of  the 
ed  to  designate  a  double  monetary  stand-  Democratic  party,  which  adopted  at  the 
ard  of  value.  The  contention  of  the  bi-  Chicago  Convention  (July  7)  a  platform, 
metallists,  as  defined  by  Mr.  Balfour,  him-  the  most  important  plank  in  which  con- 
self  a  strong  bimetallist,  is  that  "  if  they  tained  a  declaration  for  "  the  immediate 
could  by  international  agreement  fix  restoration  of  the  free  and  unlimited  coin- 
some  ratio  of  exchange  between  gold  age  of  gold  and  silver  at  the  present  legal 
and  silver  coin  they  would  create  an  auto-  ratio  of  16  to  1,  without  waitins  for 
matic  system  by  which  the  demand  and  the  aid  or  consent  of  any  other  nation,"  and 
supply  of  gold  and  silver  respectively  that  "  the  standard  silver  dollar  shall  be 
would  maintain  that  ratio  at  the  point  full  legal  tender  equally  with  gold  for  all 
they  fixed  it."  Bimetallists  affirmed  that  debts,  public  or  private."  The  Democratic 
the  condition  of  commerce  generally  was  party  nominated  William  Jennings 
most  unsatisfactory,  and  that  this  con-  Beyan  (g.  v.)  for  President,  and  he  was 
dition  was  due  largely  to  the  great  un-  defeated  by  William  McKinley,  the  Re- 
certainty  of  exchange  between  the  gold-  publican  nominee.  An  era  of  unexampled 
standard  and  silver-standard  countries,  prosperity  set  in  immediately  after  Mr. 
The  remedy  that  they  proposed  for  the  re-    ]\IcKinley's  election,  and  steadily  increased 

350 


BINNEY— BIRNEY 


during  his  first  administration.  In  the 
party  conventions  of  1900  the  Republicans 
gave  a  stanch  support  to  the  policy  of  the 
administration,  especially  on  the  compli- 
cated questions  growing  out  of  the  war 
with  Spain,  and  particularly  on  the  one 
involving  the  future  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands; and  the  Democrats  based  their  cam- 
paign chiefly  on  opposition  to  trusts  and 
territorial  expansion.  The  disposition  of 
the  Democratic  leaders  was  to  ignore  en- 
tirely the  silver  question.  The  Repub- 
licans renominated  President  McKinley, 
and  the  Democrats  Mr.  Bryan,  and  the 
latter,  in  a  remarkable  tour  of  political 
speech-making,  while  dealing  with  the 
anti-trust  and  imperialist  features  of  the 
platform  on  which  he  was  renominated, 
Continued  an  earnest  advocacy  of  the  16- 
to-1  silver  policy.  The  result  of  this  elec- 
tion, in  which  unquestionably  many  sound- 
money  Democrats  gave  their  support  to 
the  Republican  candidates,  was  the  sec- 
ond defeat  of  Mr.  Bryan.  See  Bryan, 
William  J.;  Evarts,  William  Maxwell; 
Monetary  Reform;  Morrill,  J.  S. 

Binney,  Horace,  lawyer;  born  in  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  Jan.  4,  1780;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1797,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1800.  He  practised 
law  with  great  success  until  1830,  when, 
his  health  became  impaired  and  led  to  his 
retirement.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  elect- 
ed to  Congress  as  a  Republican.  He  de- 
clined a  renomination,  and  for  many  years 
devoted  himself  to  writing  opinions  on 
legal  questions.  In  1844,  by  a  masterly  ar- 
gument before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States,  on  the  case  of  Bidal  vs. 
Girard's  executors,  he  raised  the  laws  gov- 
erning charities  out  of  the  confusion  and 
obscurity  which  previously  existed.  He 
v/as  author  of  The  JAfe  and  Character  of 
•Justice  Bushrod  Washington;  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Formation  of  Washington's  Fare- 
well Address,  and  three  pamphlets  in  sup- 
port of  the  power  claimed  by  President 
Lincoln  to  suspend  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug. 
12,  1875. 

Bird,  Charles,  military  officer;  born  in 
Delaware,  June  17,  1838;  entered  the  vol- 
unteer service  in  1861;  appointed  to  t"he 
regular  army  in  1866;  promoted  major 
in  1895;  colonel  of  volunteers  through- 
out  the   war   with    Spain,   in    1898,   serv- 


ing in  the  quartermaster  -  general's  of- 
fice. 

Bird's  Point,  opposite  Cairo,  was  forti- 
fied early  in  1861  by  the  National  troops. 
It  was  on  the  west  side  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  a  few  feet  higher  than  Cairo,  so 
that  a  battery  upon  it  would  completely 
command  that  place.  The  Confederates 
were  anxious  to  secure  this  point,  and  to 
that  end  General  Pillow,  who  was  collect- 
ing Confederate  troops  in  western  Ten- 
nessee, worked  with  great  energy.  When 
Governor  Jackson,  of  Missouri,  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  at  Jefferson  City,  with 
Sterling  Price  as  military  commander. 
General  Lyon,  in  command  of  the  depart- 
ment, moved  more  vigorously  in  the  work 
already  begun  in  the  fortification  of  Bird's 
Point.  His  attention  had  been  called  to 
the  importance  of  the  spot  by  Captain 
Benham,  of  the  engineers,  who  constructed 
the  works.  They  were  made  so  strong  that 
they  could  defy  any  force  the  Confederates 
might  bring  against  them.  With  these 
opposite  points  so  fortified,  the  Nationals 
controlled  a  great  portion  of  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  River.  See  Mis- 
souri. 

Birge,  Henry  Warner,  military  officer ; 
born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Aug.  25,  1825; 
was  one  of  Governor  Buckingham's  aides 
when  the  Civil  War  began.  He  entered 
the  service  in  June,  1861,  as  major,  and 
early  in  1862  was  made  colonel.  For  ser- 
vices on  the  lower  Mississippi  he  was 
made  brigadier-general,  Sept.  19,  1863.  He 
w^as  in  the  Red  River  campaign  and  in 
Sheridan's  campaign  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  in  1864.  In  June,  1865,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  military  district 
of  Savannah.  For  his  services  in  the  army 
he  was  brevetted  major-general  of  volun- 
teers and  voted  the  thanks  of  the  Con- 
necticut legislature.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  June  1,  1888. 

Birney,  James  Gillespie,  statesman; 
born  in  Danville,  Ky.,  Feb.  4,  1792;  gradu- 
ated at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1812 ; 
studied  law  with  A.  J.  Dallas,  of  Phila- 
delphia; and  began  its  practice  in  Ken- 
tucky in  1814.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
State  legislature  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two;  became  a  planter  in  Alabama;  served 
in  the  Alabama  legislature;  and  practised 
law  in  Huntsville.  Returning  to  Kentucky 
in    1834,   he   emancipated   his   slaves,   and 


351 


BISHOP— BLACK    HAWK 


proposed    to   print   there    an    anti-slavery        Bituminous  Coal.    See  Coal. 


paper.  He  could  not  find  a  printer  to  un- 
dertake it;  so  he  went  to  Ohio  and  estab- 
lished one,  at  great  personal  risk,  the  op- 
position to  "  abolitionists  "  then  being  very 
vehement  everywhere.  About  1836  he  was 
in  New  York  as  secretary  of  the  American 
Anti-Slavery  Society,  and  tried  to  build 
up  a  political  party  upon  that  sole  issue. 
He  went  to  England  in  1840,  and  took  part 
in  the  anti-slavery  movements  there.  In 
1844  he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Liberty 
Party  {q.  v.)  for  the  Presidency,  the  re- 
sult of  which  was  not  only  his  own  defeat, 
but  that  of  Henry  Clay,  the  candidate  of 
the  Whig  party  for  the  same  office.  Mr. 
Birney  was  the  father  of  the  meritorious 
Gen.  David  Bell  Birney,  who  did  excellent 
service  for  the  Union  in  the  Civil  War,, 
and  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  18, 
1864.  James  G.  Birney  died  in  Perth  Am- 
boy,  N.  J.,  Nov.  25,  18.57. 

Bishop,  the  title  of  an  office  in  a  num- 
ber of  religious  denominations,  corre- 
sponding to  Presbyter  in  others.  In  the 
United  States  the  Roman  Catholic;  Prot- 
estant Episcopal;  Reformed  Episcopal; 
Methodist  Episcopal ;  Methodist  Episco- 
pal, South;  African  Methodist  Episcopal; 
Old  Catholic;  and  a  few  other  bodies  of 
lesser  numerical  strength  have  bishops. 

Bissell,  William  H.,  legislator;  born 
near  Cooperstown,  N.  Y.,  April  25,  1811; 
elected  to  the  Illinois  legislature  in  1840, 
and  became  prosecuting  attorney  for  St. 
Clair  county  in  1844.  During  the  Mexican 
War  he  served  as  captain  of  the  2d  Illi- 
nois Volunteers,  and  distinguished  him- 
self at  Buena  Vista.  In  1839-45  he  was 
a  representative  in  Congress  from  Illinois ; 
was  separated  from  the  Democratic  party 
on  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill ;  and  was 
chosen  governor  on  the  Republican  ticket 
in  1856,  and  afterwards  re-elected.  While 
in  Congress  he  engaged  in  a  controversy 
with  Jefferson  Davis,  who  challenged  Mr. 
Bissell.  In  accepting  the  challenge  Mr. 
Bissell  chose  as  weapons  muskets,  distance 
30  paces,  which  was  unsatisfactory  to  the 
friends  of  Mr.  Davis.  He  died  in  Spring- 
field. 111.,  March  18,  1860. 

Bissell,  Wilson  Shannon,  lawyer; 
born  in  New  London,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  31,  1847; 
was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1869;  be- 
came a  law  partner  of  Grover  Cleveland; 
and  was  Postmaster-General  in  1893-95. 


Black,  Frank  Swett,  lawyer;  born  in 
Limington,  Me.,  March  8,  1853;  was  grad- 
uated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1875;  Re- 
publican member  of  Congress  in  1895-97, 
and  governor  of  New  York  in  1897-99. 

Black,  James,  lawyer;  born  in  Lewis- 
burg,  Pa.,  Sept.  23,  1823;  was  the  Presi- 
dential nominee  of  the  Prohibition  party 
at  its  first  convention  held  in  Colum- 
bus, 0.,  Feb.  22,  1872,  with  the  Rev. 
John  Russell,  of  Michigan,  for  Vice- 
President. 

Black,  Jeremiah  Sullivan,  jurist; 
born  in  Somerset  county,  Pa.,  Jan.  10, 
1810;  was  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States  in  1857-60;  Secretary  of  State  in 
1860-61;  retired  from  political  life  after 
President  Lincoln's  inauguration  ;  and  was 
afterwards  engaged  in  many  notable  law- 
cases.  He  died  in  York,  Pa.,  Aug.  19, 
1883. 

Black,  John  Charles,  lawyer;  born  in 
Lexington,  Mass.,  Jan.  27,  1839;  enlisted 
in  the  federal  army  as  a  private  in  1861  ; 
retired  as  brevet  brigadier-general  in 
1865;  commissioner  of  pensions  in  1885- 
89;  and  member  of  Congress  in  1893-95. 

Black  Friday,  the  designation  of  Fri- 
day, Sept.  24,  1869.  Jay  Gould  and  James 
Fisk,  Jr.,  had  attempted  to  gain  control 
of  the  gold  market  of  the  country  by  pur- 
chasing the  entire  stock  of  $15,000,000 
then  held  by  the  banks  of  New  York  City. 
The  value  of  gold  had  been  going  up  for 
several  days,  and  the  speculators  attempt- 
ed to  raise  it  from  144  to  200.  By  Fri- 
day the  whole  metropolis  was  in  a  state 
of  tumult,  and  gold  had  risen  to  162l^. 
The  wildest  excitement  prevailed,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  hundreds  of  strong  business 
houses  would  be  forced  to  suspend.  In 
the  midst  of  this  panic  Secretary  Bout- 
well,  of  the  United  States  Treasury,  placed 
$4,000,000  in  gold  on  the  New  York  mar- 
ket, and  as  soon  as  the  fact  was  known 
the  speculative  price  of  gold  fell  and  the 
excitement  abated.  It  was  said  that  this 
speculation  yielded  Gould  and  Fisk  a 
profit   of   $11,000,000. 

Black  Hawk  (Ma-ka-tae-mish-kia- 
kiak),  a  famous  Indian;  born  in  Kaskas- 
kia.  111.,  in  1767.  He  was  a  Pottawattomie 
by  birth,  but  became  a  noted  chief  of  the 
Sacs  and  Foxes.  He  was  accounted  a  brave 
when  he  was  fifteen  years  of  age,  and  soon 


352 


BLACK   HAWK— BLACK   REPUBLICAN 


afterwards  led  expeditions  of  war  parties 
against  the  Osage  Indians  in  Missouri 
and  the  Cherokees  in  Georgia.  He  became 
head  chief  of  the  Sacs  when  he  was  twen- 
ty-one years  old  (1788).  Inflamed  by  Te- 
cumseh  and  presents  from  the  British 
agents,  he  joined  the  British  in  the  War 
of  1812-15,  with  the  commission  of  briga- 
dier-general, leading  about  500  warriors. 
He  again  reappeared  in  history  in  hostili- 
ties against  the  white  people  on  the  North- 
western frontier  settlements  in  1832.  In 
that  year  eight  of  a  party  of  Chippewas, 
on  a  visit  to  Fort  Snelling,  on  the  west 
banks  of  the  upper  Mississippi,  were  killed 
or  wounded  by  a  party  of  Sioux.  Four 
of  the  latter  were  afterwards  captured  by 
the  commander  of  the  garrison  at  Fort 
Snelling  and  delivered  up  to  the  Chippe- 
was, who  immediately  shot  them. 

The  chief  of  the  Sioux  (Red  Bird)  re- 
solved to  be  revenged,  and  he  and  some 
companions  killed  several  white  people. 
General  Atkinson,  in  command  in  the 
Northwest,  finally  captured  Red  Bird  and 
a  party  of  Winnebagoes.  Red  Bird  died  in 
prison  soon  afterwards,  when  Black  Hawk, 
having  been  released  from  confinement, 
at  once  began  hostilities  against  the  white 
people  on  the  frontier.  General  Gaines 
marched  to  the  village  of  the  Sacs,  when 
they  humbly  sued  for  peace.  At  the  same 
time  Black  Hawk  and  a  band  of  follow- 
ers were  murdering  the  Menomonees,  who 
were  friendly  to  the  white  inhabitants. 
Black  Hawk  crossed  the  Mississippi,  and 
General  Atkinson  took  the  field  against 
him;  but  in  July  the  cholera  broke  out 
among  the  troops,  and  whole  companies 
were  almost  destroyed.  In  one  instance 
only  nine  survived  out  of  a  corps  of  208. 
Atkinson  was  reinforced,  and,  with  a 
command  greatly  superior  to  that  of  Black 
Hawk,  pressed  him  so  closely  that  the 
latter  sent  the  women  and  children  of 
his  band  down  the  Mississippi  in  canoes 
and  prepared  for  a  final  struggle. 

A  severe  fight  occurred  (Aug.  1,  1832) 
on  Bad  Axe  River,  in  which  twenty-three 
Indians  were  killed  without  loss  to  the 
troops.  The  contest  was  between  400  Ind- 
ians and  some  United  States  troops  on 
board  the  steamboat  Warrior,  which  had 
been  sent  up  the  river.  After  the  fight 
the  Warrior  returned  to  Prairie  du  Chien. 
The  contest  was  renewed  the  next  morning 
I. — z  35 


between  Black  Hawk  and  troops  led  by 
General  Atkinson,  when  the  Indians  were 
defeated  and  dispersed,  with  a  consider- 
able loss  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
thirty-six  of  their  women  and  children 
made  prisoners.  There  were  eight  of  the 
troops  killed  and  seventy-seven  wounded. 
Black  Hawk  was  pursued  over  the  Wiscon- 
sin River,  and  at  a  strong  position  the 
fugitive  chief  made  a  stand  with  about 
300  men.  After  a  severe  battle  for  three 
hours  he  fled,  and  barely  escaped,  with 
the  loss  of  150  of  his  bravest  warriors  and 
his  second  in  command.  The  chief  him- 
self was  finally  captured  by  a  party  of 
friendly  Winnebagoes  and  given  up  to 
General  Steele  at  Prairie  du  Chien. 

Treaties  were  then  made  with  the  hostile 
tribes  by  which  the  United  States  acquired 
valuable  lands  on  favorable  terms.  Black 
Hawk,  his  two  sons,  and  six  principal 
chiefs  were  retained  as  hostages.  The 
chief  and  his  sons  were  taken  to  Wash- 
ington to  visit  the  President;  and  then 
they  were  shown  some  of  the  principal 
cities  of  the  North  and  East  to  impress 
them  with  the  greatness  of  the  American 
people.  The  hostages,  after  confinement 
in  Fort  Monroe,  were  liberated  at  Fort 
Armstrong,  Rock  Island,  111.,  in  August, 
1833.  Black  Hawk  being  deposed,  Keo- 
kuk was  made  chief  of  the  Sacs  and  Foxes, 
when  the  former  settled  on  the  Des  Moines 
River.     Black  Hawk  died  Oct.  3,  1838. 

Black  Hills,  a  group  of  mountains 
situated  chiefly  in  South  Dakota  and  the 
northwestern  part  of  Wyoming.  Several 
of  the  peaks  reach  an  altitude  of  from 
2,000  to  3,000  feet  above  the  surround- 
ing plain,  and  the  highest  summit  of  all 
is  Mount  Harney,  which  is  7,400  feet.  In 
1875  the  Dakota  Indians  ceded  the  region 
to  the  United  States,  and  immediately  a 
valuable  mining  industry  sprang  up.  In 
1875-91  the  district  yielded  gold  to  the 
value  of  $45,000,000,  and  silver  to  the 
value  of  more  than  $2,000,000.  Valuable 
deposits  of  tin  have  also  been  found  on 
Mount  Harney.  For  later  productions 
in  this  region  see  Gold;  South  Dakota. 

Black  Republican,  the  name  applied 
in  derision  to  the  Republican  Party 
(q.  V.)  formed  in  1856,  because  of  their 
friendship  for  the  black  bondsmen  in  the 
Southern  States  ,and  their  efforts  for  the 
restriction  of  the  slave  system  of  labor. 
3 


BLACK   BOCK— BLACKBUIIN 


Black  Rock,  Surpkise  of.  On  July 
11,  1813,  Lieut.-Col.  Cecil  Bisshopp,  with 
a  motley  party  of  regulars,  Canadians, 
and  Indians,  about  400  in  number,  crossed 
the  Niagara.  River  and  landed  a  little  be- 
low Black  Rock  (which  was  a  naval  sta- 
tion, two  miles  below  Buffalo),  just  be- 
fore daylight.  His  object  was  to  surprise 
and  capture  the  garrison,  and  especially 
the  large  quantity  of  stores  collected 
there  by  the  Americans ;  also  the  ship- 
yard. These  were  defended  by  only  about 
200  militia  and  a  dozen  men  in  a  block- 
house.    There    were    some    infantry    and 


BISSHOPP'S   MONUMENT. 

dragoon  recruits  from  the  South  on  their 
way  to  Fort  George,  besides  a  little  more 
than  100  Indians  under  the  young  Corn- 
planter,  who  had  been  educated  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  had  gone  back  to  his  blanket 
and  feather  head-dress.  The  former  were 
under  the  command  of  Gen.  Peter  B.  Por- 
ter, then  at  his  home  near  Black  Rock. 
Bisshopp  surprised  the  camp  at  Black 
Rock,  when  the  militia  fled  to  Buffalo, 
leaving  their  artillery  behind.  Porter 
narrowly  escaped  capture  in  his  own 
house.  He  hastened  towards  Buffalo, 
rallied  a  part  of  the  militia,  and,  with 
fifty  vokmteer  citizens,  proceeded  to  at- 
tack the  invaders.  At  the  same  time 
forty  Indians  rose  from  an  ambush  in  a 
ravine  and  rushed  upon  the  invaders  with 
the  appalling  war-whoop.  The  fright- 
ened British,  after  a  very  brief  contest, 
fled  in  confusion  to  their  boats,  and,  with 
their  commander,  hastily  departed  for  the 
Canada  shore,  followed  by  volleys  from. 
American  muskets.  In  the  flight  Bisshopp 
was  mortally  wounded.  He  was  a  gallant 
young  man,  only  thirty  years  of  age.  He 
was    taken    to    his    quarters    at    Lundy's 


Lane,  where  he  died  five  days  after  he 
received  his  wound.  Over  his  remains,  in 
a  small  cemetery  on  the  south  side  of 
Lundy's  Lane,  more  than  thirty  years  af- 
terwards, the  sister  of  the  young  soldier 
erected   a   handsome   monument. 

Black  Warrior  Seizure.  Prior  to  Feb- 
ruary, 1854,  there  had  been  several  causes 
for  irritation  between  the  Spanish  au- 
thorities of  Cuba  and  the  United  States, 
on  account  of  invasions  of  the  territory  of 
the  former  from  that  of  the  latter.  Under 
cover  of  a  shallow  pretence,  the  steamship 
Black  Warrior,  belonging  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  was  seized  Feb.  28,  at 
Havana,  by  order  of  the  (Spanish  authori- 
ties in  Cuba,  and  the  vessel  and  cargo  were 
declared  confiscated.  This  flagrant  out- 
rage aroused  a  bitter  feeling  against  those 
authorities;  and  a  motion  was  made  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  to  suspend  the 
neutrality  laws  and  compel  those  officials 
to  act  more  justly.  A  better  measure  was 
adopted.  A  special  messenger  was  sent  to 
Madrid,  with  instructions  to  the  American 
minister  there,  Mr.  Soule,  to  demand  from 
the  Spanish  government  immediate  redress 
in  the  form  of  indemnification  to  the  own- 
ers of  the  vessel  in  the  amount  of  $300,000. 
The  Spanish  government  justified  the  out- 
rage, and  this  justification,  operating  with 
other  causes  for  irritation,  led  to  the 
famous  consultation  of  American  ministers 
in  Europe  known  as  the  "  Ostend  Con- 
ference." (See  Ostend  Manifesto.) 
Meanwhile  the  perpetrators  of  the  outrage 
became  alarmed,  and  the  captain-general 
of  Cuba,  with  pretended  generosity,  offered 
to  give  up  the  vessel  and  cargo  on  the  pay- 
ment, by  the  owners,  of  a  fine  of  $6,000. 
They  complied,  but  under  protest.  The 
governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Spain  finally  made  an  amicable  settle- 
ment. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  Clay  Styles,  law- 
yer; born  in  Woodford  county,  Ky.,  Oct. 
1,  1838;  was  graduated  at  Centre  College, 
Danville,  in  1857;  served  in  the  Confeder- 
ate ai-my  during  the  Civil  War;  was 
elected  to  the  legislature  in  1871,  to 
Congress  in  1874,  and  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1885  and.  1891.  He 
was  a  leader  in  the  free  -  coinage  move- 
ment. 

Blackburn,  Luke  PPvYOR,  physician; 
born    in    Fayette    county,    Ky.,    June    16,  . 


354 


BLACKBURN'S    FOED— BLACKSTOCK'S 


1816;     was    graduated     at     Transylvania    Confederates    called   this   the    "  Battle   of 


University,  Lexington,  Ky.,  in  1834,  and 
settled  in  that  city.  He  removed  to  Nat- 
cliez,  Miss.,  in  1846,  and  when  yellow  fever 
broke  out  in  New  Orleans  in  1848,  as 
health-oflicer  of  Natchez  he  ordered  the 
first  quarantine  against  New  Orleans  that 
had  ever  been  established  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley.  He  was  a  surgeon  on  the 
staff  of  the  Confederate  General  Price 
during  the  Civil  War.  When  yellow  fever 
appeared  in  ^lemphis,  he  hastened  to  that 
city,  and  organized  corps  of  physicians  and 
nurses,  and  later  went  to  Hickman,  Ky., 
and  gave  aid  to  the  yellow  fever  sufferers 
there.  In  1879  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Iventucky.  Dr.  Blackburn  established  the 
Blackburn  Sanitarium  for  Nervous  and 
Mental  Diseases  in  1884.  He  died  in 
Frankfort,  Ky.,  Sept.  14,  1887. 

Blackburn's  Tord,  Battle  at.  Pre- 
liminary to  the  severe  conflict  at  Bull 
Run  (July  21,  1861)  was  a  sharp  fight  on 
the  same  stream,  at  Blackburn's  Ford. 
This  ford  was  guarded  by  a  Confederate 
force  under  Gen.  James  Longstreet.  Some 
National  troops  under  Gen.  D.  Tyler,  a 
part  of  McDowell's  advancing  army,  went 
out  towards  this  ford  on  a  reconnoissance 
on  the  18th.  The  troops  consisted  of  Rich- 
ardson's brigade,  a  squadron  of  cavalry, 
and  Ayres's  battery.  Sherman's  brigade 
was  held  in  reserve.  He  found  the  Con- 
federates there  in  strong  force,  partly 
concealed  by  woods.  Hoping  to  draw  their 
fire  and  discover  their  exact  position,  a 
20-pound  gun  of  Ayres's  battery  fired  a 
shot  at  random  among  them.  A  battery 
in  view  only  responded  with  grape-shot. 
Richardson  sent  forward  the  2d  Michigan 
Regiment  as  skirmishers,  who  were  soon 
engaged  in  a  hot  contest  on  low  ground. 
The  3d  Michigan,  1st  Massachusetts,  and 
12th  New  York  pushed  forward,  and  were 
scon  fighting  severely.  Cavalry  and  two 
howitzers  were  fiercely  assailed  by  mus- 
ketry and  a  concealed  battery,  when  the 
Nationals,  greatly  outnumbered,  recoiled 
and  withdrew  behind  Ayres's  battery  on  a 
hill.  Just  then  Sherman  came  up  with  his 
brigade,  when  Ayres's  battery  again  opened 
fire,  and  for  an  hour  an  artillery  duel  was 
kept  up,  the  Confederates  responding,  gun 
for  gun.  Satisfied  that  he  could  not  flank 
the  Confederates.  McDowell  ordered  the 
whole  body  to  fall  back  to  Centreville.   The 


Bull  Run,"  and  that  which  the  Nationals 
designate  by  that  name  they  called  the 
''  Battle  of  Manassas."  The  loss  of  the 
combatants  at  Blackburn's  Ford  was 
nearly  equal  —  that  of  the  Nationals 
seventy  -  three  and  of  the  Confederates 
seventy. 

Blackfeet  Indians,  a  confederacy  of 
North  American  Indians,  also  called  the 
Siksika.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important 
tribes  in  the  Northwest,  and  is  composed 
of  three  divisions:  the  Blackfeet  pi-oper; 
the  Kino,  or  Blood;  and  the  Piegan.  They 
occupy  northern  Montana  and  the  adja- 
cent part  of  Canada,  a  region  extending 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Milk 
River  at  its  junction  with  the  Missouri, 
and  fi-om  the  Belly  and  Saskatchewan 
rivers  in  Canada  to  the  Mussel  Shell 
River  in  Montana.  In  1900  they  were  be- 
lieved to  number  about  7,000.  There  were 
2,022  Bloods  and  Piegans  at  the  Black- 
feet agency  in  Montana,  a  number  of 
Blackfeet  Sioux  at  the  Cheyenne  River 
agency  in  South  Dakota  and  the  Standing 
Rock  agency  in  North  Dakota,  and  the 
Siksika  and  the  remainder  of  the  Bloods, 
or  Kinos,  were  in  Canada. 

Blackmar,  Frank  Wilson,  historian; 
born  in  West  Springfield,  Pa.,  Nov.  3, 
1854;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
the  Pacific  in  1881;  became  Professor  of 
History  and  Sociology  in  the  University 
of  Kansas  in  1889.  He  is  the  author  of 
Spanish  Institutions  in  the  Southwest ; 
Federal  and  State  Aid  to  Higher  Educa- 
tion;  The  Story  of  Human  Progress,  etc. 

Blackstock's,  Battle  at.  In  1780 
General  Sumter  collected  a  small  force 
near  Charlotte,  N.  C,  and  with  these  re- 
turned to  South  Carolina.  (See  Fishing 
Creek.)  For  many  weeks  he  annoyed  the 
British  and  Tories  very  much.  Cornwal- 
lis,  who  called  him  the  "  Carolina  Game- 
cock," tried  hard  to  catch  him.  Tarle- 
ton,  Wemyss,  and  others  were  sent  out 
for  the  purpose.  On  the  night  of  Nov. 
12  Major  Wemyss,  at  the  head  of  a  Brit- 
ish detachment,  fell  upon  him  near  the 
Broad  River,  but  was  repulsed.  Eight 
days  afterwards  he  was  encamped  at 
Blackstock's  plantation,  on  the  Tyger 
River,  in  Union  District,  where  he  was 
joined  by  some  Georgians  under  Colonels 
Clarke  and  Twiggs.     There  he  was  attack- 


355 


BLACKSTONE— BLADENSBURG 


ed  by  Tai'leton,  when  a  severe  battle  en- 
sued (Nov.  20).  The  British  were  re- 
pulsed with  a  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
of  about  300,  while  the  Americans  lost 
only  three  killed  and  five  wounded.  Gen- 
eral Sumter  was  among  the  latter,  and 
was  detained  from  the  field  several 
months. 

Blackstone,  William,  pioneer,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  graduated  at  Emman- 
uel College,  Cambridge,  in  1617,  and  to 
have  become  a  minister  in  the  Church  of 
England.  In  1623  he  removed  from 
Plymouth  to  the  peninsula  of  Shawmut, 
where  Boston  now  stands,  and  was  living 
there  in  1630,  when  Governor  Winthrop 
arrived  at  Charlestown.  On  April  1, 
1633,  he  was  given  a  grant  of  fifty  acres, 
but  not  liking  his  Puritan  neighbors  he 
sold  his  estate  in  1634.  He  then  moved  to 
a  place  a  few  miles  north  of  Providence, 
locating  on  the  river  which  now  bears  his 
name.  He  is  said  to  have  planted  the 
first  orchard  in  Rhode  Island,  and  also  the 
first  one  in  Massachusetts.  He  was  the 
first  white  settler  in  Rhode  Island,  but 
took  no  part  in  the  founding  of  the  colony. 
The  cellar  of  the  house  where  he  lived  is 
still  sho\vn,  and  a  little  hill  near  by  where 
he  was  accustomed  to  read  is  known  as 
"  Study  Hill."  He  died  in  Rehoboth, 
Mass.,  May  26,  1675. 

Blackwater,  Battle  at  the.  Late  in 
1861  the  Department  of  Missouri  was  en- 
larged, and  Gen.  Henry  W.  Halleck  was 
placed  in  command  of  it.  General  Price 
had  been  rapidly  gathering  Confeder- 
ate forces  in  Missouri ;  and  Gen.  John 
Pope  was  placed  in  command  of  a  con- 
siderable body  of  troops  to  oppose  him. 
Pope  acted  with  great  vigor  and  skill.  He 
made  a  short,  sharp,  and  decisive  cam- 
paign. Detachments  from  his  camp  struck 
telling  blows  here  and  there.  One  was 
inflicted  by  Gen.  Jefferson  C.  Davis  on  the 
Blackwater,  near  Milford,  which  much  dis- 
heartened the  Confederates  of  that  State. 
Davis  found  the  Confederates  in  a  wooded 
bottom  opposite  his  own  forces.  He  car- 
ried a  well-guarded  bridge  by  storm,  and 
fell  upon  the  Confederates  with  such  vigor 
that  they  retreated  in  confusion,  and  were 
so  closely  pursued  that  they  surrendered, 
in  number  about  1,300,  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry. The  spoils  of  victory  were  800 
horses  and  mules,  1,000  stand  of  arms,  and 


over  seventy  wagons  loaded  with  tents, 
baggage,  ammunition,  and  supplies  of 
every  kind.  In  a  brief  space  of  time  the 
power  of  the  Confederates  in  that  quarter 
was  paralyzed,  and  Halleck  complimented 
Pope  on  his  "  brilliant  campaign." 

Blackwell,  Antoinette  Louisa  Brown, 
minister;  born  in  Henrietta,  N.  Y.,  May 
20,  1825 ;  was  graduated  at  Oberlin  Col- 
lege, 0.,  in  1847,  and  at  the  Theological 
School  at  Oberlin  in  1850;  began  public 
speaking  in  1846  and  preaching  in  1848. 
She  settled  as  pastor  of  an  orthodox  Con- 
gregational church  at  South  Butler  and 
Savannah,  N.  Y.,  in  1852,  but  resigned 
the  next  year,  and  later  became  a  Unita- 
rian. She  has  been  prominent  in  woman 
suffrage  and  other  movements.  Her  pub- 
lications include  Studies  in  General 
Science;  The  Island  Neighbors;  The  Sexes 
Throughout  Nature;  The  Physical  Basis 
of  Immortality ;  The  Philosophy  of  Indi 
viduality,   etc. 

Bladensburg,  Battle  at.  In  1814 
General  Winder  warned  the  President  and 
his  cabinet  of  the  danger  to  the  national 
capital  from  a  contemplated  invasion  by 
the  British.  The  obstinate  and  opinion- 
ated Secretary  of  War  (Armstrong)  would 
not  listen;  but  when  Admiral  Cochrane 
appeared  in  Chesapeake  Bay  with  a  power- 
ful land  and  naval  force,  the  alarmed 
Secretary  gave  Winder  a  carte  blanche, 
almost,  to  do  as  he  pleased  in  defending 
the  capital.  Com.  Joshua  Barney  was  in 
command  of  a  flotilla  in  the  bay,  composed 
of  an  armed  schooner  and  thirteen  barges. 
These  were  driven  into  the  Patuxent  River, 
up  which  the  flotilla  was  taken  to  a  point 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  British  vessels, 
and  where  it  might  assist  in  the  defence 
of  either  Washington  or  Baltimore,  which- 
ever city  the  British  might  attack.  To 
destroy  this  flotilla,  more  than  5,000  regu- 
lars, marines,  and  negroes  were  landed 
at  Benedict,  with  three  cannon ;  and  the 
British  commander.  Gen.  Robert  Ross, 
boasted  that  he  would  wipe  out  Barney's 
fleet  and  dine  in  Washington  the  next 
Sunday.  The  boast  being  kno^\^l,  great 
exertions  were  made  for  the  defence  of 
the  capital.  General  Winder,  relieved 
from  restraint,  called  upon  the  veteran 
Gen.  Samuel  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  to  bring 
out  his  division  of  militia,  and  General 
Van  Ness,  of  Washington,  was  requested 


550 


BLADENSBURG 


to  station  two  brigades  of  the  militia  of  the  intended  destination  of  the  invaders, 
the  District  of  Columbia  at  Alexandria.  Winder  left  a  force  near  Bladensburg, 
Winder  also  called  for  volunteers  from  all    and    with    other    troops    closely    watched 


the  militia  districts  of  Maryland.  Gen- 
eral Smith  promptly  responded,  but  the 
call  for  volunteers  was  not  very  effectual. 


the  highways  leading  in  other  directions. 

The  anxious  President  and  his  cabinet 
were  awake  that  night,  and  at  dawn  the 


Meanwhile  the  British,  who  had  pursued  next  morning  (Aug.  24),  while  Winder 
Barney  up  the  Patuxent  in  barges,  were  was  in  consultation  with  them  at  his  head- 
disappointed.  Seeing  no  chance  for  escape,  quarters,  a  courier  came  in  hot  haste  to 
the  commodore  blew  up  his  flotilla  at  tell  them  that  the  British  were  marching 
Pig  Point  (Aug.  22,  1814),  and  with  his  on  Bladensburg.  Winder  sent  troops  im- 
men  hastened  to  join  Winder  at  his  head-  mediately  to  reinforce  those  already  there, 
quarters.  When  General  Boss  arrived,  and  soon  followed  in  person.  The  over- 
perceiving  Barney's  flotilla  to  be  a  smok-  whelming  number  of  the  invaders  put  his 
ing  ruin,  he  passed  on  to  upper  Marl-  little  army  in  great  peril.  He  was  com- 
boro,  where  a  road  led  directly  to  Wash-  pelled  to  fight  or  surrender;  he  chose  to 
ington,  D.  C,  leaving  Admiral  Cockburn  fight,  and  at  a  little  past  noon  a  severe 
in  charge  of  the  British  flotilla  of  barges,  contest  began.  The  troops  under  General 
To  oppose  this  formidable  force.  Winder  Winder,  including  those  from  Baltimore 
had  less  than  3,000  effective  men,  most  of  (about  2,200)  and  detachments  at  vari- 
them  undisciplined;  and  he  prudently  re-  ous  points  watching  the  movements  of  the 
treated  towards  Washington,  followed  by  British,  with  the  men  of  Barney's  flotilla, 
Ross,  who  had  been  joined  by  Cockburn  were  about  7,000  strong,  of  whom  900  were 
and  his  sailors  ready  for   plunder.     That    enlisted  men.     But  many  of  these  were  at 

distant  points  of 
observation.  The 
cavalry  did  not 
exceed  400.  The 
little  army  had 
twenty-six  pieces 
of  cannon,  of 
which  twenty 
were  only  6- 
pounders.  With 
these  troops  and 
weapons  Winder 
might  have  driv- 
en back  the  in- 
vaders, had  he 
been  untrammel- 
led by  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  and 
the  rest  of  the 
seemingly  bewil- 
dered cabinet.  As 
the  British  de- 
scended the  hills 
and  pressed  tow- 
ards the  bridge 
at  Bladensburg, 
night  (April  23)  the  British  encamped  they  commenced  hurling  rockets  at  the  ex- 
within  10  miles  of  the  capital.  At  the  posed  Americans.  They  were  repulsed 
latter  place  there  was  great  excitement,  at  first  by  the  American  artillery,  but 
and  there  were  sleepless  vigils  kept  by  leing  continually  reinforced,  they  push- 
soldiers  and  civilians.  Uncertain  whether  ed  across  the  stream  (east  branch  of 
Washington  City  or  Fort  Washington  was    the    Potomac)     in    the    face    of    a    deadly 

357 


THE   BRIDGE   AT  BLADENSBDRG  IN   1861. 


BLADENSBURG    DUELLING    FIELD 


fire.  A  terrible  conflict  ensued,  when  personal  abuse  that  the  latter  was  pro- 
another  shower  of  rockets  made  the  voked  to  a  challenge.  In  the  encounter 
regiments  of  militia  break  and  flee  in  the  member  from  New  York  was  danger- 
the  wildest  disorder.  Winder  tried  in  vain  ously  wounded,  but  subsequently  recov- 
to  rally  them.  Another  corps  held  its  ered,  and,  being  a  great  favorite  with  his 
position  gallantly  for  a  while,  when  it,  too,  constituents,  was  re-elected  to  Congress, 
fled  in  disorder,  covered  by  riflemen.  The  Campbell  was  elected  to  the  Senate  in 
first  and  second  lines  of  the  Americans  1811,  and  in  1814  was  appointed  Secretary 
were  now  dispersed.  The  British  still  of  the  Treasury,  a  position  which  he  re- 
pressed on  and  encountered  Commodore  signed,  however,  after  holding  it  about 
Barney  and  his  gallant  flotilla-men.  After  a  year.  Bladensburg  from  that  time  be- 
a  desperate  struggle,  in  which  the  commo-  came  a  favorite  resort  for  those  whose 
dore  was  severely  wounded.  Winder  or-  wounded  honor  could  find  no  balm  save 
dered  a  general  retreat.  Barney  was  too  through  the  bloody  code  of  the  duello, 
badly  hurt  to  be  removed,  and  was  taken  In  1814  Ensign  Edward  Hopkins,  of  the 
prisoner.     He  was  immediately  paroled.        army,   whose  parents  resided  at  Bladens- 

The  great  body  of  the  Americans  who  burg,  was  shot  on  this  field  within  sight 
were  not  dispersed  retreated  towards  of  his  home.  Feb.  6,  1819,  a  most  pain- 
Montgomery  Court-House,  Md.,  leaving  the  ful  and  desperate  encounter  occurred  there 
battle-field  in  full  possession  of  the  Brit-  between  Gen.  Armistead  T.  Mason  and 
ish.  The  Americans  lost  twenty-six  kill-  Col.  John  M.  McCarty,  who  were  cousins, 
ed  and  fifty  wounded.  The  British  loss  and  both  of  Virginia.  Mason  was  at  the 
was  more  than  500  killed  and  wounded,  time  a  United  States  Senator.  The  two 
among  them  several  officers  of  rank  and  gentlemen  had  quarrelled  at  an  election, 
distinction.  The  battle  lasted  about  four  and  McCarty  was  the  challenger.  It 
hours.  The  principal  troops  engaged  were  was  arranged  that  they  should  fight 
militia  and  volunteers  of  the  District  of  with  muskets,  each  loaded  with  a  single 
Cohimbia;  militia  from  Baltimore,  under  ball,  at  4  paces.  When  in  position 
the  command  of  General  Stansbury;  vari-  the  muzzle  of  their  pieces  nearly  touched, 
ous  detachments  of  Maryland  militia;  and  at  the  word  both  fired  together,  and 
a  regiment  of  Virginia  militia,  under  Mason  fell  dead,  and  McCarty  was  serious- 
Col.  George  Minor,  600  strong,  with  ]y  wounded.  The  famous  Decatur-Barron 
100  cavalry.  The  regular  army  contrib-  duel  occurred  at  Bladensburg,  March  22, 
uted  300  men;  Barney's  flotilla,  400.  There  1820.  Stephen  Decatur  and  James  Barron 
were  120  marines  from  the  Washington  had  both  been  captains  in  the  United 
navy-yard,  with  two  18-pound  and  three  States  navy.  Barron  had  been  found 
12-pound  cannon.  There  were  also  vari-  guilty  of  the  charge  of  neglecting  his  duty 
ous  companies  of  volunteer  cavalry  from  while  in  command  of  the  Chesapeake,  and 
the  District,  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  300  had  been  suspended  from  the  service.  De- 
in  number,  under  Lieutenant-Colonel  Tilgh-  catur  had  served  on  both  the  court  of  in- 
man  and  Majors  O.  H.  Williams  and  C.  quiry  and  the  court-martial  trying  the 
Sterett.  There  was  also  a  squadron  of  case.  Barron  had  subsequently  applied 
United  States  dragoons,  commanded  by  for  restoration  of  his  rank,  and  had  been 
Major  Laval.  opposed    by    Decatur,    not    from    personal 

Bladensburg  Duelling  Field.  The  reasons,  but  from  principles  of  honor, 
first  notable  meeting  on  this  spot  was  in  This  was  the  cause  of  the  enmity  between 
1808,  between  Barent  Gardenier,  member  the  two  officers,  and  a  long  and  bitter 
of  Congress  from  New  York,  and  George  correspondence,  which  finally  culminated 
W.  Campbell,  member  from  Tennessee,  in  a  duel.  They  fought  with  pistols  at 
The  quarrel  was  a  political  one.  Garden-  8  paces,  and  Decatur  was  fatally  and 
ier  was  much  opposed  to  the  embargo  and  his  antagonist  dangerously  wounded  at  the 
attacked  it  fiercely  on  the  fioor  of  Con-  first  fire.  They  held  a  brief  conversation 
gress.  Campbell,  as  one  of  the  leaders  as  they  lay  on  the  ground,  exchanging 
of  the  administration  party,  was  greatly  full  forgiveness  of  each  other.  Before  the 
incensed  at  this  speech.  In  his  reply  he  fatal  shots  were  fired  it  is  said  that  Bar- 
assailed  Gardenier  with  such  a  torrent  of    ron   remarked   to   Decatur   that  he  hoped 

35S 


JAMES   GILLKSPIE    BLAINE. 


j    BLAINE  I 

on  meeting  in  another  world,  they  would  tionists,  and  the  fatal  "  Rum,  Romanism, 
be  better  friends  than  in  this,  to  which  and  Rebellion "  utterance  of  Dr.  Bur- 
Decatur  replied,  "  I  have  never  been  your  chard,  have  all  been  assigned  as  causes  of 
enemy,  sir."  A  number  of  other  duels  his  defeat.  Mr.  Blaine  then  resumed  his 
have  been  fought  at  Bladensburg,  among  literary  work  and  published  his  Twenty 
which  may  be  mentioned  that  between  a  Years  of  Congress,  in  2  volumes,  and  in 
Treasury  clerk  named  Randall  and  a  Mr. 
Fox,  of  Washington,  in  1821,  in  which  the 
latter  was  killed  at  the  first  fire ;  and  that 
between  two  members  of  Congress,  Bynum, 
of  North  Carolina,  and  Jenifer,  of  Mary- 
land, in  1836,  which  was  the  last  meeting 
on  this  famous  field.  This  last  was  fortu- 
nately bloodless;  it  was  brought  about  by 
a  political  quarrel,  and  after  six  shots  had 
been  exchanged  without  damage  to  either 
party  the  affair  was  amicably  settled. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  statesman; 
born  in  West  Brownsville,  Pa.,  Jan.  31, 
1830;  was  graduated  at  Washington  Col- 
lege in  1847 ;  and  passed  several  years  in 
teaching.  In  1854  he  removed  to  Augusta, 
Me.,  and  with  that  State  he  was  thereafter 
identified.  He  edited  the  Kennebec  Jour- 
nal and  the  Portland  Advertiser,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  legislature  from  1859  to 
1862;  in  the  last  two  years  he  was  speaker 
of  the  House,  and  about  the  same  time  he 
became  powerful  in  the  Republican  or- 
ganization of  the  State.  His  service  in  the  name  for  a  renomination,  but  received 
national  House  of  Representatives  extend-  some  votes  nevertheless.  President  Har- 
ed  from  1863  to  1876,  and  in  the  United  rison  in  1889  called  him  to  his  old  port- 
States  Senate  from  1876  to  1881.  Blaine  folio  in  the  Department  of  State.  The 
was  among  the  most  aggressive  of  the  salient  points  in  his  adnynistration  were 
party  leaders,  was  a  ready  debater,  and  the  Pan-American  schemes  and  the  doc- 
an  expert  in  parliamentary  law.  From  trine  of  reciprocity.  Secretary  Blaine 
1869  to  1875  he  was  speaker.  In  1876  he  suddenly  resigned  in  1892,  and  was  an  un- 
was  one  of  the  chief  candidates  for  the  successful  candidate  for  ^  the  nomination 
Presidential  nomination,  but  he  and  Bris-  for  President  that  year,  being  defeated 
tow,  the  leaders,  were  set  aside  for  Hayes,  by  Harrison.  He  died  in  Washington, 
In  1880  Grant  and  Blaine  were  the  can-  D.  C,  Jan.  27,  1893.  Blaine  was  celebrat- 
didates  respectively  of  the  two  great  wings  ed  for  his  personal  "  magnetism,"  and  af- 
of  the  party,  and  again  a  "  dark  horse,"  ter  1876  was  universally  known  as  the 
Garfield,  was  selected.  President  Garfield  '"'  Plumed  Knight,"  a  phrase  applied  to 
appointed  Senator  Blaine  Secretary  of  him  by  Robert  G.  Ingersoll  in  nominating 
State,  which  post  he  resigned  in  December,  him  for  the  Presidency.  See  Protection. 
1881,  soon  after  the  accession  of  President  Oration  on  President  Garfield. — The  fol- 
Arthur.  In  1884  Mr.  Blaine  received  lowing  is  the  concluding  portion  of  Mr. 
the  Presidential  nomination  on  the  fourth  Blaine's  oration,  delivered  before  both 
ballot.      An    extraordinary   campaign    fol-    Houses  of  Congress  on  Feb.  27,  1882: 

lowed  between  his  adherents  and  those  of  

Gov.  Grover  Cleveland,  the  Democratic  Garfield's  ambition  for  the  success  of 
candidate,  and  the  election  turned  on  the  his  administration  was  high.  With  strong 
result  in  New  York,  which  was  lost  to  Mr.  caution  and  conservatism  in  his  nature, 
Blaine  by  1,047  votes.  The  defection  of  he  was  in  no  danger  of  attempting  rash 
the  Mugwumps,  the  vote  of  the  Prohibi-    experiments  or  of  resorting  to  the  empiri- 

359 


1888    positively    declined    the    use    of    his 


BLAINE,    JAMES    GILLESPIE 


cism  of  statesmanship.  But  he  believed  or  of  loss  to  others.  Least  of  all  men  did 
that  renewed  and  closer  attention  should  he  harbor  revenge,  rarely  did  he  even 
be  given  to  questions  affecting  the  ma-  show  resentment,  and  malice  was  not  in 
terial  interests  and  commercial  prospects  his  nature.  He  was  congenially  employed 
of  50,000,000  people.  He  believed  that  only  in  the  exchange  of  good  offices  and 
our  continental  relations,  extensive  and  the  doing  of  kindly  deeds, 
undeveloped  as  they  are,  involved  respon-  There  was  not  an  hour,  from  the  begin- 
sibility,  and  could  be  cultivated  into  ning  of  the  trouble  till  the  fatal  shot  en- 
profitable  friendship  or  be  abandoned  to  tered  his  body,  when  the  President  would 
harmful  indifference  or  lasting  enmity,  not  gladly,  for  the  sake  of  restoring  har- 
He  believed  with  equal  confidence  that  an  mony,  have  retraced  any  step  he  had  taken 
essential  forerunner  to  a  new  era  of  na-  if  such  retracing  had  merely  involved  con- 
tional  progress  must  be  a  feeling  of  con- 
tentment in  every  section  of  the  Union, 
and  a  generous  belief  that  the  benefits  and 
burdens  of  government  would  be  common 
to  all.  Himself  a  conspicuous  illustration 
of  what  ability  and  ambition  may  do  under 
republican  institutions,  he  loved  his  coun- 
try with  a  passion  of  patriotic  devotion, 
and  every  waking  thought  was  given  to  her 
advancement.  He  was  an  American  in  all 
his  aspirations,  and  he  looked  to  the  des- 
tiny  and   influence   of   the   United   States 


sequences  personal  to  himself.  .  .  . 

The  religious  element  in  Garfield's  char- 
acter was  deep  and  earnest.  In  his  early 
youth  he  espoused  the  faith  of  the  Dis- 
ciples, a  sect  of  that  great  Baptist  com- 
munion which  in  different  ecclesiastical 
establishments  is  so  numerous  and  so 
influential  throughout  all  parts  of  the 
United  States.  .  .  . 

The  liberal  tendency  which  he  antici- 
pated as  the  result  of  wider  culture  was 
fully  realized.  He  was  emancipated  from 
with  the  philosophic  composure  of  Jeffer-  mere  sectarian  belief,  and  with  eager  in- 
son  and  the  demonstrative  confidence  of  terest  pushed  his  investigations  in  the  di- 
John  Adams.  roction  of  modern  progressive  thought.   He 

The  political  events  which  disturbed  the  followed  with  quickening  step  in  the  paths 
President's  serenity  for  many  weeks  before  of  exploration  and  speculation  so  fearless- 
that  fateful  day  in  July  form  an  inipor-  ly  trodden  by  Darwin,  by  Huxley,  by  Tyn- 
tant  chapter  in  his  career,  and,  in  his  own  dall,  and  by  other  living  scientists  of  the 
judgment,  involved  questions  of  principle  radical  and  advanced  type.  His  own 
and  of  right  which  are  vitally  essential  to  Church,  binding  its  disciples  by  no  formu- 
the  constitutional  administration  of  the  lated  creed,  but  accepting  the  Old  and 
federal  government.  It  would  be  out  of  New  Testaments  as  the  word  of  God,  with 
place  here  and  now  to  speak  the  language  unbiased  liberality  of  private  interpreta- 
of  controversy;  but  the  events  referred  to,  tion,  favored,  if  it  did  not  stimulate,  the 
however  they  may  continue  to  be  a  source  spirit  of  investigation.  .  .  . 
of  contention  with  others,  have  become.  The  crowning  characteristic  of  General 
so  far  as  Garfield  is  concerned,  as  much  a    Garfield's    religious    opinions,    as,    indeed, 


matter  of  history  as  his  heroism  at 
Chickamauga,  or  his  illustrious  service  in 
the  House.  Detail  is  not  needful,  and  per- 
sonal antagonism  shall  not  be  rekindled 
by  any  word  uttered  to-day.  The  motives 
of  those  opposing  him  are  not  to  be  here 
adversely  interpreted  nor  their  course 
harshly  characterized.  But  of  the  dead 
President  this  is  to  be  said,  and  said  be- 


of  all  his  opinions,  was  his  liberality.  In 
all  things  he  had  charity.  Tolerance  was 
of  his  nature.  He  respected  in  others  the 
qualities  which  he  possessed  himself — sin- 
cerity of  conviction  and  frankness  of  ex- 
pression. With  him  the  inquiry  was  not 
so  much  Avhat  a  man  believes,  but  does  he 
believe  it?  The  lines  of  his  friendship  and 
his  confidence  encircled  men  of  every  creed. 


cause  his  own   speech   is   forever   silenced  and  men  of  no  creed,  and  to  the  end  of 

and    he    can    be    no    more    heard    except  his   life,   on   his   ever  -  lengthening  list   of 

through  the  fidelity  and  love  of  surviving  friends,  were  to  be  found  the  names  of  a 

friends:  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  pious   Catholic   priest   and   of   an   honest- 

the  controversy  he  so  much  deplored,  the  minded  and  generous-hearted  free-thinker. 

President  was  never  for  one  moment  actu-  On  the  morning  of  Saturday.  July  2,  the 

ated   by   any    motive   of   gain    to   himself  President  was  a  contented  and  happy  man 

3G0 


BLAINE,   JAMES  GILLESPIE 


— not  in  an  ordinary  degi'ee,  but  joyfully, 
almost  boyishly  happy.  On  his  way  to 
the  railroad  station,  to  which  he  drove 
slowly,  in  conscious  enjoyment  of  the  beau- 
tiful morning,  with  an  unwonted  sense  of 
leisure  and  a  keen  anticipation  of  pleas- 
ure, his  talk  was  all  in  the  grateful  and 
gratulatory  vein.  He  felt  that  after  four 
months  of  trial  his  administration  was 
strong  in  its  grasp  of  affairs,  strong  in 
popular  favor,  and  destined  to  grow 
stronger;  that  grave  difficulties  confronting 
him  at  his  inauguration  had  been  safely 
passed;  that  trouble  lay  behind  him  and 
not  before  him;  that  he  was  soon  to  meet 
the  wife  whom  he  loved,  now  recovering 
from  an  illness  which  had  but  lately  dis- 
quieted and  at  times  almost  unnerved 
him;  that  he  was  going  to  his  Alma  Mater 
to  renew  the  most  cherished  associations 
of  his  young  manhood,  and  to  exchange 
greetings  with  those  whose  deepening  in- 
terest had  followed  every  step  of  his  up- 
ward progress  from  the  day  he  entered 
upon  his  college  course  until  he  had  at- 
tained the  loftiest  elevation  in  the  gift  of 
his  countrymen. 

Surely,  if  happiness  can  ever  come  from 
the  honors  or  triumphs  of  this  world,  on 
that  quiet  July  morning,  James  A.  Gar- 
field may  well  have  been  a  happy  man.  No 
foreboding  of  evil  haunted  him:  nor 
slightest  premonition  of  danger  clouded 
his  sky.  His  terrible  fate  was  upon  him 
in  an  instant.  One  moment  he  stood  erect, 
strong,  confident  in  the  years  stretching 
peacefully  out  before  him.  The  next  he 
lay  wounded,  bleeding,  helpless,  doomed  to 
weary  weeks  of  torture,  to  silence,  and  the 
grave. 

Great  in  life,  he  was  surpassingly  great 
in  death.  For  no  cause,  in  the  very  frenzy 
of  wantonness  and  wickedness,  by  the  red 
hand  of  murder,  he  was  thrust  from  the 
full  tide  of  this  world's  interest,  from  its 
hopes,  its  aspirations,  its  victories,  into 
the  visible  presence  of  death — and  he  did 
not  quail.  Not  alone  for  the  one  short 
moment  in  which,  stunned  and  dazed,  he 
could  give  up  life,  hardly  aware  of  its  re- 
linquishment, but  tlirough  days  of  deadly 
languor,  through  weeks  of  agony,  that  was 
not  less  agony  because  silently  borne,  with 
clear  sight  and  calm  courage,  he  looked 
into  his  open  grave.  What  blight  and 
ruin  met  his  anguished  eyes,   whose  lips 


may  tell — what  brilliant  broken  plans, 
what  baffled  high  ambitions,  what  sunder- 
ing of  strong,  warm  manhood's  friend- 
ships, what  bitter  rending  of  sweet  house- 
hold ties!  Behind  him  a  proud,  expectant 
nation,  a  great  host  of  sustaining  friends, 
a  cherished  and  happy  mother,  wearing 
the  full,  rich  honors  of  her  early  toil  and 
tears;  the  wife  of  his  youth,  whose  whole 
life  lay  in  his;  the  little  boys  not  yet 
emerged  from  childhood's  day  of  frolic;  the 
fair  young  daughter ;  the  sturdy  sons  just 
springing  into  closest  companionship, 
claiming  every  day  and  every  day  reward- 
ing a  father's  love  and  care;  and  in  his 
heart  the  eager,  rejoicing  power  to  meet 
all  demand.  Before  him,  desolation  and 
great  darkness!  And  his  sovil  was  not 
shaken.  His  countrymen  were  thrilled 
with  instant,  profound,  and  universal  sym- 
pathy. Masterful  in  his  mortal  weakness, 
he  became  the  centre  of  a  nation's  love,  en- 
shrined in  the  prayers  of  a  world.  But  all 
the  love  and  all  the  sympathy  could  not 
share  with  him  his  suflFering.  He  trod  the 
wine-press  alone.  With  unfaltering  front 
he  faced  death.  With  unfailing  tenderness 
he  took  leave  of  life.  Above  the  demoniac 
hiss  of  the  assassin's  bullet  he  heard  the 
voice  of  God.  With  simple  resignation  he 
bowed  to  the  divine  decree. 

As  the  end  drew  near,  his  early  craving 
for  the  sea  returned.  The  stately  mansion 
of  power  had  been  to  him  the  wearisome 
hospital  of  pain,  and  he  begged  to  be  taken 
from  its  prison  walls,  from  its  oppressive, 
stifling  air,  from  its  homelessness  and  its 
helplessness.  Gently,  silently,  the  love  of 
a  great  people  bore  the  pale  sufferer  to 
the  longed-for  healing  of  the  sea,  to  live 
or  to  die,  as  God  should  will,  within  sight 
of  its  heaving  billows,  within  sound  of  its 
manifold  voices.  With  wan,  fevered  face 
tenderly  lifted  to  the  cooling  breeze,  he 
looked  out  wistfully  upon  the  ocean's 
changing  wonders;  on  its  far  sails,  whiten- 
ing in  the  morning  light;  on  its  restless 
waves,  rolling  shoreward  to  break  and 
die  beneath  the  noonday  sun;  on  the  red 
clouds  of  evening,  arching  low  to  the 
horizon;  on  the  serene  and  shining  path- 
way of  the  stars.  Let  us  think  that  his 
dying  eyes  read  a  mystic  meaning  which 
only  the  rapt  and  parting  soul  may  know. 
Let  us  believe  that  in  the  silence  of  the 
receding  world  he  heard  the  great  waves 


361 


BLAIR 


breaking  on  a  farther  shore,  and  felt  al-  land  in   1656;   was  sent  to  Virginia  as  a 

ready  on  his  wasted  brow  the  breath  of  missionary  in  1685;  and  in  1692  obtained 

the  eternal  morning.  the  charter  of  William  and  Mary  College, 

Blair,  Francis  Pkeston,  statesman;  of  which  he  was  the  first  president.  He 
born  in  Abingdon,  Va.,  April  12,  1791;  published  The  State  of  His  Majesty's 
was  originally  a  supporter  of  Henry  Clay,  Colony  in  Virginia,  in  1727.  He  died  in 
but  became  an  ardent  Jackson  man  in  Williamsburg,  Va.,  Aug.  1,  1743. 
consequence  of  the  agitation  over  the  Blair,  John,  jurist;  born  in  Williams- 
Bank  of  the  United  States  {q.  v.),  and  burg,  Va.,  in  1732;  was  educated  at  the 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  President  estab-  College  of  William  and  Mary;  studied  law 
lished  The  Glohe  in  Washington,  D.  C,  at  the  Temple,  London;  soon  rose  to  the 
which  was  the  recognized  organ  of  the  first  rank  as  a  lawyer ;  was  a  member 
Democratic  party  until  1845,  when  Presi-  of  the  House  of  Burgesses  as  early  as  1765, 
dent  Polk  displaced  him.  The  Spanish  and  was  one  of  the  dissolved  Virginia  As- 
mission  was  offered  to  Mr.  Blair  by  the  sembly  who  met  at  the  Raleigh  Tavern,  in 
President,  but  refused.  In  1864  his  efforts  the  summer  of  1774,  and  drafted  the  Vir- 
led  to  the  unsatisfactory  peace  conference  ginia  non-importation  agreement.  He  was 
of  Feb.  3,  1865.  He  died  in  Silver  Spring,  one  of  the  committee  who,  in  June,  1776, 
Md.,  Oct.  18,  1876.  drew  up  the  plan  for  the  Virginia  State 

Blair,   Francis  Preston,  Jr.,  military  government,   and   in    1777   was    elected   a 

officer;   born  in  Lexington,   Ky.,   Feb.    19,  judge  of  the  Court  of  Appeals;  then  chief- 

1821;  was  educated  at  the  College  of  New  justice,  and,  in  1780,  a  judge  of  the  High 

Jersey,  and  took  an  active  part  in  politics  Court   of   Chancery.     He   was   one   of   the 

early  in  life.  The  Free-soil  Party  (g.  v.)  framers  of  the  national  Constitution;  and, 

at  St.  Louis  elected  him  to  a  seat  in  Con-  in    1789,    Washington    appointed    him    a 

gress  in  1856,  and  he  acted  and  voted  with  judge  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 

the  Republicans  several  years.     He  joined  He  resigned  his  seat  on  the  bench  of  that 

the  Union  army  in  1861,  and  rose  to  the  court  in   1796,  and  died  in  Williamsburg, 

rank  of  major-general   of  volunteers.     In  Va.,  Aug.   31,   1800. 

1864  he  commanded  a  corps  of  Sherman's  Blair,  John  Insley,  philanthropist; 
army  in  the  campaign  against  Atlanta,  born  near  Belvidere,  N.  J.,  Aug.  22,  1802; 
and  in  his  march  to  the  sea.  Having  became  a  merchant  and  banker  early  in 
joined  the  Democratic  party,  he  was  its  life,  and  in  his  latter  years  was  the  in- 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presi-  dividual  o^^^ler  of  a  greater  amount  of 
dency  in  1868.  In  January,  1871,  he  was  railroad  property  than  any  other  man  in 
chosen  United  States  Senator.  He  died  in  the  world.  He  loaned  more  than  $1,000,- 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  July  8,  1875.  000    to    the    federal    government    in    the 

Blair,     Henry     William,     legislator;  early  part  of  the  Civil  War;    built  and 

born  in  Campton,  N.  H.,  Dec.  6,  1834;  en-  endowed    the    Presbyterian    Academy    at 

listed  in  the  15th  New  Hampshire  Volun-  Blair stown,  N.  J.,  at  a  cost  of  more  than 

teers  at  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War,  and  $600,000;     rebuilt     Grinnell     College,     in 

became    lieutenant-colonel ;    was    wounded  Iowa ;   and  erected  Blair  Hall  for  Prince- 

at   Fort   Hudson.     He   was   a   member   of  ton    University.     He   was   equally   liberal 

Congress   in    1875-79,   and   of  the   United  to  Lafayette  College.     He  is  said  to  have 

States    Senate   in    1879-91.      He   was   the  built  more  than   100  churches  in  various 

author  of  the  famous  illiteracy  bill  which  parts  of  the  West,  and  founded  many  vil- 

proposed  to  distribute  $77,000,000  to  the  lages   and   to"\Anis   along   the   lines    of   his 

States    in   pi'oportion    to    their    illiteracy,  many  railroads.     He  died  in  Blairsto^vn, 

This  bill  was  passed  by  the  Senate  three  N.  J.,  Dec.  2,  1899. 

times,  but  failed  to  become  a  law.     Sen-        Blair,    Montgomery,    statesman ;    born 

ator   Blair   was   appointed   United    States  in  Franklin  county,  Ky.,  May  10,   1813; 

minister   to   China,   but   resigned,    as   the  was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 

Chinese   government   objected   to   him   be-  tary  Academy  in  1835,  and  served  a  while 

cause   of    his    opposition    to    Chinese    im-  in  the  2d  Artillery  in  Florida,  against  the 

migration  to  the  United  States.  Seminole  Indians.     He  resigned  in   1836; 

Blair,   James,  educator;   born  in   Scot-  became  a  practising  la^vyer  in  St.  Louis, 

362 


BLAKE— BLAKELY 


Mo.,  in  1837;  from  1839  to  1843  was 
United  States  district  attorney  for  the 
district  of  Missouri,  and  was  judge  of  the 
St.  Louis  Court  of  Common  Pleas  from 
1843  to  1849.  In  1842  he  was  mayor  of 
St.  Louis.  President  Pierce  appointed 
him  solicitor  to  the  United  States  Court 
of  Claims  in  18.55,  but,  becoming  a  Repub- 
lican, President  Buchanan  removed  him. 
Mr.  Blair  was  counsel  for  the  plaintiffs 
in  the  famous  Dred  Scott  case  (q.  v.) . 
He  was  appointed  Postmaster-General  in 
March,  1861,  and  served  about  three  years. 
He  died  in  Silver  Spring,  Md.,  July  27, 
1883. 

Blake,  Homer  Crane,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Cleveland,  0.,  Feb.  1,  1822;  en- 
tered the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1840; 
was  promoted  lieutenant-commander  in 
1862,  and  in  1863,  while  in  command  of 
the  Hatteras,  off  Galveston,  Tex.,  was  or- 
dered to  chase  a  suspicious  vessel,  which 
proved  to  be  the  Confederate  cruiser 
Alabama.  The  Hatteras  was  no  match 
for  the  cruiser,  and  Blake  was  obliged  to 
surrender.  Within  ten  minutes  of  his 
surrender  the  Hatteras  went  down.  He 
died  Jan.  21,  1880. 

Blake,  Lillie  Devereux  Um  stead,  re- 
former; born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C,  in  1835. 
In  1869  she  became  active  in  the  woman 
suffrage  movement,  and  was  president  of 
the  New  York  State  Woman  Suffrage  As- 
sociation for  many  years.  She  first  mar- 
ried Frank  G.  Quay  Umstead  (died  in 
1859),  and  then  in  1866  Grenfill  Blake 
(died  in  1896).  Her  writings  include 
Bouthioold ;  Rockford;  Fettered  for  Life; 
Woman's  Place  To-day,  a  reply  to  Dr. 
Morgan  Dix's  Lenten  Lectures  on  Women, 
etc.  In  1901  she  was  president  of  the 
Civic  and  Equality  Union. 

Blake,  William  Phipps,  mineralogist; 
born  in  New  York,  June  1,  1826;  was 
graduated  at  Yale  Scientific  School  in 
1852.  He  was  the  geologist  and  mineral- 
ogist for  the  United  States  Pacific  Rail- 
road expedition  in  1853;  edited  the  Mining 
Magazine  in  1859-60;  and  afterwards  en- 
gaged in  mining,  engineering,  and  explora- 
tion. In  1864  he  became  Professor  of 
Mineralogy  and  Geology  in  the  College  of 
California.  In  1901  he  was  director  of 
the  School  of  Mines  in  the  University  of 
Arizona,  and  also  Territorial  geologist.  He 
has  been  identified  with  the  great  inter- 


national expositions  since  1853.  He  is  the 
author  of  Geological  Reconnoissance  of 
California;  Silver-Ores  and  Silver-Mines; 
Ceramic  Art  and  Glass;  Life  of  Captain 
Jonathan  Mix,  etc. 

Blakeley,  Johnston,  naval  officer; 
born  at  Seaford,  Down,  Ireland,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1771;  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Carolina,  and  entered  the 
navy,  as  midshipman,  Feb.  5,  1800.  He 
was  made  lieutenant  in  1807,  master-com- 
mander in  1813,  and  captain  in  1814. 
He  commanded  the  brig  Enterprise  in 
protecting  the  American  coast-trade.  In 
August,  1814,  he  was '  appointed  to  the 
command   of    the    Wasp,    which    captured 


JOHNSTON   BLAKELEY. 


the^  Reindeer.  For  this  exploit  Congress 
voted  him  a  gold  medal.  Capturing  the 
brig  Atlanta  on  Sept.  21,  that  vessel 
was  sent  to  Savannah,  and  brought 
the '  last  intelligence  of  the  Wasp.  It 
is  supposed  she  foundered  in  a  gale, 
as  no  tidings  were  ever  heard  of  her  after- 
wards. 

Blakely,  Battle  of.  Ever  since 
Steele's  arrival  from  Pensacola  Blakely 
had  been  held  in  a  state  of  siege.  By  the 
fall  of  Spanish  Fort,  water  communica- 
tion between  Blakely  and  Mobile  had  been 
cut  off.  It  was  defended  by  abatis,  chev- 
aux-de-frise,    and    torpedoes,    and    had    a 


363 


BLANCO— BLAND 


ditch  in  the  rear  of  these.  In  front  of 
these  Canby  formed  a  strong  line  of  bat- 
tle, Hawkins's  negro  troops  being  on  the 
right,  the  divisions  of  Veatch  and  An- 
drews in  the  centre,  and  Garrard's  division 
on  the  left.  On  Sunday  afternoon,  April 
8,  1865,  when  the  assault  began,  a  heavy 
thunder-storm  was  gathering.  There  was 
a  fierce  struggle  with  obstacles  in  front  of 
the  fort.  The  whole  National  line  partici- 
pated in  the  assault.  Great  guns  were 
making  fearful  lanes  through  their  ranks. 
Tempests  of  grape  and  canister  from  the 
armament  of  the  fort  made  dreadful  havoc. 
At  length  the  colored  brigade  were  ordered 
to  carry  the  works.  They  sprang  forward 
with  the  shout,  "Remember  Fort  Pillow!" 
They  went  over  the  Confederate  embank- 
ments, scattering  everything  before  them. 
The  victory  for  the  Nationals  was  com- 
plete. The  struggle  had  been  brief  but 
very  severe.  The  Nationals  lost  about 
1,000  men;  the  Confederates,  500.  The 
spoils  were  nearly  forty  pieces  of  artillery, 
4.000  small-arms,  sixteen  battle-flags,  and 
a  vast  quantity  of  ammunition. 

Blanco,  Ramon  y  Arenas,  military 
officer;  born  in  San  Sebastian,  Spain,  in 
1833;  entered  the  army  as  a  lieutenant  in 
1855;  was  made  a  captain  in  1858;  and 
in  the  war  with  San  Domingo  gained  pro- 
motion to  lieutenant-colonel.  In  1894  he 
was  sent  to  the  Philippines  as  governor- 
general  of  the  province  of  Mindanao.  His 
career  in  the  Philippines  <vas  characterized 
by  acts  of  extreme  cruelty.  For  his  ser- 
vice there  he  was  appointed  a  marshal  in 
1895.  Unable  to  quell  the  rebellion  in  the 
islands,  he  resigned  his  office,  and,  return- 
ing to  Spain,  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  the  North.  He  there 
made  a  brilliant  record  against  the  Carl- 
ists,  and  carried  by  storm  Peila  Plata. 
For  this  achievement  he  was  created  Mar- 
quis de  Pena  Plata.  In  October,  1897,  he 
succeeded  Gen.  Valeriano  Weyler  {q.  v.) 
as  governor-general  of  Cuba.  One  of  his 
earliest  acts  after  assuming  authority 
there  was  a  reluctant  acquiescence  in  the 
desire  of  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
as  expressed  by  their  Congress,  to  provide 
the  reconcentrados  with  food,  clothing, 
and  medical  supplies.  President  McKin- 
ley  appointed  a  Central  Cuban  Relief  Com- 
mittee to  raise  funds  for  purchasing  the 
various    articles    needed,    and    these   were 


forwarded   to   the   island   and   distributed 
under  the  direction  of  Clara  Barton. 

When  the  Maine  was  blown  up  in  the 
harbor  of  Havana,  Blanco  summoned  the 
troops  and  firemen  of  the  city  to  aid  in 
the  rescue  of  the  survivors,  and  expressed 


BAMON  T  ARENAS   BLANCO. 

strong  regrets  on  the  appalling  disaster. 
After  the  United  States  made  the  declara- 
tion of  war,  he  assumed  command  of  all 
troops  and  military  operations  on  the 
island.  It  has  been  stated  that  it  was 
by  his  imperative  commands,  supported  by 
orders  from  Madrid,  of  a  similar  tenor, 
that  Admiral  Cervera  {q.  v.)  made  the 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  escape  from  San- 
tiago Harbor  with  his  fleet.  After  the 
surrender  of  the  Spanish  army  at  Santi- 
ago, Blanco  asked  to  be  relieved  of  his 
command,  on  the  ground  that  having 
urged  the  Cubans  to  maintain  the  war,  it 
would  be  difficult  for  him  to  prepare  them 
for  the  conditions  involved  in  the  protocol 
of  peace.  His  resignation  was  accepted, 
and  the  duty  of  formally  transferring 
Cuba  to  the  protection  of  the  United 
States  was  devolved  upon  a  subordinate 
officer,  Blanco  returning  to  Spain.  See 
Cuba. 

Bland,  Richard,  statesman;  born  in 
Virginia,May  6,1710;  was  educated  at  the 
College  of  William  and  Mary;  became  a 
fine  classical  scholar,  and  was  an  oracle 
touching  the  rights  of  the  colonies.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Burgesses 
from  1745  until  his  death — a  period  of 
thirty-one  years ;  and  he  was  one  of  the 
most  active  of  its  patriotic  members.  In 
1774  he  was  a  delesrate  in  the  Continental 
Congress,  but  declined  to  serve  the  next 
year.     In    1766   he   published   one   of   the 


364 


BLAND— BLEDSOE 


ablest  tracts  of  the  time,  entitled  An  In- 
quiry into  the  Rights  of  the  British  Colo- 
nies. He  died  in  Williamsburg,  Va.,  Oct. 
26,  1776. 

Bland,  Richard  Parks,  lawyer;  born 
near  Hartford,  Ky.,  Aug.  19,  1835;  re- 
ceived an  academic  education,  and  later 
settled  in  Nevada,  beginning  the  practice 
of  law  in  Virginia  City.  Removing  to 
Missouri,  he  practised  law  in  Rolla  in 
1865-69,  and  then  at  Lebanon.  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1873-95,  and  from 
1897  till  his  death;  and  was  the  recog- 
nized leader  in  the  House  of  the  free-silver 
movement.  At  the  National  Democratic 
Convention  in  1896  he  received  many  votes 
for  the  Presidential  nomination,  which  was 
ultimately  given  to  William  J.  Bryan 
iq.  v.).  Mr.  Bland  was  the  author  of  the 
free-silver  coinage  bill,  which  afterwards 
became  known  as  the  Bland-Allison  act. 
He  died  in  Lebanon,  Mo.,  June  15,  1899. 
See  Bland  Silver  Bill. 

Bland,  Tiieodoric,  military  officer; 
born  in  Prince  George  county,  Va.,  in 
1742;  was,  by  his  maternal  side,  fourth 
in  descent  from  Pocahontas  {q.  v.),  his 
mother  being  Jane  Rolfe.  John  Randolph 
was  his  nephew.  He  received  the  degree 
of  M.D.  at  Edinburgh,  returned  home  in 
1764,  and  practised  medicine.  Bland  led 
volunteers  in  opposing  Governor  Dunmore, 
and  published  some  bitter  letters  against 
that  officer  over  the  signature  of  "  Cas- 
sius."  He  became  captain  of  the  1st 
Troop  of  Virginia  cavalry,  and  joined  the 
jiain  Continental  army  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  1777.  Brave,  vigilant,  and  judi- 
cious, he  was  intrusted  with  the  command 
of  Burgoyne's  captive  troops  at  Albemarle 
Barracks  in  Virginia;  and  was  member  of 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1780-83.  In 
the  legislature  and  in  the  convention  of 
his  State  he  opposed  the  adoption  of  the 
national  Constitution;  but  represented 
Virginia  in  the  first  Congress  held  under 
it,  dying  while  it  was  in  session.  Colonel 
Bland  was  a  poet  as  well  as  a.  soldier  and 
patriot.  The  Bland  Papers,  containing 
many  valuable  memorials  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, were  edited  and  published  by  Charles 
Campbell  in  1840-43.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  June  1,  1790. 

Bland  Silver  Bill,  the  original  title  of 
a  notable  financial  measure  drawn  up  by 
Representative    Richard    P.    Bland,    and 


passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives  in 
1877.  It  was  the  culmination  of  a  long 
agitation  in  and  out  of  Congress  for  the 
free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  by  all 
the  mints  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
bill  originally  provided  simply  for  such 
coinage.  The  coinage  of  the  silver  dol- 
lar had  been  abandoned  since  its  demon- 
etization by  an  act  of  Congress  in  1873, 
and  the  leading  bimetallists  were  anxious 
to  have  it  restored  and  placed  on  an  equal- 
ity with  the  gold  dollar  as  a  standard  of 
value.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  Bland 
bill  these  objects  were  expected  to  be  ac- 
complished. When,  however,  the  bill  was 
sent  to  the  Senate,  it  received  a  treatment 
directly  opposite  to  its  original  purpose, 
because  the  clause  providing  for  the  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  was  strick- 
en out;  but  the  bimetallists  in  the  Senate 
succeeded  in  amending  the  bill  to  the  ex- 
tent that  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
should  be  directed  to  purchase  monthly 
not  less  than  $2,000,000  and  not  more 
than  $4,000,000  worth  of  silver  bullion. 
The  quantity  purchased  should  be  paid  for 
at  the  market  price  of  the  metal;  should 
be  coined  into  standard  silver  dollars;  and 
these  should  be  recognized  as  unlimited 
legal  tender  for  all  debts.  The  measure  was 
adopted  by  both  Houses ;  was  vetoed  by 
President  Hayes,  and  on  Feb.  28,  1878,  was 
passed  over  his  veto  by  a  vote  of  196  to 
73  in  the  House,  and  of  46  to  19  in  the 
Senate.  The  act  remained  in  force  till 
1890,  when  the  obligation  to  purchase  and 
coin  the  silver  metal  was  repealed  by  what 
is  known  as  the  Sherman  act.  See  Al- 
lison, William  Boyd;  Sherman,  John. 

Blatchford,  Samuel,  jurist;  born  in 
New  York  City,  March  9,  1820;  justice  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  1882- 
95.  He  died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  July  7, 
1893. 

Bledsoe,  Albert  Taylor,  educator; 
born  in  Frankfort,  Ky.,  Nov.  9.  1809; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1830,  and 
served  in  the  army  about  two  years,  when 
he  resigned ;  appointed  a  colonel  in  the 
Confederate  army  in  1861,  and  soon  made 
Assistant  Secretary  of  War.  In  1863 
he  went  to  England  and  did  not  re- 
turn until  1866.  Among  his  writings 
are  Is  Davis  a  Traitor?  Liberty  and  Sla- 
very, etc.  He  died  in  Alexandria,  Va., 
Dec.  8,  1877. 


365 


BLENKER— BLIND 


Blenker,  Louis,  military  officer;  born 
in  Worms,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Germany, 
July  31,  1812;  was  one  of  the  Bavarian 
Legion,  raised  to  accompany  King  Otho 
to  Greece.  In  1848-49,  he  became  a  leader 
of  the  revolutionists,  and  finally  fled  to 
Switzerland.  Ordered  to  leave  that  coun- 
try (September,  1849),  he  came  to  the 
United  States.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War  he  raised  a  regiment,  and,  early 
in  July,  1861,  was  put  at  the  head  of  a 
brigade,  chiefly  of  Germans.  In  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  he  commanded  a  division 
for  a  while,  which  was  sent  to  western 
Virginia,  and  participated  in  the  battle 
of  Cross  Keys  (q.  v.).  He  died  in  Rock- 
land county,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,   1863. 

Blennerhassett,  Harman,  scholar ; 
born  in  Hampshire,  England,  Oct.  8,  1764 
or  1765;  was  of  Irish  descent;  educated  at 
the  University  of  Dublin ;  studied  law  and 
practised  there;  and  in  1796  married  Mar- 
garet Agnew,  granddaughter  of  General 
Agnew,  who  was  killed  in  the  battle  at 
Germantown,  1777.  He  was  a  republican 
in  principle,  although  his  family  connec- 
tions   were    all    royalists.      He    sold    his 


sett  and  his  wife  became  fugitives  in  1807. 
He  was  prosecuted  as  an  accomplice  of 
Burr,  but  was  discharged.  Then  he  be- 
came a  cotton-planter  near  Port  Gibson, 
Miss.,  but  finally  lost  his  fortune,  and,  in 
1819,  went  to  Montreal,  and  there  began 
the  practice  of  law.  In  1822;  he  and  his 
wife  went  to  the  West  Indies.  Thence 
they  returned  to  England,  where  Blen- 
nerhassett died,  on  the  island  of  Guern- 
sey, Feb.  1,  1831.  His  widow  came  back 
to  the  United  States  to  seek,  from 
Congress,  remuneration  for  their  losses ; 
but,  while  the  matter  was  pending, 
she  died  (1842)  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
and  was  buried  in  the  family  plot  of 
Thomas  Addis  Emmett.  See  Burr,  Aaron. 
Blind,  Education  of  the.  Prior  to 
1784  there  were  no  institutions  in  the 
world  where  the  blind  could  be  educated. 
In  that  year  the  first  school  was  found- 
ed in  Paris,  by  Valentine  Haiiy,  and 
soon  after  similar  institutions  were  organ- 
ized in  England  and  other  European  coun- 
tries. The  first  school  for  the  blind  in  the 
United  States  was  established  in  Boston  in 
1829,  by  an  act  of  the  State  legislature. 


BLENNERHASSKTT'S    ISLAiND    RESIDKNCE. 


estates  in  England  in  1796,  and  came 
to  America  with  an  ample  fortune.  He 
purchased  an  island  in  the  Ohio  River, 
nearly  opposite  Marietta,  built  an  elegant 
mansion,  furnished  it  luxuriantly,  and 
there  he  and  his  accomplished  wafe  were 
living  in  happiness  and  contentment,  sur- 
rounded by  books,  philosophical  apparatus, 
pictures,  and  other  means  for  intellect- 
ual culture,  when  Aaron  Burr  entered  that 
paradise,  and  tempted  and  ruined  its 
dwellers.  A  mob  of  militiamen  laid  the 
island  waste,  in  a  degree,  and  Blennerhas- 


Since  then  schools  of  the  same  character 
have  been  instituted  in  nearly  every  State. 
The  pioneer  workers  in  this  field  were 
Howe,  Chapin,  Williams,  Wait,  Little, 
Lord,  Huntoon,  Morrison,  and  Anagnos. 
The  United  States  government  has  ex- 
tended large  aid  to  promote  the  educa- 
tion of  the  blind.  In  March,  1876,  Con- 
gress passed  an  act  appropriating 
$250,000  for  a  perpetual  fund,  the  in- 
terest of  which  was  to  be  used  to  purchase 
suitable  books  and  apparatus  for  distribu- 
tion   among   the    various    schools    for   the 


366 


BLISS— BLOCK  ISLAND 


blind.  The  following  is  an  official  summary 
of  the  statistics  of  schools  for  the  blind  at 
the  close  of  the  school  year  1898-99:  The 
total  number  of  schools  reported  was  36. 
The  total  number  of  instructors  was  393 
— male,  137;  female,  256;  in  music,  127; 
and  in  the  industrial  departments,  122. 
The  total  number  of  pupils  reported  was 
3,665 — male,  1,898;  female,  1,767;  in  kin- 
dergarten departments,  417;  in  vocal  mu- 
sic, 1,738;  in  instrumental  music,  1,797. 
In  the  industrial  department  the  total 
number  of  pupils  was  1,924.  The  total 
number  of  volumes  in  the  libraries  was 
93,262.  The  value  of  scientific  apparatus 
was  $100,610;  and  the  value  of  grounds 
and  buildings  was  $6,334,307.  The  total 
expenditure  for  support  was  $1,065,437. 

Bliss,  Zenas  Eandall,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Johnston,  R.  I.,  April  17, 
1835;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854; 
reached  the  rank  of  major-general  in 
1897;  and  was  retired  in  the  same  year. 
He  commanded  the  northern  defences  of 
Washington  in  1862;  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Fredericksburg,  the  siege  of 
Vicksburg,  the  capture  of  Jackson,  Miss., 
the  Wilderness  campaign,  and  after  the 
war  was  Assistant  Commissioner  of  Freed- 
men  and  Abandoned  Lands.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  2,  1900. 

Blizzard,  a  storm  noted  for  its  high 
wind,  extreme  cold,  and  hard,  sharp,  fine 
crystals  of  snow.  It  appears  first  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  plains  of 
Canada,  and  sweeps  into  the  United  States 
through  Wyoming,  North  Dakota,  and 
Minnesota,  but  seldom  prevails  east  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  excepting  when  the  ground 
has  had  a  long  covering  of  snow.  It  is 
a  very  dangerous  storm,  as  the  fine  snow 
fills  the  air  and  prevents  any  one  exposed 
to  it  from  seeing  his  way.  In  the  blizzard 
that  occurred  in  January,  1888,  extending 
from  Dakota  to  Texas,  235  persons  per- 
ished. On  March  11-14,  1888,  a  blizzard 
raged  throughout  the  Eastern  States  that 
will  long  be  remembered.  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  suffered  the  most  severely  of 
all  the  cities  in  its  path.  At  one  time  the 
snow-laden  wind  blew  at  the  rate  of  46 
miles  an  hour.  Streets  and  railroads  were 
blocked,  telegraph-wires  were  blown  down, 
and  many  lives  were  lost. 

Block,  or  Blok,  Adriaen,  navigator; 
born    in    Amsterdam,    Holland.     In    1610 


he  made  a  successful  voyage  to  Manhat- 
tan (now  New  York)  Bay,  taking  back 
to  Amsterdam  a  cargo  of  rich  furs.  In 
1614  he  bought  a  merchant  ship,  the  Tiger, 
and  again  visited  Manhattan.  The  Tiger 
was  accidentally  destroyed  by  fire,  but 
with  his  crew  he  made  a  yacht,  named 
the  Unrest,  and  with  this  explored  ad- 
jacent waters.  He  was  the  first  European 
to  sail  through  Hell  Gate,  and  he  discov- 
ered the  rivers  now  known  by  the  names 
of  Housatonic  and  Connecticut.  The  lat- 
ter he  explored  as  far  as  the  site  of  Hart- 
ford, and  still  pushing  east  discovered 
Block  Island,  which  was  named  for  him. 
After  reaching  Cape  Cod  he  left  the  Un- 
1  est,  and  returned  to  Holland  on  one  of  the 
ships  which  had  sailed  with  him  on  his 
westward  cruise. 

Block  Island,  Events  at.  In  1636, 
John  Oldham  {q.  v.)  was  trading  in  a 
vessel  of  his  own  along  the  shores  of 
Connecticut,  and  near  Block  Island  he  was 
attacked  by  Indians  of  that  island,  and 
he  and  his  crew  were  murdered.  Filled 
with  the  barbarians,  who  did  not  know 
how  to  manage  rudder  or  sail,  the  vessel 
was  found  drifting  by  John  Gallop,  a  Mas- 
sachusetts fisherman,  who  had  only  a  man 
and  two  boys  with  him.  They  gallantly 
attacked  the  Indians,  killed  or  drove  them 
into  the  sea,  and  recaptured  the  vessel — 
the  first  naval  fight  on  the  New  Eng- 
land coast.  They  found  the  dead  body 
of  Oldham  on  the  deck,  yet  bleeding. 
The  Block  Island  Indians  were  allies  of 
the  Pequods,  and  were  protected  by  the 
latter.  The  murder  of  Oldham  was  a  sig- 
nal for  war.  In  August  five  small  vessels, 
carrying  about  100  men,  under  John  En- 
dicott,  sailed  from  Boston  to  punish 
the  Block  Island  savages.  His  orders 
from  the  magistrates  were  to  kill  all 
the  men,  but  to  spare  the  women  and 
children.  There  were  four  captains  in 
the  company,  because  the  Indians  in  fight- 
ing usually  divided  into  small  squads,  and 
it  was  necessary  to  attack  them  in  like 
detachments.  One  of  these  captains  was 
the  famous  John  Underbill.  (See  Pequod 
Indians.)  Endicott's  party  landed  in  a 
heavy  surf,  and  in  the  face  of  a  shower  of 
arrows,  but  only  one  Englishman  was 
wounded.  The  Indians  fled  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  island.  Everything — dwell- 
ings, crops,  and  the  simple  furniture  of 
67 


BLOCKADE 

the  Indians — was   destroyed.      The   isUxnd  vessels   began    depredations    on    the    coast 

was  completely  desolated.     Endicott  could  of   Massachusetts,   under   au   order   issued 

not  find  the  Indians  to  kill  them,  but  he  left  by    Admiral    Cochrane    to    "  destroy    the 

them  in  a  condition  to  starve  to  death.  seaport  towns  and  devastate  the  country." 

Blockade.  In  May,  1813,  the  British  At  Wareham,  on  Buzzard's  Bay,  they  de- 
proclaimed  a  formal  blockade  of  New  stroyed  vessels  and  other  property  valued 
York,  the  Delaware,  Chesapeake  Bay,  at  $40,000.  In  the  same  month  fifty 
Charleston,  Savannah,  and  the  mouth  of  armed  men  in  five  large  barges  entered 
the  Mississippi.  On  June  11,  the  United  the  Saco  River,  Maine,  and  destroyed  prop- 
States,  Macedonian,  and  Hornet,  under  erty  to  the  amount  of  about  $20,000.  New 
the  command  of  Decatur,  blockaded  in  the  Bedford,  and  Fair  Haven  opposite,  were 
harbor  of  New  York,  attempted  to  get  to  threatened  by  British  cruisers.  Eastport 
sea  through  the  East  River  and  Long  Isl-  and  Castine,  in  Maine,  were  captured  by 
and  Sound,  but  off  the  Connecticut  shore  the  British.  In  July,  1814,  Sir  Thomas 
they  were  intercepted  by  a  British  squad-  M.  Hardy  sailed  from  Halifax  with  a  con- 
ron  and  driven  into  the  harbor  of  New  siderable  land  and  naval  force,  to  execute 
London.  The  militia  were  called  out  to  the  order  of  Cochrane.  The  country  from 
protect  these  vessels,  and  the  neighbor-  Passamaquoddy  Bay  to  the  Penobscot 
hood  was  kept  in  constant  alarm.  The  River  speedily  passed  under  British  rule, 
British  blockading  squadron,  commanded  and  remained  so  until  the  close  of  the 
by  Sir  Thomas  Hardy,  consisted  of  the  war.  After  capturing  Eastport,  Hardy 
flag-ship  Ramillies,  of  the  Orpheus,  Val-  sailed  westward,  and  threatened  Ports- 
iant,  Acasta,  and  smaller  vessels.  The  mouth  and  other  places.  An  attack  on 
commander-in-chief  had  won  the  respect  Boston  was  confidently  expected.  It  was 
of  the  inhabitants  along  the  coast  because  almost  defenceless,  and  offered  a  rich  prize 
of  his  honorable  treatment  of  them.  The  for  plunder.  There  ships  were  built  for 
blockade  of  New  London  Harbor  continued  the  war ;  but  when  real  danger  appeared, 
twenty  months,  or  during  the  remainder  the  inhabitants  were  aroused  to  intense 
of  the  war.  In  the  spring  of  1814,  all  action  in  preparing  defences.  All  classes 
hopes  of  their  being  able  to  escape  having  of  citizens  might  be  seen  with  implements 
faded,  the  United  States  and  Macedonian  of  labor  working  daily  in  casting  up  for- 
were  dismantled,  and  laid  up  just  below  tifications  on  Noddle's  Island.  Informed 
Norwich,  while  the  Hoi-net,  after  remaining  of  these  preparations  and  the  enthusiasm 
in  the  Thames  about  a  year,  slipped  out  of  the  people,  Hardy  passed  by  and  took 
of  the  harbor  and  escaped  to  New  York.  a    position   off   the   coast   of   Connecticut, 

On  April  25,  1814,  Admiral  Cochrane  where  he  proceeded,  with  reluctance,  to 
declared  the  whole  coast  of  the  United  execute  Cochrane's  cruel  order.  He  bom- 
States  in  a  state  of  blockade.  On  June  barded  Stonington  ( g.  v.) ,  but  was  re- 
29  the  President  of  the  United  States  pulsed.  His  squadron  lay  off  the  mouth 
issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the  block-  of  the  Thames  when  the  news  of  peace 
ade  proclaimed  by  the  British  of  the  came.  See  New  London. 
whole  coast  of  the  United  States,  nearly  In  the  opening  months  of  the  Civil 
2,000  miles  in  extent,  to  be  incapable  War,  the  Confederates  planted  cannon  on 
of  being  carried  into  effect  by  any  ade-  the  Virginia  shores  of  the  Potomac  River, 
quate  force  actually  stationed  for  the  at  various  points,  to  interrupt  the  navi- 
purpose.  It  declared  that  it  formed  no  gation.  One  of  these  redoubts  was  at 
lawful  prohibition  or  obstacle  to  such  Matthias  Point,  a  bold  promontory  in 
neutral  or  friendly  vessels  as  might  de-  King  George  county,  Va.,  and  commanded 
sire  to  visit  and  trade  with  the  United  the  river  a  short  time.  The  point  was 
States;  and  all  pirates,  armed  vessels,  heavily  wooded.  Capt.  J.  H.  Ward,  with 
or  letters  -  of  -  marque  and  reprisal  were  his  flag-ship  Freehorn,  of  the  Potomac  flo- 
warned  not  to  interfere  with  or  molest  tilla,  was  below  this  point  when  he  heard 
any  vessels,  belonging  to  neutral  powers,  of  the  Confederates  being  busy  in  erecting 
bound  to  any  port  or  place  within  the  a  battery  there.  He  procured  from  Com- 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States.  modore  Rowan,  of  the  Paionee,  then  lying 

Early  in  June,  1814,  British  blockading  off   Aquia   Creek,   two    companies   of   ma- 

368 


BLOCKADE-RUNNERS 


rines,  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  Chaplin. 
Ward  had  determined  to  land  there,  de- 
nude the  point  of  trees,  and  leave  no  shel- 
ter for  the  Confederates.  On  the  morning 
of  June  27,  1861,  Chaplin  and  the  ma- 
rines, under  cover  of  a  fire  from  the  ves- 
sels, landed,  and  soon  encountered  the 
pickets  of  the  Confederates. 
Captain   Ward   accompanied  %,         al 

Chaplin.  A  body  of  about 
400  Confederates  was  seen 
approaching,  when  Ward 
hastened  back  to  the  Free- 
horn,  and  the  marines  took 
to  their  boats.  They  return- 
ed, but  were  called  off  be- 
cause the  number  of  the 
Confederates  was  over- 
whelming. A  spirited  skir- 
mish ensued  between  the 
Confederates  on  shore  and 
the  Nationals  on  their  ves- 
sels. While  Captain  Ward 
was  managing  one  of  his 
cannon,  he  was  mortally 
the  abdomen  by  a  Minie 
the  shore 
utes. 


the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States  broke 
out,  but  the  Confederates  were  permitted 
to  have  privateer  vessels  built  and  sup- 
plied in  Great  Britain,  while  swift-sailing 
British  merchant  steam-vessels,  built  for 
the  purpose,  were  permitted  to  carry  on 
an  extensive  trade  with  the  Confederates 


wounded     in 

bullet    from 

He  lived  only  forty-five  min- 

His  was  the  only  life  lost  on  the 


Union    side    on    that    occasion.      Captain 
Ward  was  the  first  naval  officer  killed  dur- 


A  CO.NFEDERATE  BLOCKADE-RUNNER. 

by  running  the  blockade  of  Southern  ports. 
These  vessels  carried  arms,  ammunition, 
and  other  supplies  to  the  Confederates, 
and  received  in  exchange  cotton  and  to- 
bacco. Enormous  profits  were  made  for 
the  owners  of  these  vessels  when  a  suc- 
ing  the  war.  His  body  was  conveyed  to  cessful  voyage  was  accomplished;  but  so 
the  navy-yard  at  Brooklyn,  where,  on  the  many  of  them  were  captured  by  the  block- 
North  Carolina,  it  lay  in  state,  and  was  ading  fleets,  destroyed,  or  wrecked,  that 
then  taken  to  Hartford,  where  imposing  it  is  believed  their  losses  were  greater 
funeral  ceremonies  Avere  performed  in  the  in  amount  than  their  gains.  The  number 
Eoman  Catholic  cathedral.  of  blockade-runners  captured  or  destroyed 

In  September,  1861,  General  McClellan  during  the  war  by  the  National  navy 
was  ordered  to  co-operate  with  the  naval  was  1,504.  The  gross  proceeds  of  the 
force  on  the  Potomac  River  in  removing  property  captured  and  condemned  as  law- 
the  blockade,  but  he  failed  to  do  so;  and  ful  prize,  before  Nov.  1  following  the 
it  was  kept  up  until  the  Confederates  close  of  the  war,  amounted  to  nearly  $22,- 
voluntarily  abandoned  their  position  in  000,000.  This  sum  was  subsequently  in- 
front  of  Washington  in  1862.  See  creased  by  new  decisions.  The  value  of 
Charleston,  S.  C. ;  Mobile,  Ala.;  Savan-  the  vessels  captured  and  destroyed  (1,149 
NAH,  Ga. ;  Wilmington,  N.  C.  captured  and  35.5  destroyed)   was  not  less 

On  April  22,  1898,  President  McKinley  than  $7,000,000,  making  a  total  loss, 
proclaimed  a  blockade  of  all  ports  on  the  chiefly  to  British  owners,  of  at  least  $30,- 
north  coast  of  Cuba,  between  Cardenas  000,000.  Besides,  in  consequence  of  the 
and  Bahia  Honda  (Havana  being  about  remissness  in  duty  of  the  British  govern- 
ment in  permitting  piratical  vessels  to  be 
built  and  furnished  in  the  realm  for  the 
Confederates,  that  government  was  com- 
pelled to  pay,  in  the  form  of  damages  to 
American  property  on  the  seas,  $15,500,- 
000  in  gold.     See  Arbitration,  Tribunal 

OF. 


midway  between  the  two),  and  of  the 
port  of  Cienfuegos,  on  the  south  coast, 
and  kept  a  strong  naval  force  there  to 
enforce  it.  See  Berlin  Decree,  The; 
Cuba;  Orders  in  Council. 

Blockade-Runners.     The    British   gov- 
ernment   professed    to    be    neutral    when 


I.— 2  A 


369 


BLOCKS    OF    FIVE— BLOUNT 


Blocks    of    Five,     a    political    phrase  Falls,    N.    Y.,    in    1840;    and    began    the 

which    originated    in    the    United    States  publication     of     The     Lily,     devoted     to 

in  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1888.    It  woman's  rights,  prohibition,  etc.,  in  1849. 

was    alleged    that    the    treasurer    of    the  Mr.  and  Mrs.   Bloomer  moved  to  Council 

Eepublican  National  Committee  had  writ-  Bluffs,    la.,    in    1855,    and    she   then   lect- 

ten  a  letter  to  the  chairman  of  the,  Indi-  ured  in  the  principal   cities  of  the  coun- 

ana    State    Committee,    with    the    recom-  try.     She  recommended  and  wore  a  sani- 

mendation    that    he    secure    "  floaters    in  tary  dress  for  women  which  became  known 

blocks    of    five."      This    was    interpreted  as  the  Bloomer  costume,  although  it  was 

to  mean  the  bribing  of  voters   at  whole-  originated  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Smith  Miller, 

sale  rates.     The   managers   of   the   Demo-  It  consisted  of  skirts  reaching  just  below 

cratic   party  widely   circulated   the   letter  the  knee  and  Turkish  trousers.     She  died 

before  the  election.     A  suit  for  libel  was  in  Council  Bluffs,  la.,  Dec.  30,  1894. 
afterwards     instituted,     but     was     never        Bloomfield,    Joseph,    military    officer; 

pressed.  born  in  Woodbridge,  N.  J. ;  was  a  law  stu- 

Blodget,  LoBiN,  physicist;  born  in  dent  when  the  war  for  independence  broke 
Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  May  25,  1823;  was  out,  when  he  was  made  a  captain,  and 
educated  at  Hobart  College;  appointed  entered  the  service  of  the  patriots,  serv- 
assistant  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  ing  until  the  end  of  the  war.  Then  he 
in  charge  of  researches  on  climatology,  in  had  attained  the  rank  of  major.  After 
1851 ;  and  published  The  Climatology  of  the  war  he  was  attorney-general  of  New 
the  United  States,  in  1857,  the  most  valu-  Jersey;  governor  in  1801-12;  brigadier- 
able  contribution  on  that  subject  ever  general  during  the  War  of  1812-15;  mem- 
issued   in   this   country.     He   was   United  ber  of  Congress  1817-21;  and  was  always 


States  appraiser-at-large  in  1865-77. 
His  Commercial  and  Financial  Resources 
of  the  United  States,  issued  during  the 
Civil  War,  was  of  great  service  to  the 
government  in  sustaining  the  credit  of 
the  United  States  in  Europe.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  March  24,   1901. 

Blodgett,     Heney    Williams,    jurist; 
born   in   Amherst,   Mass.,   July   21,    1821 ; 


esteemed  a  sound  legislator  and  a  judi- 
cious leader.  He  died  in  Burlington,  N.  J., 
Oct.  3,  1823. 

Blooming  Gap,  Skirmish  at.  Gen.  F. 
W.  Lander  was  sent,  early  in  January, 
1862,  to  protect  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railway.  He  had  a  wily  and  energetic 
opponent  in  "  Stonewall "  Jackson,  who 
was   endeavoring  to   gain   what   the   Con- 


educated  at  Amherst  Academy;   admitted  federates    had    lost    in    western    Virginia, 
to    the    bar    in    1844.      He    was    a    mem-  and  to  hold  possession  of  the  Shenandoah 
ber  of  the  Illinois  legislature  in  1852-54;  Valley.      With    about    4,000    men    Lander 
a   State   Senator   in    1859-65,   and   United  struck    Jackson    at    Blooming   Gap    (Feb. 
States  district  judge  in  1869-93.     In  1892  14),  captured  seventeen  of  his  commission- 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  United  States  ed  officers,  nearly  sixty  of  his  rank  and 
counsel    to    the    Bering    Sea    arbitration  file,  and  compelled  him  to  retire, 
tribunal.       He    retired    from    the    bench  Blount,   James  H.,  legislator;   born  in 
in  1893.  Macon,  Ga.,  Sept.  12,  1837.     He  was  elect- 
Blood  Indians.     See  Blackfeet.  ed  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat  in  1872,  and 
Bloody  Angle.     See,  Gettysburg.  held  his  seat  till   1893,  when  he  declined 
Bloody  Bill.   Passed  by  Congress,  March  a  renomination.     At  the  conclusion  of  his 
2,  1833,  to  enforce  the  tariff  of  1832,  which  last  term  the  House  suspended  its  proceed- 
South  Carolina  had  declared  null  and  void,  ings   that   his    associates   might   formally 
Bloody  Bridge.     See  Pontiac's  War.  testify  their  appreciation  of  his  worth.   In 
Bloody  Marsh,  Battle  of.     See  Geor-  his    last    term    he   was    chairman    of    the 
gia.  committee     on     foreign     affairs,     a     post 
Bloody  Shirt.     A  term  used  after  the  that  gave  him  a  wide  knowledge  of  Ameri- 
Civil  War  to  describe  attempts  to  arouse  can    relations    with    other    countries.      In 
Northern  passions  against  the  South.  March,  1893,  President  Cleveland  appoint- 
Bloomer,     Amelia     Jenks,     reformer;  ed   him   a   special   commissioner   to   visit 
born   in   Homer,      N.   Y.,   May   27,    1818;  Honolulu    and    report    on    the    conditions 
married    Dexter    C.    Bloomer,    of    Seneca  which  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  king- 

370 


BLOUNT— BLUE   LAWS 


dom  of  Hawaii  and  the  establishment  of 
an  American  protectorate  over  the  islands. 
The  first  result  of  his  investigations  was 
an  order  to  remove  the  American  flag  from 
the  government  house,  and  for  the  with- 
drawal of  American  marines  from  Hono- 
lulu. These  actions  created  much  excite- 
ment in  the  United  States,  and  led  to  the 
resignation  of  Minister  Stevens,  the  ap- 
pointment of  Mr.  Blount  to  succeed  him, 
and  to  a  renewed  agitation  for  the  annex- 
ation of  Hawaii,  both  in  Washing-ton  and 
in  Honololu.  When  his  mission  was  ac- 
complished. Minister  Blount  returned  to 
his  home  and  resumed  the  practice  of 
law.    See  Hawaii. 

Blount,  William,  statesman;  born  in 
North  Carolina,  in  1744;  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Continental  Congress  in  1782-83, 
1786,  and  1787;  and  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  that  framed  the  national  Con- 
stitution. In  1790  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio. 
(See  NoETH^VESTERN  Territory.)  He  was 
president  of  the  convention  that  formed 
the  State  of  Tennessee  in  1796,  and  was 
chosen  the  first  United  States  Senator 
from  the  new  State.  Blount  was  impeach- 
ed in  1797  by  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, charged  with  having  intrigued,  while 
territorial  governor,  to  transfer  New  Or- 
leans and  neighboring  districts  (then  be- 
longing to  Spain)  to  Great  Britain  by 
means  of  a  joint  expedition  of  Englishmen 
and  Creek  and  Cherokee  Indians.  He  was 
expelled  from  the  Senate,  and  the  process 
was  discontinued  in  the  House.  His  popu- 
larity in  Tennessee  was  increased  by  these 
proceedings,  and  he  became,  by  the  voice 
of  the  people,  a  State  Senator  and  presi- 
dent of  that  body.  He  died  in  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  March  21,  1800. 

Blue,  Victor,  naval  officer ;  born  in 
Marion,  S.  C,  Dec.  6,  186.5;  entered  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy,  Sept.  6, 
1883;  was  an  assistant  engineer  in  1889- 
92 ;  then  promoted  to  ensign ;  served  on 
the  Alliance  and  Thetis;  and  was  as- 
signed to  duty  at  the  Naval  Academy, 
Sept.  28,  1896.  When  the  war  with  Spain 
broke  out  he  was  promoted  to  lieutenant, 
and  ordered  to  the  gunboat  Suwanee.  On 
June  11,  1898,  he  was  landed  at  Acerra- 
deros,  Cuba,  made  his  way  to  the  top  of 
a  hill  Overlooking  Santiago  Harbor,  and 
definitely  located  Admiral  Cervera's  Span- 

37 


ish  fleet  in  the  harbor.  This  journey  was 
one  of  72  miles  in  extent,  and  was  wholly 
within  the  enemy's  lines.  For  this  suc- 
cessful achievement  he  was  commended 
by  Rear-Admiral  Sampson  and  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy. 

Blue-Books,  the  popular  designation  of 
a  collection  of  reports  and  other  papers 
printed  by  order  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment from  time  to  time.  In  the  United 
States  the  blue-book,  issued  by  the  gov- 
ernment, contains  lists  of  all  persons  in 
the  employment  of  the  government  in  the 
civil,  legal,  military,  and  naval  depart- 
ments. These  bobks  are  so  called  because 
of  the  color  of  their  cover. 

Blue  Hen,  a  cant  or  popular  name  for 
the  State  of  Delaware.  Captain  Caldwell, 
of  the  1st  Delaware  Regiment  in  the  Revo- 
lution, was  a  brave  and  very  popular  offi- 
cer, and  noted  for  his  fondness  for  cock- 
fighting.  When  officers  were  sent  to  his 
State  to  get  recruits  for  the  regiment,  it 
was  a  common  remark  that  they  had  gone 
for  more  of  Captain  Caldwell's  game- 
cocks. The  captain  insisted  that  no  cock 
could  be  truly  game  unless  the  mother 
was  a  blue  hen ;  and  the  expression  "  Blue 
Hen's  Chickens "  was  substituted  for 
game-cocks,  and  finally  applied  to  the 
whole  Delaware  line. 

Blue  Laws,  the  name  given  to  the  first 
collection  of  laws  framed  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Connecticut  colony.  They 
were  published,  in  collected  form,  in  1650, 
and  issued  in  blue-paper  covers.  From 
this  fact  they  derived  the  name  of  blue 
laws.  They  contained  rigid  enactments 
against  every  social  vice,  as  well  as  for 
social  regulations,  and  revealed  the  stern- 
ness of  the  Puritan  character  and  morals. 
Copies  of  these  laws  found  their  way  to 
England,  where  they  first  received  the 
name  of  "  blue  laws."  After  the  restora- 
tion of  Charles  II.  the  word  blue  was  ap- 
plied to  rigid  moralists  of  every  kind,  es- 
pecially to  the  Presbyterians.  Butler,  in 
Budihras,  says: 

"  For  his  religion  it  was  writ, 
To  mateti  his  learning  and  his  wit, 
'Twas  Presbyterian  true  blue." 

To  ridicule  the  Puritans  of  New  England, 
a  series  of  ridiculous  enactments,  falsely 
purporting  to  be  a  selection  from  the  blue 
laws,  were  promulgated,  and  gained  gen- 
eral belief. 
1 


BLUE    LICK— BOARD    OF    STRATEGY 


Blue  Lick.     See  Big  Blue  Lick. 

Blue  Lights.  In  December,  1813,  the 
Macedonian  and  Hornet  were  blockaded  in 
New  London  Harbor.  Decatur  was  anx- 
ious to  run  the  blockade,  and  might  have 
accomplished  it  but  for  the  mischievous, 
if  not  treasonable,  conduct  of  a  section 
of  the  ultra-Federalists  known  as  the 
Peace  Party  (q.  v.).  He  had  fixed  on 
Sunday  evening,  Dec.  12,  for  making  an 
attempt  to  run  the  blockade.  The  night 
was  very  dark,  the  wind  was  favorable, 
and  the  tide  served  at  a  convenient  hour. 
When  all  things  were  in  readiness  and  he 
M'as  about  to  weigh  anchor,  word  came 
from  the  "  row-guard "  of  the  blockaded 
vessels  that  signal-lights  were  burning  on 
both  sides  of  the  river,  near  its  mouth. 
The  lights  were  blue,  and  placed  in  po- 
sition by  treasonable  men  to  warn  the 
British  blockaders  of  Decatur's  final  move- 
ments. There  were  Peace-men  in  almost 
every  place  in  New  England,  who  did  all 
they  could  to  embarrass  their  government 
in  its  prosecution  of  the  war.  So  betray- 
ed, Decatur  gave  up  the  design,  and  tried 
every  means  to  discover  the  betrayers,  but 
without  success.  The  Federalists  denied 
the  fact,  but  the  blue  signal-lights  had 
been  seen  by  too  many  to  make  the  denial 
of  any  effect.  In  a  letter  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  Decatur  wrote :  "  Notwith- 
standing these  signals  have  been  repeated, 
and  have  been  seen  by  at  least  twenty 
persons  in  this  squadron,  there  are  many 
in  New  London  who  have  the  hardihood  to 
affect  to  disbelieve  it  and  the  effron- 
tery to  deny  it."  The  whole  Federal 
party,  traditionally  oppo'sed  to  the  war, 
were  often  compelled  to  bear  the  odium 
of  the  bad  conduct  of  the  Peace  faction. 
They  had  to  do  so  in  this  case  and  for 
more  than  a  generation ;  and  long  after 
that  organization  was  dissolved  members 
of  that  party  were  stigmatized  with  the 
epithet  of  "  Blue  Light  Federalists." 

Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  a  portion  of 
the  Appalachian  range. 

Blue  Springs,  Battle  at.  While 
Burnside's  forces  in  east  Tennessee  were 
concentrating  at  Kif oxville  ( g.  v.) ,  they 
had  many  encounters  with  the  Confeder- 
ates. One  of  these  occurred  at  Blue 
Springs,  not  far  from  Bull's  Gap.  There 
the  Confederates  had  gathered  in  consid- 
erable force.     A  brigade  of  National  cav- 


alry, supported  by  a  small  force  of  in- 
fantry, was  then  at  Bull's  Gap.  The  cav- 
alry pressed  forward  to  Blue  Springs, 
where  the  Confederates  were  commanded 
by  Gen.  S.  Jones.  After  a  desultory  fight 
for  about  twenty-four  hours  (Oct.  10  and 
11,  1863)  the  Confederates  broke  and  fled, 
leaving  their  dead  on  the  field.  They 
were  pursued  and  struck  from  time  to 
time  by  General  Shackleford  and  his  cav- 
alry, and  driven  out  of  the  State.  The 
pursuers  penetrated  Virginia  10  miles  be- 
yond Bristol.  In  the  battle  of  Blue 
Springs  the  Nationals  lost  about  100  men 
in  killed  and  wounded.  The  Confederate 
loss  was  a  little  greater. 

Board  of  Ordnance  and  Fortifi^cation, 
a  body  of  officers  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Secretary  of  War  and  associated  with 
the  ordnance  department,  charged  with 
the  execution  of  duties  indicated  in  the 
title. 

Board  of  Strategy,  in  the  United 
States,  a  body  of  expert  officers  in  the 
army  and  navy  who,  in  co-operation  with 
the  bureaus  of  information  of  those 
branches  of  the  public  service,  planned  the 
operations  on  land  and  sea  during  the 
American-Spanish  War  of  1898.  These 
boards  were  especially  appointed  as  ad- 
visors of  the  President,  and  the  duties 
they  performed  were  similar  to  those  de- 
volving upon  what  is  known  as  the  gen- 
eral staff  in  Europe.  With  large,  de- 
tailed maps  covering  every  inch  of  land 
or  water  likely  to  be  involved  in  any  way 
in  the  war,  the  boards  first  located  with 
markers  the  initial  positions  of  armies, 
squadrons,  and  minor  forces,  both  Ameri- 
can and  Spanish,  and  the  moment  the 
slightest  change  in  any  of  these  locations 
was  made  the  change  was  indicated  by 
the  shifting  of  the  markers.  Hence  the 
boards  could  determine  at  any  time  the 
positive  or  approximate  location  of  any 
force.  If  the  change  by  the  enemy  was 
one  of  vital  moment,  warnings  or  fresh 
instructions  were  sent  to  the  command- 
ing officer  directly  concerned.  The  strat- 
egy board  could  thus  see  at  a  glance  the 
condition  of  the  entire  field  of  operations; 
while  the  local  admiral  or  general  was 
restricted  to  his  immediate  environment. 
A  close  touch  between  the  boards  and  a 
distant  army  or  fleet  enabled  the  latter  to 
operate   more   intelligently   and   to   grasp 


372 


BOARD    OF    WAR   AND    ORDNANCE— BOER 


quickly  the  meaning  of  sudden  changes  in 
instructions. 

Board  of  War  and  Ordnance,  a  com- 
mittee appointed  by  Congress,  June  12, 
1776,  consisting  of  John  Adams,  Roger 
Slierman,  Benjamin  Harrison,  James  Wil- 
son, and  Edward  Rutledge,  with  Richard 
Peters  as  secretary.  This  board  contin- 
ued, with  changes,  until  October,  1781, 
when  Benjamin  Lincoln  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War. 

Board  on  Geographic  Names,  a  board 
organized  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment in  1890  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
uniform  usage  in  regard  to  geographic 
nomenclature  and  orthography  throughout 
the  executive  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment and  particularly  on  maps  and  charts 
issued  by  the  various  departments  and 
bureaus.  To  it  are  referred  all  unsettled 
or  disputed  questions  concerning  the  spell- 
ing of  geographic  names  which  arise  in 
the  different  departments,  and  the  deci- 
sions of  the  board  are  accepted  by  the  de- 
partments as  the  standard  authority  in 
such  matters.  The  decisions  of  the  board 
cover  the  spelling  of  foreign  place-names 
as  well  as  those  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  present  work  the  forms  adopted  by 
this  board  have  been  followed. 

Bobadilla,  Francisco,  a  Spanish  mag- 
istrate; was  sent  to  Santo  Domingo  by 
Queen  Isabella  in  1500  to  ascertain  the 
condition  of  the  Spanish  colony  there,  so 
many  complaints  of  the  administration 
of  Columbus  having  reached  her.  Covet- 
ing the  place  of  Columbus,  Bobadilla  made 
many  unjust  charges  against  him.  He  ar- 
rested the  illustrious  man  and  sent  him 
to  Spain  in  chains.  But  the  sovereigns, 
satisfied  that  he  was  innocent,  reinstated 
Columbus,  recalled  Bobadilla,  and  sent 
OvANDO  {q.  V.)  to  take  his  place.  On  his 
return  homeward,  Bobadilla  was  lost  at 
sea  in  a  furious  tempest  -with  many  others 
of  the  enemies  of  Columbus,  together  with 
the  immense  wealth  which  they  were  car- 
rying away  with  them,  in  June,  1502. 

Boehler,  Peter,  clergyman;  born  in 
Frankfort,  Germany,  Dec.  31,  1712;  was 
graduated  at  Jena  in  1736;  ordained  a 
Moravian  minister  in  1737;  and  was  sent 
as  an  evangelist  to  Carolina  and  Georgia 
in  1738.  On  his  way  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  upon 
whom   he   exercised   great   influence.      In- 


deed, John  Wesley  records  in  his  diary 
that  Boehler  was  the  person  through 
Vi'hom  he  was  brought  to  believe  in  Christ. 
The  Moravian  colony  in  Georgia  was 
broken  up  and  removed  to  Pennsylvania 
in  1740.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  in 
1748  and  superintended  the  Moravian 
churches  in  America  in  1753-64,  when  he 
W"as  recalled  to  Germany.  He  died  in 
London,  England,  April  27,  1775. 

Boer,  a  Dutch  term  meaning  "  farmer," 
given  to  the  descendants  of  the  Holland 
emigrants  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
1652.  They  gradually  extended  civiliza- 
tion over  a  wide  territory.  The  British 
acquired  the  settlement  in  1796  as  a  fruit 
of  war.  In  1803  it  was  restored  to  the 
Dutch,  but  in  1806  was  again  seized  by 
the  British.  In  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1814)  Holland  formally  ceded  it  to  Great 
Britain.  This  settlement  became  known 
as  Cape  Colony.  A  large  majority  of  the 
Boers  moved  north  in  1835-36,  a  number 
settling  in  the  region  which  afterwards 
became  known  as  the  Orange  Free  State, 
and  the  remainder  in  the  present  colony 
of  Natal.  The  settlers  in  the  latter  re- 
gion stayed  there  until  Great  Britain  took 
possession  of  it  in  1843,  when  they  re- 
moved farther  north,  and  organized  the 
South  African,  or,  as  it  has  been  generally 
called,  the  Transvaal,  Republic.  In  1877 
the  South  African  Republic  was  annexed 
by  the  British  government;  in  1880  the 
Boers  thei-e  rose  in  revolt;  in  1881  a  peace 
was  signed  giving  the  Boers  limited  self- 
government;  and  in  1884  another  conven- 
tion recognized  the  independence  of  the 
republic,  subject  to  a  British  suzerainty 
restricted  to  the  control  of  foreign  affairs. 
The  war  of  1899-1901  between  the  South 
African  Republic  and  the  Orange  Free 
State  on  the  one  hand,  and  Great  Britain 
on  the  other,  resulted  from  the  refusal  of 
the  Boers  to  accede  to  a  number  of  British 
claims  which  the  Boers  held  to  be  without 
justification.  In  this  war  the  Boer  mili- 
tary leaders,  Joubert,  Cronje,  Botha,  and 
De  Wet  displayed  a  skill  in  manoeu- 
vring that  won  the  admiration  even  of 
their  opponents.  The  death  of  Joubert  and 
the  surrender  of  Cronje  were  the  severest 
shocks  to  the  Boer  cause  up  to  the  close 
of  1900.  During  the  summer  of  1900, 
General  Lord  Roberts,  British  commander- 
in-chief  in  South  Africa,  formally  declared 


373 


BOGARDUS 


the  annexation  of  the  two  republics,  giving 
them  the  names  of  the  Vaal  River  and 
Orange  River  colonies.  About  the  same 
time  a  joint  commission  was  appointed  by 
the  presidents  of  the  two  republics  to  visit 
the  countries  of  Europe  and  also  the  Unit- 
ed States  for  the  purpose  of  securing  in- 
tervention. In  the  United  States  they 
were  received  by  President  McKinley, 
wholly  in  the  capacity  of  private  visitors; 
were  given  a  hearty  welcome  in  several 
large  cities;  and  had  a  subscription  start- 
ed to  aid  their  cause. 

Bogardus,  Everardus,  one  of  the  first 
clergymen  in  New  Netherland;  born  in 
Holland.  He  and  Adam  Roelandson, 
school-master,  came  to  America  with  Gov- 
ernor Van  Twiller  in  1633.  Bogardus  was 
a  bold,  outspoken  man,  and  did  not  shrink 
from  giving  "  a  piece  of  his  mind  "  to  men 
in  authority.  Provoked  by  what  he  con- 
sidered maladministration  of  public 
affairs,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Governor  Van 
Twiller,  in  which  he  called  him  "  a  child 
of  the  devil,"  and  threatened  to  give  him 
"such  a  shake  from  the  pulpit"  the  next 
Sunday  as  would  "  make  him  shudder." 
About  1638  Bogardus  married  Annetje, 
widow  of  Roeloff  Jansen,  to  whose  hus- 
band Van  Twiller  had  granted  62  acres  of 
land  on  Manhattan  Island,  now  in  posses- 
sion of  Trinity  Church,  New  York.  This 
is  the  estate  which  the  "  heirs  of  Annetje 
Jansen  Bogardus "  have  been  seeking  for 
many  years  to  recover.  Being  charged 
before  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  with  con- 
duct unbecoming  a  clergyman,  Bogardus 
was  about  to  go  thither  to  defend  himself 
on  the  arrival  of  Kieft,  but  the  governor 
and  council  determined  to  retain  him  for 
the  "  good  of  souls."  A  daughter  of  Mr. 
Bogardus  by  his  first  wife  was  married 
in  1642;  and  it  was  on  that  occasion  that 
Governor  Kieft  procured  generous  sub- 
scriptions for  building  a  new  church.  At 
the  wedding  feast,  "  after  the  fourth  or 
fifth  round  of  drinking,"  he  made  a  liberal 
subscription  himself  to  the  church  fund, 
and  requested  the  other  guests  to  do  the 
same.  All  the  company,  with  "  light  heads 
and  glad  hearts,"  vied  with  each  other 
in  "  subscribing  richly " ;  and  some  of 
them,  after  they  returned  home,  "  well  re- 
pented it,"  but  were  not  excused.  John 
and  Richard  Ogden,  of  Stamford,  Conn., 
were    employed    to    build    the   church,    in 

37 


which  Bogardus  officiated  about  four 
years.  When  Kieft,  in  1643,  was  about  to 
make  war  on  the  Indians,  Bogardus,  who 
had  been  invited  to  the  council,  warned 
him  in  warm  words  against  his  rashness. 

Two  years  later  he  shared  with  the  peo- 
ple in  disgust  of  the  governor;  and  he  bold- 
ly denounced  him,  as  he  had  Van  Twiller, 
from  the  pulpit,  charging  him  with  drunk- 
enness and  rapacity,  and  said,  "  What  are 
the  great  men  of  the  country  but  vessels 
of  wrath  and  fountains  of  woe  and 
trouble?  They  think  of  nothing  but  ta 
plunder  the  property  of  others,  to  dismiss, 
to  banish,  to  transport  to  Holland."  Kieft 
and  some  of  the  provincial  ofiicers  ab- 
sented themselves  from  church  to  avoid 
further  clerical  lashings.  Kieft  encour- 
aged unruly  fellows  to  keep  up  a  noise 
around  the  church  during  the  preaching. 
On  one  occasion  a  drum  was  beaten,  a 
cannon  was  fired  several  times  during  the 
service,  and  the  communicants  were  in- 
sulted. The  plucky  dominie  denounced  the 
authorities  more  fiercely  than  ever,  and 
the  governor  brought  the  contumacious 
clergyman  to  trial.  The  excitement  ran 
high,  but  mutual  friends  finally  brought 
about  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  if  not 
peace.  There  were  then  two  other  clergy- 
men in  the  province — Samuel  Megapolen- 
sis  and  Francis  Doughty — the  latter 
preaching  to  the  English  residents  there. 
The  conduct  of  Bogardus  had  become  a 
subject  of  remark  in  the  Classis  of  Am- 
sterdam, and  after  the  arrival  of  Stuy- 
vesant  (1647)  he  resigned,  and  sailed  for 
Holland  in  the  same  vessel  with  Kieft. 
He,  too,  was  drowned  when  the  vessel  was 
wrecked  in  Bristol  Channel,  Sept.  27, 
1647. 

Bogardus,  James,  inventor;  born  in 
Catskill,  N.  Y.,  March  14,  1800;  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  watch-maker  in  1814,  and 
became  skilled  as  a  die-sinker  and  en- 
graver. His  genius  as  an  inventor  was 
first  seen  when  he  made  an  eight-day, 
three-wheeled  chronometer  clock,  which 
was  awarded  the  highest  premium  at  the 
first  fair  of  the  American  Institute.  In 
1828  he  produced  the  "  ring  flier "  for 
cotton  spinning;  in  1831  devised  an  en- 
graving machine.  He  also  made  the  trans- 
fer machine  for  the  production  of  bank- 
note plates  from  separate  dies.  In  1832 
he  devised  the  first  dry  gas-meter,  and  in 
4 


BOGGS— BOLLAN 


1836  made  it  applicable  to  all  current 
fluids  by  giving  a  rotary  motion  to  the 
machinery.  In  1839  the  British  govern- 
ment offered  a  prize  to  any  one  who  should 
submit  the  best  plan  of  manufacturing 
postage-stamps,  and  from  2,600  designs 
that  of  Mr.  Bogardus  was  selected.  In 
1847  he  built  a  five-story  factory  in  New 
York  City  entirely  of  cast-iron,  which  was 
the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States, 
and  probably  in  the  world.  This  under- 
taking was  so  successful  that  it  led  him 
to  engage  in  the  business  of  building  iron 
A^arehouses  throughout  the  United  States. 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  April  13,  1874. 
Boggs,  Charles  Stewart,  naval  offi- 
cer; born  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J., 
Jan.  28,  1811;  entered  the  navy  in  1826; 
served  on  stations  in  the  Mediterranean, 
West  Indies,  the  coast  of  Africa,  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  was 
made  lieutenant  in  1837;  promoted  to  com- 
mander in  1855;  and  in  1858  was  appoint- 


CAPTAIN    CHARLES   STEWART   BOGGS. 

ed  light-house  inspector  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Placed  in  command  of  the  gun- 
boat Varuna,  when  the  Civil  War  broke 
out,  he  was  with  Admiral  Farragut  in 
the  desperate  fight  on  the  Mississippi, 
near  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip.  In 
that  contest  his  conduct  was  admirable 
for  bravery  and  fortitude.  He  was  subse- 
quently in  command  of  various  vessels 
on  American  and  European  stations,  and 
was  promoted  to  rear-admiral  in  July, 
1870.  He  died  in  New  Brunswick,  April 
22,  1888. 


Bogus     Presidential    ,  Proclamation. 

See  Howard,  Joseph. 

Bohol,  an  island  in  the  Philippine  Ar- 
chipelago belonging  to  what  is  known  as 
the  Visayas,  or  Bisayas,  group;  between 
the  larger  islands  of  Luzon  and  Min- 
danao; east  of  Zebu,  and  a  short  distance 
southwest  of  Leyte;  area  about  1,300 
square  miles;  estimated  population,  245,- 
000.  The  island  is  believed  to  be  rich  in 
several  minerals,  especially  gold,  and  the 
principal  industry  has  been  the  growing  of 
sugar-cane.  The  island  has  several  im- 
portant towns  and  ports  which  were  de- 
clared open  to  commerce  by  the  American 
authorities,  Dec.  11,  1899. 

Boker,  George  Henry,  poet  and  dram- 
atist; born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  6, 
1823;  was  graduated  at  Princeton  Col- 
lege in  1842;  studied  law,  but  did  not  en- 
gage in  practice.  After  a  tour  in  Europe 
he  applied  himself  to  literary  work.  In 
1871  President  Grant  appointed  him  Unit- 
ed States  minister  to  Turkey,  and  in  1875 
he  was  transferred  to  Russia.  He  re- 
turned home  in  1879.  His  poetical  works 
include  The  Lesson  of  Life;  Plays  and 
Poems ;  Poems  of  the  War ;  Street  Lyrics; 
and  The  Boole  of  the  Dead;  and  chief 
among  his  dramatic  works  are  Calaynos ; 
Anne  Boleyn;  Francesca  da  Rimini;  The 
Widoio's  Marriage;  and  The  Betrothal. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  2,  1890. 

Bollan,  William,  laAvyer;  born  in  Eng- 
land; came  to  America  about  1740,  and 
settled  in  Boston.  He  married  a  daughter 
of  Governor  Shirley,  of  Massachusetts, 
and  was  appointed  collector  of  customs  at 
Salem  and  Marblehead.  In  1745  he  was 
sent  to  England  to  solicit  the  reimburse- 
ment of  more  than  $800,000  advanced  by 
Massachusetts  for  the  expedition  against 
Cape  Breton.  He  was  successful ;  and  be- 
came agent  for  Massachusetts  in  1762,  but 
was  dismissed.  Being  in  England  in 
1769,  he  obtained  copies  of  thirty- three 
letters  wAtten  by  Governor  Bernard  and 
General  Gage,  calumniating  the  colonists, 
and  sent  them  to  Boston.  For  this  act 
he  was  denounced  in  Parliament.  He 
strongly  recommended  the  British  govern- 
ment to  pursue  conciliatory  measures  tow- 
ards the  colonists  in  1775;  and  in  various 
ways,  in  person  and  in  writing,  he  showed 
his  warm  friendship  for  the  Americans. 
Mr.    Bollan  wrote   several   political   pam- 


375 


BOMFORD— BOONE 


phlets  relating  to  American  affairs;  and  in 
1774  he  presented,  as  colonial  agent,  a  pe- 
tition to  the.  King  in  council.  He  died  in 
1776. 

Bomford,  George,  military  oflBcer;  born 
in  New  York,  in  1780;  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1805;  introduced  bomb  cannon 
after  a  pattern  of  his  own,  which  were 
called  columbiads.  These  cannon  were 
afterwards  developed  by  John  A.  Dahl- 
GUEN  (q.  v.).  He  became  chief  of  ord- 
nance May  30,  1832,  and  from  Feb.  1,  1842, 
till  his  death  was  inspector  of  arsenals, 
ordnance,  arms  and  munitions  of  war. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  25,  1848. 

Bomford,  James  V.,  military  officer; 
born  on  Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  5, 
1811;  son  of  George  Bomford;  was  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1832;  brevetted 
major  for  gallantry  at  Contreras  and  lieu- 
tenant-colonel for  meritorious  conduct  at 
the  battle  of  Molino  del  Key.  While  on 
frontier  duty  in  Texas,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  made  a  prisoner 
and  was  not  exchanged  until  1862,  when 
he  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
was  brevetted  colonel  for  gallantry  at 
Perryville,  and  was  retired  in  1872.  He 
died    in    Elizabeth,    N.    J.,    Jan.    6,    1892. 

Bonaparte.     See  Napoleon. 

Bon  Homme  Richard.  See  Jones, 
Paul. 

Boniface,  Francis.  See  Jesuit  Mis- 
sions. 

Bonneville,  Benjamin  L.  E.,  explorer; 
born  in  France  about  1795;  was  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1815;  engaged  in 
explorations  in  the  Rocky  Moimtains  in 
1831-36.  Washington  Irving  edited  his 
journal  entitled  Adventures  of  Captain 
Bonneville,  U.  S.  A.,  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  Far  West.  He  served 
throughout  the  Mexican  War,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Cliurubusco.  In 
1865  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  for 
long  and  faithful  service.-  He  died  at 
Fort  Smith,  Ark.,  June  12,  1878. 

Book  of  Mormon.     See  Mormons. 

Boone,  Daniel,  explorer ;  born  in  Bucks 
county.  Pa.,  Feb.  il,  1735.  From  his 
youth  he  was  a  famous  hunter,  and,  while 
yet  a  minor,  he  emigrated,  with  his  fa- 
ther, to  North  Carolina,  where  he  mar- 
ried. In  May,  1759,  Boone  and  five  others 
went  to  explore  the  forests  of  Kentucky. 
There  he  was  captured  by  some  Indians, 

3 


but  escaped,  and  returned  home  in  1771. 
In  1773  he  led  a  party  of  settlers  to  the 
wilds  he  had  explored;  and  in  1774 
conducted    a    party    of    surveyors    to    the 


DANIEL   BOONE. 

Falls  of  the  Ohio  (now  Louisville).  He 
had  taken  his  family  with  the  other  fam- 
ilies to  Kentucky  in  1773,  where  they  were 
in  perpetual  danger  from  the  barbarians 
of  the  forest.  He  had  several  fights  with 
the  Indians;  and  in  1775  he  built  a  fort 
on  the  Kentucky  River  on  the  present  site 
of  Boonesboro.  In  1777  several  attacks 
were  made  on  this  fort  by  the  Indians. 
They  were  repulsed,  but  in  February,  1778, 
Boone  was  captured  by  them,  and  taken  to 
Chillicothe,  beyond  the  Ohio,  and  thence 
to  Detroit.  Adopted  as  a  son  in  an  Ind- 
ian family,  he  became  a  favorite,  but 
managed  to  escape  in  June  following,  and 
returned  to  his  fort  and  kindred.  In  Au- 
gust, about  450  Indians  attacked  his  fort, 
which  he  bravely  defended  with  about  fifty 
men.  At  different  times  two  of  his  sons 
were  killed  by  the  Indians.  Boone  accom- 
panied General  Clarke  on  his  expedition 
against  the  Indians  on  the  Scioto,  in  Ohio, 
in  1782,  soon  after  a  battle  at  the  Blue 
Licks.  Having  lost  his  lands  in  Kentucky 
in  consequence  of  a  defective  title,  he 
went  to  the  Missouri  country  in  1795,  and 
settled  on  the  Osage  Woman  River,  where 
he  continued  the  occupations  of  hunter 
and  trapper.  Again  he  was  deprived  of 
a  large  tract  of  land  in  Missouri,  obtained 
76 


BOONE— BOOTH 


booxe's  fort. 


under  the  Spanish  authority,  by  the  title  in  Harford  county,  Md.,  in  1839;  son  of 
being  declared  invalid.  He  died  in  Cha-  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  and  brother  of  Ed- 
win T.  Booth;  made  his  appearance  as  an 
actor  in  early  manhood.  When  the  Civil 
War  broke  out  he  took  sides  with  the 
South.  Brooding  over  the  "  lost  cause  " 
of  the  Confederacy  he  formed  a  conspir- 
acy with  Powell,  Surratt,  and  others,  to 
assassinate  President  Lincoln.  On  the 
evening  of  April  14,  1865,  the  President, 
Mrs.  Lincoln,  and  a  party  of  friends  went 
to  Ford's  Theatre,  in  Washington,  to 
witness  a  performance  of  Our  American 
Cousin.  While  the  play  was  in  progress 
Booth  entered  the  President's  box,  and  shot 
the  President  in  the  back  of  the  head.  Then, 
shouting  '■'  Sic  semper  tyrannis !"  the  as- 
sassin leaped  upon  the  stage  and  made 
his  escape  on  a  horse  in  waiting.  He  was 
pursued  and  overtaken,  concealed  in  a 
rette.  Mo.,  Sept.  26,  1820.  Boone's  remains,  barn  near  Bowling  Green,  Va.,  and,  re- 
with  those  of  his  wife,  rest  in  the  cemetery 
near  Frankfort,  Ky. 

Boone,  Thomas,  colonial  governor ;  ap- 
pointed governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1760, 
and  of  South  Carolina  in  1762.  .  He  quar- 
relled with  the  legislature  of  South  Car- 
olina, which  refused  to  hold  any  in- 
tercourse with  him,  and  in  1763  was 
succeeded  as  governor  by  William  Bull. 

Booneville,  Battle  of.  Governor 
Jackson,  of  Missouri,  a  Confederate  sym- 
pathizer, had  abandoned  Jefferson  City, 
which  was  immediately  occupied  by  Gen- 
eral Lyon.  Before  the  Confederate  forces 
could  concentrate  about  Booneville,  50 
miles  above  Jefferson  City,  Lyon  moved 
upon  Booneville,  and,  with  2,000  men,  de- 
feated Marmaduke,  who  offered  little  re- 
sistance, in  twenty  minutes,  on  June  17, 
1861.  This  compelled  the  Confederate  de- 
tachments to  move  to  the  southern  border 
of  the  State. 

Booth,  Ballington,  reformer;  born  in  fusing  to  surrender,  was  shot  dead,  April 
Brighouse,  England,  July  28,  1859;  son  of  26.  1865.  See  Lincoln,  Abraham. 
Gen.  William  Booth,  the  founder  of  the  Booth,  William,  clergyinan;  born  in 
Salvation  Army  (g.  v.).  In  1885-87  he  Nottingham,  England,  April  10,  1829;  was 
v.'as  the  commander  of  the  Salvation  Army  educated  in  Nottingham,  and  in  1850-61 
in  Australia,  and  from  1887  till  1896  in  served  as  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  New 
the  United  States,  when  he  withdrew  and  Connection.  In  1865  he  organized  the 
founded  the  Volunteers  of  America  Christian  Mission  to  reach  the  lower  elass- 
(q.  v.).  In  August,  1896,  he  was  ordained  •  es  in  the  East  End  of  London.  In  1878 
a  minister  in  Chicago.  He  has  had  in  his  when  this  mission  had  grown  to  be  a 
wife  Maud,  who  is  a  strong,  popular  lect-  large  organization,  he  changed  it  into  a 
urer,  an  able  supporter.  religious    military    body,    and    it    became 

Booth,    John    Wilkes,    assassin;    born    known  as  the  Salvation  Army,  with  him- 

377 


JOHN    WILKES    BOOTH. 


BORDER  STATES— BORGNE 


self  as  leader  or  "  general."  His  entire 
family  were  mustered  into  the  service  of 
the  "  army,"  his  son,  Ballington,  being  es- 
pecially set  ajDart  for  the  work  in  the 
United  States.  In  1896,  when  a  division 
occurred  in  the  American  branch  of  the 
army,  and  Ballington  was  engaged  in  or- 
ganizing the  Volunteers  of  America 
(q.  V.)  on  lines  more  in  harmony  with 
American  institutions  than  the  original 
"  army,"  General  Booth  visited  New  York 
and  made  unavailing  efforts  to  prevent  a 
disruption.  His  chief  publication  is  In 
Darkest  England. 

Border  States,  a  phrase  applied  to  Del- 
aware, Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and 
Missouri,  during  the  Civil  War,  because 
they  were  located  on  the  border  line  be- 
tween the  free  and  the  slave  States.  At 
the  suggestion  of  Virginia,  a  Border  State 
Convention  was  held  at  Frankfort,  Ky., 
on  March  27,  1861.  The  Unionists  in  Ken- 
tucky had  elected  nine  of  their  representa- 
tives and  the  Confederates  one.  The  con- 
vention was  a  failure.  No  delegates  from 
Vii'ginia  appeared,  and  only  five  besides 
those  from  Kentucky.  The  venerable  John 
J.  Crittenden  presided.  Four  of  the  five 
outside  of  Kentucky  were  from  Missouri, 
and  one  from  Tennessee.  The  "  wrongs  of 
the  South  "  and  the  "  sectionalism  of  the 
North"  were  spoken  of  as  the  principal 
cause  of  the  trouble  at  hand.  It  con- 
demned rebellion,  but  did  not  ask  the  loyal 
people  to  put  it  down.  Its  chief  panacea 
for  existing  evils  was,  in  substance,  the 
Crittenden  Compromise  (g.  v.)  ;  and  the 
convention  regarded  the  national  protec- 
tion and  fostering  of  the  slave  system  as 
"  essential  to  the  best  hopes  of  our  coun- 
try." 

Borgne,  Lake,  Battle  on.  The  reve- 
lations made  by  Jean  Lafitte  {q.  v.) 
caused  everybody  to  be  vigilant  at  New 
Orleans.  Early  in  December,  1812,  Com. 
D.  T.  Patterson,  in  command  of  the  naval 
station  there,  was  warned,  by  a  letter 
fiom  Pensacola,  of  a  powerful  British 
land  and  naval  armament  in  the  Gulf.  He 
immediately  sent  Lieut.  Thomas  Ap  Cates- 
by  Jones  with  five  gunboats,  a  tender,  and 
a  despatch-boat,  to  watch  for  the  enemy. 
Jones  sent  Lieutenant  McKeever  with  two 
gunboats  to  the  entrance  of  Mobile  Bay  for 
intelligence.  McKeever  discovered  the 
British  fleet  on  Dec.  10.  and  hastened  back 

37 


with  the  news.  In  the  afternoon  of  the 
same  day  the  fleet  appeared  near  the  en- 
trance to  Lake  Borgne,  and  Jones  hast- 
ened with  his  flotilla  towards  Pass 
Christian,  where  he  anchored,  and  waited 
the  approach  of  the  invaders  to  dispute 
their  passage  into  the  lake.  He  was  dis- 
covered by  the  astonished  Britons  on  the 
13th,  when  Admiral  Cochrane,  in  command 
of  the  fleet,  gave  orders  for  a  change  in 
the  plan  of  operations  against  New  Or- 
leans. It  would  not  do  to  attempt  to  land 
troops  while  the  waters  of  the  lake  were 
patrolled  by  American  gunboats.  A  flo- 
tilla of  about  sixty  barges  was  prepared, 
the  most  of  them  carrying  a  carronade  in 
the  bow,  and  an  ample  number  of  armed 
volunteers  from  the  fleet  were  sent,  under 
the  command  to  Captain  Lockyer,  to  capt- 
ure or  destroy  the  American  vessels.  Per- 
ceiving his  danger,  Jones,  in  obedience  to 
orders,  proceeded  with  his  flotilla  towards 
the  Rigolets,  between  Lakes  Borgne  and 
Pontchartrain.  Calm  and  currents  pre- 
vented his  passing  a  channel,  and  he  anch- 
ored at  two  in  the  morning  of  the  14th. 
Jones's  flag-ship  was  a  little  schooner  of 
80  tons.  The  total  number  of  men  in  his 
squadron  was  182,  and  of  guns  twenty- 
three.  At  daylight  the  British  barges, 
containing  1,200  men,  bore  down  upon 
Jones's  little  squadron.  They  had  six  oars 
on  each  side,  and  formed  in  a  long, 
straight  line.  Jones  reserved  his  fire  un- 
til the  invaders  were  within  close  rifle 
range.  Then  McKeever  hurled  a  32-pound 
ball  over  the  water  and  a  shower  of  grape- 
shot,  which  broke  the  British  line  and 
made  great  confusion.  But  the  invaders 
pushed  forward,  and  at  half-past  eleven 
o'clock  the  engagement  became  general  and 
desperate.  At  one  time  Jones's  schooner 
was  attacked  by  fifteen  barges.  The  Brit- 
ish captured  the  tender  Alligator  early  in 
the  contest;  and  finally,  by  the  force  of 
overwhelming  numbers,  they  gained  a  vic- 
tory, which  gave  them  undisputed  com- 
mand of  Lake  Borgne.  The  triumph  cost 
them  about  300  men  killed  and  wounded. 
The  Americans  lost  six  men  killed  and 
thirty-five  wounded.  Among  the  latter 
were  Lieutenants  Jones,  McKeever,  Park- 
er, and  Speddon.  The  British  commander, 
Lockyer,  was  severely  wounded;  so,  also, 
was  Lieutenant  Pratt,  the  officer  who.  un- 
der the  direction  of  Admiral  Cockburn, 
8 


BOROUGH— BOSTON 


set  fire  to  the  public  buildings  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  Several  of  the  British  barges 
■were  shattered  and  sunk.  The  lighter 
transports,  filled  with  troops,  immediate- 
ly entered  Lake  Borgne.  Ship  after  ship 
got  aground,  until  at  length  the  troops 
were  all  placed  in  small  boats  and  con- 
veyed about  30  miles  to  Pea  Island,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Pearl  River,  where  General 
Keane  organized  his  forces  for  future 
action. 

Borough,  or  Burgh,  originally  a  com- 
pany of  ten  families  living  together, 
afterwards  a  town,  incorporated  or  not, 
in  Great  Britain,  which  sent  a  representa- 
tive to  Parliament.  Also  a  castle,  a  wall- 
ed town,  or  other  fortified  place.  In  the 
United  States  the  word  is  generally  ap- 
plied to  an  incorporated  town  or  village, 
especially  in  Pennsylvania.  The  city  of 
Greater  New  York,  which  went  into  exist- 
ence on  Jan.  1,  1898,  is  comprised  of  five 
boroughs.  Both  borough  and  burgh  are 
also  used  as  terminations  of  place-names, 
and,  in  the  United  States,  under  the  ruling 
of  the  Board  on  Geographic  Names  (g. 
V. ) ,  the  forms  are  now  boro  and  hurg.  The 
difference  between  burgh  and  berg  in  ter- 
minology is  that  the  former  means  that 
the  place  is  a  borough  as  above  described, 
and  the  latter  a  place  on  or  near  a  moun- 
tain. An  exception  to  the  rule  is  found 
in  the  case  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in 
Vv^hieh  the  "  h  "  is  retained,  and  in  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  where  the  people  insist  on  re- 
taining the  "  h." 

Boscawen,  Edward,  naval  officer;  born 
in  Cornwall,  England,  Aug.  19,  1711;  son 
of     Viscount     Falmouth;     was     made     a 


captain  in  the  royal  navy  in  March,  1737,. 
Distinguished  at  Porto  Bello  and  Car- 
thagena,  he  was  promoted  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  60  -  gun  ship  in  1744,  in 
which  he  took  the  Media.  He  signalized 
himself  under  Anson  in  the  battle  off 
Cape  Finisterre  in  1747,  and  against  the 
French  in  the  East  Indies  as  rear-admiral 
the  next  year.  He  made  himself  master  of 
Madras,  and  returned  to  England  in  1751. 
Admiral  of  the  Blue,  he  commanded  an 
expedition  against  Louisburg,  Cape  Bre- 
ton, in  1758,  with  General  Amherst.  In 
1759  he  defeated  the  French  fleet  in  the 
Mediterranean,  capturing  2,000  prisoners. 
For  these  services  he  was  made  genei-al 
CI  the  marines  and  member  of  the  privy 
council.  Parliament  also  granted  him  a 
pension  of  $15,000  a  year.  He  died  Jan. 
10,   1761. 

Bosomworth,  Thomas,  clergyman ; 
came  to  America  in  1736  with  General 
Oglethorpe's  regiment  of  Highlanders; 
married  a  Creek  woman,  who  gradually 
came  to  be  recognized  as  the  queen  of  the 
Creek  Indians.  The  crown  granted  Bosom- 
v/orth  a  tract  of  land,  and  Governor  Ogle- 
thorpe gave  his  wife  a  yearly  allowance  of 
$500.  Her  pretensions  gradually  increas- 
ed, until  she  claimed  equality  with  the 
sovereign  of  Great  Britain.  This  not  be- 
ing conceded  to  her,  she  induced  the  Creek 
nation  to  revolt,  and  for  a  short  time 
Savannah  was  in  imminent  danger.  Both 
Bosomworth  and  his  wife  were  imprisoned 
for  a  short  time,  but  released  upon  giving 
peaceful  assurances. 

Bossism,  See  Curtis,  George  Will- 
iam, The  Spoils  System. 


BOSTON" 


Boston,  city,  capital  of  the  State  of 
Massachusetts,  commercial  metropolis  of 
New  England,  and  fifth  city  in  the  United 
States  in  population  under  the  census  of 
1900;  area,  about  40  square  miles;  mu- 
nicipal income  in  1899-1900,  $30,969,813; 
net  expenditure,  $29,777,897;  value  of  im- 
ports of  merchandise  in  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1900,  $72,195,939;  value 
of  similar  exports,  $112,195,555;  total  as- 
sessed valuation  of  taxable  property  in 
1900,  $1,129,130,762;  tax  rate,  $14.70  per 
$1,000;    population,    1890,   448,477;    1900, 


560,892.  On  a  peninsula  on  the  south 
side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Charles  River 
(which  the  natives  called  Shawmut,  but 
which  the  English  named  Tri-mountain, 
because  of  its  three  hills)  lived  William 
Blackstone  iq.  v.),  who  went  there  from 
Plymouth  about  1623.  He  went  over  to 
Charlestown  to  pay  his  respects  to  Gov- 
ernor Winthrop,  and  informed  him  that 
upon  Shawmut  was  a  spring  of  excellent 
water.  He  invited  Winthrop  to  come 
over.  The  governor,  with  others,  crossed 
the  river,  and  finding  the  situation  there 


379 


BOSTON 


delightful,  began  a  settlement  by  the 
erection  of  a  few  small  cottages.  At  a 
court  held  at  Charlestown  in  September, 
1630,  it  was  ordered  that  Tri-mountain 
should  be  called  Boston.  This  name  was 
given  in  honor  of  Rev.  John  Cotton,  vicar 
of  St.  Botolph's  Church  at  Boston,  in 
Lincolnshire,  England,  from  which  place 
many  of  the  settlers  came.  The  governor, 
with  most  of  his  assistants,  removed  their 
families  to  Boston,  and  it  soon  became  the 
capital  of  New  England.  In  August, 
1632,  the  inhabitants  of  Charlestown  and 
Boston  began  the  erection  of  a  church 
edifice  at  the  latter  place.  There  were 
then  151  church  -  members  at  the  two 
settlements.  They  amicably  divided, 
the  church  in  Boston  retaining  Mr. 
Wilson  as  its  pastor,  and  that  in  Charles- 
town invited  Rev.  Thomas  James  to 
its  pulpit.  The  Boston  church  edifice  had 
mud  walls  and  a  thatched  roof,  and 
stood  on  the  south  side  of  State  Street, 
near  where  the  old  State  -  house  after- 
wards stood.  Mr.  Wilson,  who  had  been 
a  teacher  only,  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  first  church  in  Boston,  Nov.  22, 
1632. 

The  civil  war  in  England  extended 
across  the  sea.  The  vessels  of  London, 
the  seat  of  Parliamentary  power,  furnish- 
ed with  privateering  commissions,  took 
every  opportunity  that  offered  to  attack 
those  of  Bristol,  and  other  western  ports, 
that  adhered  to  the  King.  In  July,  1644, 
a  London  vessel  brought  a  West-of-Eng- 
land  prize  into  Boston  Harbor.  The  cap- 
tain exhibited  a  commission  from  War- 
wick, High  Admiral  of  New  England,  and 
they  were  allowed  to  retain  their  prize; 
but  when  another  London  vessel  attacked 
a  Dartmouth  ship  (September),  as  she 
entered  Boston  Harbor  with  a  cargo  of 
salt,  the  magistrates  sent  an  armed  force 
to  prevent  the  capture.  Because  of  a  de- 
,  feet  in  the  commission  of  the  privateer, 
the  prize  was  appropriated  as  a  compensa- 
tion for  a  Boston  ship  which  had  been 
captured  on  the  high  seas  by  a  royalist 
vessel.  Some  persons  in  Boston  declared 
themselves  in  favor  of  the  King,  when 
(March,  1645)  such  turbulent  practices 
were  strictly  forbidden.  A  law  was  soon 
passed  assuring  protection  to  all  ships 
that  came  as  friends ;  and  officers  were  ap- 
pointed  to    keep    the   peace,    and   to    pre- 


vent fighting  in  Boston  Harbor,  except  "  by 
authority." 

Before  the  news  of  the  revolution 
in  England  which  placed  William  and 
Mary  on  the  throne  had  arrived  at  Bos- 
ton, a  daring  one  was  effected  in  New 
England.  The  colonists  had  borne  the 
tyranny  of  Andros  about  three  years. 
Their  patience  was  now  exhausted.  A 
rumor  was  started  that  the  governor's 
guards  were  about  to  massacre  some  of 
the  leading  people  of  Boston.  The  people 
flew  to  arms,  and  on  April  18,  1688,  when 
the  rumor  had  gone  out  of  the  town,  the 
people  flocked  in  with  guns  and  other 
weapons  to  the  assistance  of  their 
brethren.  They  did  not  wait  for  the 
governor's  troops  to  move,  but  instantly 
seized  Andros,  such  of  his  council  as  had 
been  most  active  in  oppressing  them, 
with  other  prisoners  to  the  number  of 
about  fifty,  confined  them,  and  reinstated 
the  old  magistrates.  The  rumor  of  the 
massacre  found  readier  belief  because  of 
a  military  order  which  was  given  out  on 
the  reception  of  the  declaration  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange  in  England.  The  order 
charged  all  officers  and  people  to  be  in 
readiness  to  hinder  the  landing  of  the 
troops  which  the  prince  might  send  to 
New  England.  The  people  first  imprisoned 
Captain  George,  of  the  Rose  frigate,  and 
some  hours  afterwards  Sir  Edmund  An- 
dros {q.  V.)  was  taken  at  the  fort  on  Fort 
Hill,  around  which  1,500  people  had  as- 
sembled. The  people  took  the  castle  on 
Castle  Island  the  next  day.  The  sails  of 
the  frigate  were  brought  on  shore.  A 
council  of  safety  was  chosen,  with  Simon 
Bradstreet  as  president,  and  on  May  2 
the  council  recommended  that  an  assem- 
bly composed  of  delegations  from  the  sev- 
eral towns  in  the  colony  should  meet  on 
the  9th  of  the  same  month.  Sixty-six  per- 
sons met,  and  having  confirmed  the  new 
government,  another  convention  of  repre- 
sentatives was  called  to  meet  in  Boston 
on  the  22d.  On  that  day  fifty-four  towns 
were  represented,  when  it  was  determined 
'■  to  resume  the  government  according  to 
charter  rights."  The  governor  (Brad- 
street)  and  magistrates  chosen  in  1686 
resumed  the  government  (May  24,  1688) 
under  the  old  charter,  and  on  the  29th 
King  William  and  Queen  Mary  were  pro- 
claimed in  Boston  with  great  ceremony. 
80 


THE    BOSTON    MASSACRE,    MARCH    5,    I770 


J 


BOSTON 


In  1697  rumors  spread  over  New  Eng- 
land that  a  French  armament  from  Eu- 
rope and  a  land  force  from  Canada  were 
about  to  fall  upon  the  English  colonies. 
Such  an  expedition  had  actually  been 
ordered  from  France;  and  it  was  placed 
under  the  command  of  the  Marquis  of 
Nesmond,  an  officer  of  great  reputation. 
He  was  furnished  with  ten  men-of-war,  a 
galiot,  and  two  frigates ;  and  was  instruct- 
ed to  first  secure  the  possessions  in  the 
extreme  east,  then  to  join  1,500  men  to 
be  furnished  by  Count  Frontenac,  and 
proceed  with  his  fleet  to  Boston  Harbor. 
After  capturing  Boston  and  ravaging  New 
England,  he  was  to  proceed  to  New  York, 
reduce  the  city,  and  thence  send  back  the 
troops  to  Canada  by  land,  that  they 
might  ravage  the  New  York  colony.  Nes- 
mond started  so  late  that  he  did  not  reach 
Newfoundland  until  July  24,  when  a 
council  of  war  decided  not  to  proceed  to 
Boston. 

All  New  England  was  alarmed,  and 
preparations  were  made  on  the  seaboard 
to  defend  the  country.  The  Peace  of  Rys- 
wick  was  proclaimed  at  Boston  Dec.  10, 
and  the  English  colonies  had  repose  from 
war  for  a  while. 

Nearly  a  tenth  part  of  Boston  was 
consumed  by  fire  on  March  20,  1760, 
in  about  four  hours.  It  began,  by  ac- 
cident, at  Cornhill.  There  were  con- 
sumed 174  dwelling-houses,  175  ware- 
houses and  other  buildings,  with  mer- 
chandise, furniture,  and  various  articles, 
to  the  value  of  $355,000;  and  220  fami- 
lies were  compelled  to  look  to  their  neigh- 
bors for  shelter.  The  donations  from 
every  quarter  for  the  relief  of  the  suffer- 
ers amounted  to  about  $87,000. 

As  soon  as  intelligence  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Stamp  Act  into  Parlia- 
ment reached  Boston,  a  town  -  meeting 
Avas  called  (May,  1764),  and  the  rep- 
resentatives of  that  municipality  were 
instructed  to  stand  by  the  chartered 
rights  of  the  colonists;  to  oppose  every 
encroachment  upon  them ;  to  oppose  all 
taxation  then  in  contemplation ;  and  con- 
cluded by  saying,  "  As  his  Majesty's  other 
Northern  American  colonies  are  embarked 
with  us  in  this  most  important  bottom, 
we  further  desire  you  to  use  your  best 
endeavors  that  their  weight  may  be  add- 
ed to  that  of  this  province,  and  that,  by 


the  united  applications  of  all  who  are 
aggrieved,  all  may  happily  obtain  re- 
dress." Symptoms  of  violent  ferment 
in  the  public  mind  appeared  in  several 
places  before  the  arrival  of  the  stamps 
in  America. 

In  Boston  was  a  great  elm,  under  which 
the  "  Sons  of  Liberty "  held  meetings, 
and  it  was  known  as  "  Liberty  Tree." 
On  its  branches  the  effigies  of  leaders 
among  the  supporters  of  the  British  min- 
isters were  hung.  The  house  of  Secretary 
Oliver,  who  had  been  appointed  stamp- 
distributor,  was  attacked  by  a  mob  (Aug. 
15,  1765),  who  broke  his  windows  and 
furniture,  pulled  down  a  small  building 
which  they  supposed  he  was  about  to  use 
as  a  stamp-office,  and  frightened  him  into 
speedy  resignation.  At  that  time  Jona- 
than Mayhew,  an  eloquent  and  patriotic 
preacher  in  Boston,  declared  against  the 
Stamp  Act  from  the  pulpit,  from  the  text, 
"  I  would  they  were  even  cut  off  which 
trouble  you."  The  riots  were  renewed  on 
Monday  evening  after  this  sermon  was 
preached.  The  house  of  Story,  registrar 
of  the  admiralty,  was  attacked  (Aug. 
26)  and  the  public  records  and  his  private 
papers  were  destroyed;  the  house  of  the 
comptroller  of  customs  was  plundered; 
and  the  rioters,  maddened  by  spirituous 
liquors,  proceeded  to  the  mansion  of  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor Hutchinson,  on  North 
Squai'e,  carried  everything  out  of  it,  and 
burned  the  contents  in  the  public  square. 
Among  his  furniture  and  papers  perished 
many  valuable  manuscripts  relating  to  the 
history  of  Massachusetts,  which  he  had 
been  thirty  years  collecting,  and  which 
could  not  be  replaced.  The  better  part 
of  the  community  expressed  their  abhor- 
rence of  the  acts,  yet  the  rioters  went  un- 
punished, an  indication  that  they  had 
powerful  sympathizers.  Indemnification 
for  losses  by  the  officers  of  the  crown  was 
demanded  by  the  British  government  and 
agreed  to  by  Massachusetts.  Hutchinson 
received  $12,000;  Oliver,  $645;  Story, 
$255;   Hallowell,  $1,446. 

The  commissioners  of  cvistoms  arrived 
in  Boston  in  May,  1768,  and  began  their 
duties  with  diligence.  The  sloop  Liberty, 
belonging  to  John  Hancock,  arrived  in 
Boston  Harbor  June  10,  with  a  cargo  of 
wine  from  Madeira.  It  had  been  deter- 
mined by  leading  merchants  and  citizens 


381 


BOSTON 


to  resist  these  custom-house  officers  as 
illegal  tax-gatherers,  and  when  the  tide- 
waiter,  as  usual,  went  on  board  the  Lib- 
erty, on  her  arrival,  just  at  sunset,  to 
await  the  landing  of  dutiable  goods  on 
the  dock,  he  was  politely  received  and 
invited  into  the  cabin  to  drink  punch'.  At 
about  9  P.M.  he  was  confined  below, 
while  the  wine  was  landed  without  en- 
tering it  at  the  custom-house  or  observ- 
ing any  other  formula.  Then  the  tide- 
waiter  was  sent  on  shore.  In  the  morning 
the  commissioners  of  customs  ordered  the 
seizure  of  the  sloop,  and  Harrison,  the 
collector,  and  Hallowell,  the  comptroller, 
were  directed  to  perform  the  duty.  The 
vessel  was  duly  marked,  cut  from  her 
moorings,  and  placed  under  the  guns  of 
the  Romney,  a  British  ship-of-war,  in  the 
harbor.  The  people  were  greatly  excited 
by  this  act,  and  the  assembled  citizens 
soon  became  a  mob.  A  large  party  of  the 
lower  class,  headed  by  Malcolm,  a  bold 
smuggler,  pelted  Harrison  with  stones,  at- 
tacked the  office  of  the  commissioners,  and, 
dragging  a  custom-house  boat  through  the 
streets,  burned  it  upon  the  Common.  The 
frightened  commissioners  fled  for  safety 
on  board  the  Romney,  and  thence  to  Castle 
William,  in  the  harbor.  The  Sons  of  Lib- 
erty, at  a  meeting  at  Faneuil  Hall  (June 
13),  prepared  a  petition,  asking  the  gov- 
ernor to  remove  the  war-ship  from  the 
harbor.  The  Council  condemned  the  mob, 
but  the  Assembly  took  no  notice  of  the 
matter. 

The  British  troops  in  Boston  were  a 
continual  source  of  irritation.  Daily  oc- 
currences exasperated  the  people  against 
the  soldiers.  The  words  "  tyrant "  and 
"  rebel  "  frequently  passed  between  them. 
Finally  an  occuri'ence  apparently  trifling 
in  itself  led  to  riot  and  bloodshed  in  the 
streets  of  Boston.  A  rope-maker  quarrelled 
with  a  soldier  and  struck  him.  Out  of 
this  grew  a  fight  between  several  soldiers 
and  rope-makers,  when  the  latter  were 
beaten ;  and  the  event  aroused  the  more 
excitable  portion  of  the  citizens.  A  few 
evenings  afterwards  (March  5,  1770) 
about  700  of  them  assembled  in  the  streets 
for  the  avowed  purpose  of  attacking  the 
troops.  Near  the  custom-house  a  sentinel 
was  assaulted  with  missiles,  when  Captain 
Preston,  commander  of  the  guard,  went 
to  his  rescue  with  eight  men.     The  mob 


attacked  these  soldiers  with  stones,  pieces 
of  ice,  and  other  missiles,  daring  them  to 
fire.  One  of  the  soldiers  who  received  a 
blow  fired,  and  his  companions,  mistak- 
ing an  order,  fired  also.  Three  of  the  pop- 
ulace were  killed  and  five  were  dangerous- 
ly wounded.  The  leader  of  the  mob  (who 
was  killed)  was  a  powerful  mulatto  or 
Indian  named  Crispus  Attucks.  The  mob 
instantly  retreated,  when  all  the  bells 
of  the  city  rang  out  an  alarm,  and  in  less 
than  an  hour  several  thousands  of  exas- 
perated citizens  were  in  *the  streets.  A 
terrible  scene  of  bloodshed  might  have  en- 
sued had  not  Governor  Hutchinson  as- 
sured the  people  that  justice  should  be 
vindicated  in  the  morning.  They  retired, 
but  were  firmly  resolved  not  to  endure  mil- 
itary despotism  any  longer.  The  governor 
was  called  upon  at  an  early  hour  to  fulfil 
his  promise.  The  people  demanded  the 
instant  removal  of  the  troops  from  Boston 
and  the  trial  of  Captain  Preston  and  his 
men  for  murder.  Their  demands  were 
complied  with.  The  troops  were  removed 
to  Castle  William  (March  12),  and  Pres- 
ton, ably  defended  by  John  Adams  and 
Josiah  Quincy,  two  of  the  popular  lead- 
ers in  Boston,  was  tried  and  acquitted, 
with  six  of  his  men,  by  a  Boston  jury. 
This  loyalty  to  justice  and  truth,  in  the 
midst  of  unreasoning  public  excitement, 
gave  the  friends  of  the  Americans  in  Eng- 
land a  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  be- 
ing just  towards  the  colonists. 

The  "  Boston  Tea  Party  "  is  a  popular 
name  given  to  an  occurrence  in  Boston 
Harbor  in  December,  1773.  To  compel 
Great  Britain  to  be  just ,  towards  her 
American  colonies,  in  the  matter  of  en- 
forced taxation  in  the  form  of  duties  upon 
articles  imported  into  the  colonies,  imposed 
by  English  navigation  laws,  the  merchants 
of  the  latter  entered  into  agreements  not 
to  import  anything  from  Great  Britain 
while  such  oppressive  laws  existed.  The 
consequence  was  British  manufacturers 
and  shipping  merchants  felt  the  loss  of 
the  American  trade  severely.  The  Parlia- 
ment had  declared  their  right  to  tax  the 
colonists  without  their  consent;  the  lat- 
ter took  the  position  that  "  taxation  with- 
out representation  is  tyranny,"  and  re- 
sisted. The  quarrel  had  grown  hotter 
and  hotter.  Some  of  the  duties  were  re- 
moved  under   pressure;    but   several   arti- 


382 


BOSTON 


cles,  among  them  tea,  were  still  burdened 
by  duties  in  1773.  The  English  East 
India  Company  felt  the  loss  of  their 
American  customers  for  tea,  of  which  they 
had  the  monopoly,  most  severely,  and  of- 
fered to  pay  the  government,  as  an  export 
duty,  more  than  the  threepence  a  pound 
exacted  in  America,  if  they  might  deliver 
it  there  free  of  duty.  The  government  con- 
sidered  itself   in  honor   bound   to   enforce 


mense  indignation  meeting  of  the  citizens 
was  held  in  the  Old  South  Meeting-house, 
and,  at  twilight,  on  a  cold  moonlit  even- 
ing, on  Dec.  16,  1773,  about  sixty  men,  dis- 
guised as  Indians,  rushed,  by  preconcert, 
to  the  wharf,  boarded  the  vessels,  tore 
open  the  hatches,  and  cast  340  chests  of 
tea  into  the  waters  of  the  harbor.  See 
Hutchinson,  Thomas. 

When  intelligence  reached  London  of  the 


'\ 


CASTING    TEA    OVERBOARD    IN    BOSTON   HARBOR. 


its  laws,  just  or  unjust,  instead  of  con- 
ciliating the  Americans  by  compliance.  It 
allowed  the  East  India  Company  to  take 
their  tea  to  America  on  their  own  account 
free  of  export  duty.  As  this  arrangement 
would  enable  the  Americans  to  procure 
their  tea  as  cheaply  as  if  it  were  duty 
free,  the  ministry  supposed  they  would 
submit.  But  there  was  a  principle  which 
the  colonists  would  not  yield.  However 
small  the  tax,  if  levied  loithout  their  con- 
sent, they  regarded  it  as  oppressive.  They 
refused  to  allow  any  cargo  of  tea  even 
to  be  landed  in  some  of  their  ports.  Ves- 
sels were  sent  immediately  back  with 
their  cargoes  untouched.  Two  ships  laden 
with  tea  were  moored  at  a  wharf  in  Bos- 
ton, and  the  royal  governor  and  his  friends 
attempted  to  have  their  cargoes  landed 
in  defiance  of  the  popular  will.     An  im- 


destruction  of  tea  in  Boston  Harbor  there 
was  almost  universal  indignation,  and  the 
friends  of  the  Americans  were  abashed. 
Ministerial  anger  rose  to  a  high  pitch,  and 
Lord  North  introduced  into  Parliament 
(March  14,  1774)  a  bill  providing  for  the 
shutting-up  of  the  port  of  Boston  and 
removing  the  seat  of  government  to  Salem. 
The  measure  was  popular.  Even  Barre 
and  Conway  gave  it  their  approval,  and 
the  Bostonians  removed  their  portraits 
from  Faneuil  Hall.  Violent  language  was 
used  in  Parliament  against  the  people  of 
Boston.  "  They  ought  to  have  their  town 
knocked  about  their  ears  and  destroyed," 
said  a  member,  and  concluded  his  tirade 
of  abuse  by  quoting  the  factious  cry  of 
the  Romans,  "  Delenda  est  Carthago." 
Burke  denounced  the  bill  as  unjust,  as 
it  would  punish  the  innocent  for  the  sins 


383 


BOSTON 


of  the  guilty.  The  bill  was  passed  by 
an  almost  unanimous  vote,  and  became 
a  law  March  31,  1774.  The  King  believed 
that  the  torture  which  the  closing  of  the 
port  would  inflict  upon  the  inhabitants 
of  that  town  would   make  them   speedily 


completed,  and  became  the  source  of  great 
irritation  among  the  people.  They  stretch- 
ed entirely  across  the  isthmus,  and  inter- 
course between  the  town  and  country  was 
narrowed  to  a  passage  guarded  by  a  mili- 
tary sentinel.     The  fortifications  consisted 


cry  for  mercy  and  procure  unconditional    of  a  line  of  works  of  timber  and  earth. 


VIEW   OP   THE    LINES  ON   BOSTON  NECK. 


obedience.     Not  so.     When  the  act  was  re-    with    port-holes    for    cannon,    a    strongly 
ceived  at  Boston,  its  committee  of  corre-    built  sally-port  in  the  centre,  and  pickets 


spondence  invited  eight  of  the  neighbor- 
ing towns  to  a  conference  "  on  the  critical 
state  of  public  affairs."  At  three  o'clock 
on  the  afternoon  of  May  12,  1774,  the 
committees  of  Dorchester,  Roxbury,  Brook- 
line,  Newtown,  Cambridge,  Charlestown, 
Lynn,  and  Lexington  joined  them  in  Fan- 
euil  Hall.  Samuel  Adams  was  chosen 
chairman.     They    denounced    the    Boston 


extending  into  the  water  at  each  end. 

With  the  efficient  aid  of  General  Gates, 
adjutant-general  of  the  Continental  army, 
Washington  determined  to  prepare  for  a 
regular  siege  of  Boston,  and  to  confine  the 
British  troops  to  that  peninsula  or  drive 
them  out  to  sea.  The  siege  continued  from 
June,  1775,  until  March,  1776.  Fortifica- 
tions were  built,  a  thorough  organization 


Port  act  as  cruel  and  unjust,  by  accusing,    of  the  army  was  effected,  and  all  that  in- 


trying,  and  condemning  the  town  of  Bos- 
ton without  a  hearing,  contrary  to  natural 
right  as  well  as  the  laws  of  civilized  na- 
tions. The  delegates  from  the  eight  towns 
were  told  that  if  Boston  should  pay  for 
the  tea  the  port  would  not  be  closed ;  but 
their  neighbors  held  such  a  measure  to  be 
uncalled  for  under  the  circumstances,  and 
the  humiliating  offer  not  worthy  to  be 
thought  of.  They  nobly  promised  to  join 
'•'  their  suffering  brethren  in  every  measure 
of  relief." 

Alarmed  by  warlike  preparations  every- 
where in  1774,  General  Gage  began  to 
fortify  Boston  Neck,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
fence only,  as  he  declared.  The  Neck  was 
a  narrow  isthmus  that  connected  the  pen- 
insula of  Shawmut,  on  which  Bostam 
stood,  with  the  mainland  at  Roxbury.  He 
also  removed  the  seat  of  government  from 
Salem  back  to  Boston.  The  work  of  forti- 
fying went  slowly  on,  for  British  gold 
could  not  buy  the  labor  of  Boston  car- 
penters, though  suffering  from  the  dread- 
ful depression,  and  workmen  had  to  be 
procured  elsewhere.  Workmen  and  tim- 
ber shipped  at  New  York  for  Boston  for 
carrying  on  the  fortifications  were  de- 
tained by  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty  "  in  the 
latter  city.    Finally  the  fortifications  were 


dustry  and  skill  could  do,  with  the  ma- 
terials in  hand,  to  strike  an  effectual  blow 
was  done.  All  through  the  remainder  of 
the  summer  and  the  autumn  of  1775  these 
preparations  went  on,  and  late  in  the  year 
the  American  army  around  Boston,  14,000 
strong,  extended  from  Roxbury,  on  the 
right,  to  Prospect  Hill  2  miles  northwest 
of  Breed's  Hill,  on  the  left.  The  right 
was  commanded  by  Gen.  Artemas  Ward, 
and  the  left  by  Gen.  Charles  Lee.  The 
centre,  at  Cambridge,  was  under  the  im- 
mediate command  of  Washington.  The 
enlistments  of  many  of  the  troops  would 
expire  with  the  year.  Many  refused  to 
re-enlist.  The  Connecticut  troops  demand- 
ed a  bounty;  and  when  it  was  refused, 
because  the  Congress  had  not  authorized 
it,  they  resolved  to  leave  camp  in  a  body. 
Many  did  go,  and  never  came  back.  But 
at  that  dark  hour  new  and  patriotic  efforts 
were  made  to  keep  up  the  army,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  year  nearly  all  the  regi- 
ments were  full,  and  10,000  minute-men  in 
New  England  stood  ready  to  swell  the 
ranks.  On  Jan.  1,  1776,  the  new  army 
was  organized,  and  consisted  of  about 
10,000  men.  The  British  troops  in  Boston 
numbered  about  8,000,  exclusive  of  ma- 
rines on  the  ships-of-war.     They  were  well 


384 


BOSTON 


V]E\V   OF   BOSTON    FROM    DORCHESTER   HEIGHTS   IX    1774. 


supplied  with  provisions,  and,  having  been  British  army  was  to  fly  to  the  ocean.  He 
promised  ample  reinforcements  in  the  offered  to  evacuate  the  town  and  harbor 
spring,  they  were  prepared  to  sit  quietly  if  Washington  would  allow  him  to  do  so 
in  Boston  and  wait  for  them.  They  con-  quietly.  The  boon  was  granted,  and  on 
verted  the  Old  South  Meeting-house  into  a  Sunday,  March  17,  1776,  the  British  fleet 
riding-school,  and  Faneuil  Hall  into  a  and  army,  accompanied  by  more  than 
theatre,  while  Washington,  yet  wanting  1,000  loyalists,  who  dared  not  brave  the 
ammunition  to  begin  a  vigorous  attack,  anger  of  the  patriots,  whom  they  had  op- 
was  chafing  with  impatience  to  "  break  up  pressed,  left  the  city  and  harbor,  never  to 
the  nest."  He  waited  for  the  ice  in  the  return  in  force.  The  event  gave  great  joy 
rivers  to  become  strong  enough  to  allow  to  the  American  people,  and  the  Conti- 
his  troops  and  artillery  to  cross  over  on  nental  Congress  caused  a  medal  of  gold 
it  and  assail  the  enemy;  but  the  winter  to  be  struck,  with  appropriate  devices,  and 
was  mild,  and  no  opportunity  of  that  kind  presented  to  Washington,  with  the  thanks 
offered  until  February,  when  a  council  of  of  the  nation.  When  the  British  rear- 
officers  decided  that  the  undertaking  would  guard  left  Boston,  the  vanguard  of  the 
be  too  hazardous.  Finally  Colonel  Knox,  American  army  marched  in,  and  were  re- 
who  had  been  sent  to  Ticonderoga  to  ceived  by  the  inhabitants  with  demonstra- 
bring  away  cannon  and  mortars  from  that  tions  of  great  joy.  They  had  endured 
place,  returned  with  more  than  fifty  great  dreadful  sufferings  for  more  than  sixteen 
guns.  Powder  began  to  increase.  Ten  months — hunger,  thirst,  cold,  privations  of 
militia  regiments  came  in  to  increase  the  every  kind,  and  the  outrages  and  insults 
strength  of  the  besiegers.     Heavy  cannon  of  insolent  soldiers,  who  treated  them  as 


were  placed  in  battery  before  Boston. 
Secretly  Dorchester  Heights  was  occupied 
by  the  Americans,  and  fortified  in  a  single 
night.  Howe  saw,  for  the  first  time,  that 
he  was  in  real  danger,  for  the  cannon  at 
Dorchester  commanded  the  to^vn.  First  he 
tried  to  dislodge  the  provincials.  He  fail- 
ed. A  council  of  war  determined  that  the 
only   method   of   securing    safety    for   the 


rebels,  without  rights  which  the  British 
were  bound  to  respect.  The  most  neces- 
sary articles  of  food  had  risen  to  enormous 
prices,  and  horse-flesh  was  welcomed, 
when  it  could  be  procured,  as  a  savory 
dish.  For  a  supply  of  fuel,  the  pews 
and  benches  of  churches  and  the  partitions 
and  counters  of  warehouses  were  used,  and 
even    some    of    the    meaner    uninhabited 


I. — 2  B 


385 


BOSTON    MASSACRE— BOUDINOT 


dwellings  were  demolished  for  the  same 
purpose. 

In  1822  Boston  was  first  incorpo- 
rated a  city,  and  John  Phillips  was  elect- 
ed the  first  mayor.  It  then  contained 
about  50,000  inhabitants.  The  1st  of  May 
was  appointed  by  the  charter  the  begin- 
ning of  its  municipal  year,  and  the  cere- 
monies of  inducting  the  mayor  and  other 
officers  into  their  official  places  were  at- 
tended at  Faneuil  Hall.  After  an  in- 
troductory prayer  by  Rev.  Dr.  Baldwin, 
senior  minister  of  the  city,  Chief-Justice 
Parker  administered  the  oaths  of  allegi- 
ance and  office  to  the  mayor-elect,  who  ad- 
ministered similar  oaths  to  other  officers. 
The  chairman  of  the  selectmen  then  arose, 
and,  after  an  address  to  the  mayor,  de- 
livered to  him  the  city  charter,  contained 
in  a  superb  silver  case,  with  the  ancient 
act  incorporating  the  town  nearly  200 
years  before.  Since  becoming  a  city  Bos- 
ton has  had  but  one  serious  interruption 
in  its  prosperous  advance.  On  the  even- 
ing of,  Nov.  9,  1872,  a  fire  broke  out  which 
swept  over  65  acres  of  ground,  in  which 
the  principal  wholesale  warehouses  were 
located,  and  created  a  loss  of  over  $75,- 
000,000.  In  less  than  three  years  after- 
wards the  whole  of  this  district  was  rebuilt 
in  a  substantial  manner,  the  principal 
thoroughfares  being  enlarged  and  other- 
wise improved.  Among  the  notable  works 
of  municipal  improvements  in  recent 
years,  the  most  important  are  the  re- 
covery and  building  up  of  the  "  back  bay  " 
district;  the  annexation  of  numerous  sub- 
urban towns;  the  completion  of  a  new 
system  of  water-works;  the  extension  of 
its  magnificent  public-park  system ;  and 
the  construction  of  the  "  subway,"  or  un- 
derground railway. 

Boston  Massacre.     See  Boston. 

Boston  Protest  Against  Taxation. 
See  Adams,  Samuel. 

Boston  Tea  Party.  See  Boston; 
Hutchinson,  Thomas. 

Botetourt,  Norborne  Berkeley.  Baron, 
colonial  governor;  born  in  Gloucester- 
shire, England,  about  1717.  But  little  is 
known  of  his  career  in  his  earlier  life. 
He  was  colonel  of  the  Gloucestershire 
militia,  and  was  summoned  to  Parliament 
as  Baron  Botetourt  (the  title  having  been 
in  abeyance  since  1406)  in  April,  1764. 
He  succeeded  Sir  Jefi'rey  Amherst  as  gov- 


ernor-in-chief of  Virginia,  and  arrived 
there  in  November,  1768.  Having  been 
instructed  to  assume  great  dignity,  he 
appeared  in  the  stieets  of  Williamsburg 
in  a  coach,  Avith  guards  and  other  in- 
signia of  vice-regal  pomp;  and  entered 
upon  his  duties  with  a  determination  to 
enforce  submission  to  parliamentary  au- 
thority. With  a  generous  mind  he  per- 
ceived the  righteousness  of  colonial  indig- 
nation because  of  the  taxation  schemes  of 
the  ministry,  and  he  forwarded  to  Eng- 
land remonstrances  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  people,  with  his  own  opinion 
against  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  parlia- 
mentary measures.  In  interfering  with 
the  wishes  of  the  people,  he  obeyed  in- 
structions rather  than  the  promptings  of 
his  own  will.  A  malarial  fever  which 
attacked  him  was  so  aggravated  by  cha- 
grin because  of  the  aspect  of  political  af- 
fairs that  he  died  at  his  post  Oct.  15, 
1770.  The  colony  erected  his  statue  in 
front  of  the  capitol  in  1774,  for  he  was 
generally  beloved  by  the  people.  In  1797 
it  was  removed  to  the  front  of  William 
and  Mary  College,  of  which  he  w^as  a  bene- 
factor; and  thence  it  was  taken  to  the 
enclosure  of  the  Asylum  for  the  Insane 
in  Williamsburg  during  the  Civil  War. 

Boudinot,  Elias,  philanthropist;  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  2,  1740;  began 
the  practice  of  law  in  New  Jersey,  and  was 
an  early  advocate  of  freedom  for  the  Amer- 
ican colonies.  Congress  appointed  him 
commissary-general  of  prisoners  in  1777; 
and  during  the  same  year  he  Avas  elected 
a  member  of  that  body.  He  became  its 
president  in  1782,  and  as  such  he  signed 
the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  peace. 
Mr.  Boudinot  resumed  the  practice  of  law 
in  1789.  In  1796  Washington  appointed 
him  superintendent  of  the  mint,  Avhich 
position  he  held  until  1805,  when  he  re- 
signed all  public  employments,  and  re- 
tired to  Burlington.  On  becoming  trus- 
tee of  the  College  of  Princeton  in  1805, 
he  endowed  it  with  a  valuable  cabinet  of 
natural  history.  Mr.  Boudinot  took  great 
interest  in  foreign  missions,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  board  of  commissioners 
in  1812;  and  in  1816  he  was  chosen  the 
first  president  of  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety ( q.  V. ) ,  to  both  of  which  and  to 
bencA'olent  institutions  he  made  munifi- 
cent donations.    Dr.  Boudinot  was  the  au- 


386 


BOUGAINVILLE— BOUTON 

thor  of  The  Age  of  Revelation;  Second  was  active  in  western  Pennsylvania  in 
Advent  of  the  Messiah;  and  Star  in  the  connection  with  operations  against  Fort 
West, or  an  Attempt  to  Discover  the  Long-  Duquesne;  also  in  relieving  Fort  Pitt 
lost  Tribes  of  Israel.  He  died  in  Burling-  in  1763.  During  Pontiac's  war  Fort 
ton,  N»  J"  Oct.  24,  1821.  Pitt  (now  Pittsburg,  Pa.)  was  in  immi- 
Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de,  navi-  nent  danger,  and  Colonel  Bouquet  was  sent 
gator;  born  in  Paris,  France,  Nov.  11,  to  its  relief.  He  arrived  at  Fort  Bedford, 
1729;  he  served  as  aide-de-camp  to  the  in  western  Pennsylvania,  on  July  25, 
Marquis  de  Montcalm  during  the  French  1763,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  eigh- 
and  Indian  War,  and  on  his  return  to  teen  persons  had  been  made  prisoners  or 
Europe  was  made  a  colonel  and  a  knight  scalped  by  the  Indians.  The  barbarians 
of  St.  Louis.  In  1778  he  commanded  a  were  then  besieging  Fort  Pitt.  As  soon 
division  of  the  ships  of  the  line,  and  was  as  they  heard  of  the  approach  of  Bouquet, 
in  several  engagements  between  the  they  raised  the  siege  with  the  intention 
French  and  English  fleets.  When  De  of  meeting  and  attacking  him.  Uncer- 
Grasse  was  defeated  by  Rodney,  Bougain-  tain  of  their  strength  and  motives,  Bou- 
ville  was  in  command  of  the  Auguste,  and  quet  left  Fort  Bedford  and  went  to  Fort 
by  clever  manoeuvring  escaped  with  eight  Ligonier,  where  he  left  his  wagons  and 
of  his  ships  to  St.  Eustace.  He  died  Aug.  stores,  and  pushed  on  towards  Fort  Pitt, 
31,  1811.  with  the  troops  in  light  marching  order, 
Bound  Brook,  Action  at.  A  consider-  and  340  pack-horses  carrying  flour.  On 
able  force  under  General  Lincoln,  detached  Aug.  5  his  advanced  guard  was  attacked 
to  guard  the  upper  valley  of  the  Raritan  near  Bushy  Run  by  Indians  in  ambus- 
River,  in  New  Jersey,  was  stationed  at  cade,  who  were  driven  some  distance  by 
Bound  Brook  in  April,  1777.  It  was  not  the  troops.  The  barbarians  returned  to  the 
far  from  a  British  post  at  New  Bruns-  attack,  and  a  general  action  ensued,  the 
wick.  Owing  to  the  negligence  of  a  militia  Indians  being  continually  repulsed  and 
guard,  Lincoln  came  near  being  surprised  then  returning  to  the  fight.  They  were 
by  a  detachment  under  Cornwallis,  which  finally  driven  from  their  posts  with  fixed 
marched  out  of  New  Brunswick  (April  bayonets  and  dispersed.  They  rallied,  and 
13)  and  fell  suddenly  upon  the  Ameri-  the  next  morning  surrounded  Bouquet's 
cans.  The  latter,  after  a  sharp  action,  camp.  After  a  severe  confiict,  they  were 
escaped  with  the  loss  of  twenty  men,  two  again  dispersed.  In  these  engagements 
pieces  of  artillery,  and  some  baggage.  the  English  lost  fifty  killed  and  sixty 
Boundary.  See  Ashburton;  Mason  wounded.  Colonel  Bouquet  reached  Fort 
AND  Dixon  Line;  San  Juan.  Pitt  four  days  afterwards,  and  the  cam- 
Boundary  Commission.  See  Cleve-  paign  was  closed.  In  1764  he  subdued 
land,  Grover;  Venezuela.  the  Ohio  Indians,  and  compelled  the  Shaw- 
Bounty-Jumper,  a  term  applied  dur-  nees  and  Delawares  'to  make  peace.  Dr. 
ing  the  Civil  War  to  any  one  who  became  William  Smith,  of  Philadelphia,  wrote 
a  recruit  in  the  army  simply  to  procure  a  history  of  this  expedition.  Bouquet  died 
the  bounty  paid  to  volunteers  for  enlist-  in  Pensacola  in  1766.  See  Du  Quesne,  FoRT. 
ing,  and  then  deserted.  There  were  men  Boutell,  Henry  Sherman.  See  Ship- 
who  made  bounty-jumping  a  regular  busi-  building. 

ness.     They  would  enlist  in  one  place  un-  Bouton,    Nathaniel,    clergyman;    born 

der  an  assumed  name,  go  to  the  front,  and  in  Norwalk,  Conn..  June    29.  1797;  grad- 

after    receiving    the    bounty,    desert,    and  uated    at   Yale    College    in    1821;    ordain- 

repeat  the  operation  under  another  name  ed     a     minister     of     the     Congregational 

and  in  some  other  place.  Church  in  1825,  and  was  appointed  State 

Bouquet,  Henry,  military  officer;  born  historian    of    New    Hampshire    in    1867. 

in   Rolle,   Switzerland,   in   1719.     In    1748  Among    his    writings    are    a    History    of 

he    was    lieutenant-colonel    of    the    Swiss  Education     in      New      Hampshire;      The 

Guard  in  the  service  of  Holland;   and  he  Fathers  of  the  New  Hampshire  Ministry; 

entered  the  English  service  with  the  same  History    of    Concord,    N.    H.;    Collections 

rank  in  1756.     In  1762  he  was  made  colo-  of    the    New    Hampshire    Historical    So- 

nel,  and  in  1765  brigadier-general.  Bouquet  ciety;    and   many   volumes    of    provincial 

387 


BOUTWELL— BOWIE 


records.  He  died  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  June 
G,  1878. 

Boutwell,  George  Sewall,  statesman; 
born  in  Brookline,  Mass.,  Jan.  28,  1818; 
the  son  of  a  farmer;  studied  law,  but 
never  practised  it,  turning  bis  attention 
to  politics.  He  was  seven  times  chosen 
to  a  seat  in  the  Massachusetts  legislat- 
ure, and  became  the  leader  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  in  his  State.  In  1850  he  was 
chosen  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1852.  In  1862  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  and  was  twice  re-elect- 
ed. He  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the 
impeachment  of  President  Johnson,  and 
was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  from  1869 
to  1873,  when  he  became  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate,  his  term  ending  in 
1879.  He  i>ublished  Educational  Topics 
and  Institutions;  his  most  important 
work.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  at  the  End  of  the  First  Century ; 
and  several  Avorks  on  taxation  and  politi- 
cal economy. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  mathematician 
and  astronomer ;  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
March  26,  1773;  learned  the  business  of 
a  ship-chandler,  and  then  spent  nine  years 
on  the  sea,  attaining  the  rank  of  mas- 
ter. With  great  native  talent  and  equal 
industry,  he  became  one  of  the  greatest 
men  of  science  of  his  time.  While  he  was 
yet  on  the  sea  he  published  (1800)  his 
Practical   Navigator.     He  made   the   first 


NATHANIEL   BOWDITCH. 


entire  translation  into  English  of  La 
Place's  Mecanique  Celeste,  and  published 
it,  in  4  volumes,  in  1829,  with  most 
valuable  commentaries,  in  which  were  re- 


corded the  more  recent  discoveries  in  as- 
tronomy. It  was  estimated  that  there 
were  at  that  time  only  two  or  three  per- 
sons in  America,  and  not  more  than  twelve 
in  Great  Britain,  who  were  able  to  read 
the  original  work  critically.  La  Place 
added  much  to  his  work  many  years  after 
it  was  published.  Bowditch  translated 
this  supplement;  and  it  has  been  publish- 
ed, as  a  fifth  volume,  under  the  editorial 
care  of  Prof.  Benjamin  Peirce,  with  an 
elaborate  commentary.  Bowditch  had  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  various  languages, 
and  drew  his  great  store  of  knowledge 
from  many  sources.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  principal  scientific  societies  in 
Europe.  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March 
16,  1838. 

Bowdoin,  James,  statesman;  born  in 
Boston,  Aug.  8,  1727;  was  a  descendant 
of  Pierre  Bowdoin,  a  Huguenot  who  fled 
to  America  from  persecution  in  France. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1745, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  General 
Court,  a  Senator  of  Massachusetts,  and  a 
councillor.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
colonists,  was  president  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Council  in  1775,  and  •  was  chosen 
president  of  the  convention  that  framed 
the  State  constitution.  He  succeeded  Han- 
cock as  governor.  By  vigorous  measures 
he  suppressed  the  rebellion  led  by  Daniel 
Shays  (q.  v.).  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Nov.  6,  1790.  His  son  James,  born  Sept. 
22,  1752;  died  Oct.  11,  1811;  also  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  (1771),  and  afterwards 
spent  a  year  at  Oxford.  He  was  minister 
to  Spain  from  1805  to  1808;  and  while  in 
Paris  he  purchased  an  extensive  library, 
philosophical  apjaaratus,  and  a  collection 
of  paintings,  which,  with  a  fine  cabinet 
of  minerals,  he  left  at  his  death  to  Bow- 
doin College,  so  named  in  honor  of  his 
father.  He  had  before  made  a  donation 
to  the  college  of  1,000  acres  of  land  and 
more  than  $5,000  in  money.  By  his  will 
he  also  gave  the  college  6,000  acres  of 
land  and  the  reversion  of  the  Island  of 
Naushon,  one  of  the  Elizabeth  Islands 
in  Buzzard's  Bay,  where  he  died. 

Bowie,  James,  military  officer;  born 
in  Burke  county,  Ga.,  about  1790:  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Texas  revolution, 
and  in  January,  1836,  was  ordered  to 
San  Antonio  de  Bexar,  where  he  joined 
Colonels    Travis    and    Crockett,    and    was 


388 


BOWLES— BOYD 


killed  with  them  at  the  taking  of  the 
Alamo  {q.  v.),  March  6,  1836.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  Bowde  knife. 

Bowles,  Samuel,  journalist;  born  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  9,  1826;  entered 
the  printing-office  of  the  Springfield  Re- 
jjuiMcan  while  a  boy.  and  soon  became  the 
general  manager  of  the  paper.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1851  the  entire 
management  devolved  on  him.  The  paper 
acquired  the  largest  circulation  of  any 
daily  paper  in  New  England  outside  of 
Boston,  and  exerted  a  large  influence  not 
only  throughout  New  England  but  in  the 
country  at  large.  In  1872  the  Republican 
became  an  independent  paper  and  sup- 
ported Mr.  Greeley.  He  died  in  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  Jan.  'l6,   1878. 

Bowyer,  Fort,  Attack  upois".  At  the 
entrance  to  Mobile  Bay,  30  miles  from 
the  village  of  Mobile,  was  Fort  Bo\A'yer 
(afterwards  Fort  Morgan),  occupying  the 
extremity  of  a  narrow  cape  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  entrance,  and  commanding 
the  channel  between  it  and  Fort  Dauphin 
opposite.  It  was  a  small  work,  in  semi- 
circular form  towards  the  channel,  with- 
out bomb-proofs,  and  mounting  only  twen- 
ty guns,  nearly  all  of  them  12-pounders. 
It  was  the  chief  defence  of  Mobile;  and  in 
it  Jackson,  on  his  return  from  Pensa- 
cola,  placed  Maj.  William  Lawrence  and 
130  men.  On  Sept.  12,  1814,  a  British 
squadron  appeared  off  Mobile  Point  with 
land  troops,  and  very  soon  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Nichols  appeared  in  rear  of  the 
fort  with  a  few  marines  and  600  Ind- 
ians. The  squadron  consisted  of  the 
Hermes,  twenty-two  guns;  Sophia,  eigh- 
teen; Caron,  twenty;  and  Anaconda, 
eighteen  —  the  whole  under  Captain 
Percy,  the  commander  of  a  squadron 
of  nine  vessels  which  Jackson  drove  from 
Pensacola  Bay.  By  a  skilful  use  of  his 
cannon,  Lawrence  dispersed  parties  who 
tried  to  cast  up  intrenchments  and  sound 
the  channel.  Early  in  the  afternoon  of 
the  15th  the  British  began  an  attack  on 
land  and  water.  The  garrison  adopted  as 
the  signal  for  the  day  "  Don't  give  up  the 
fort."  A  fierce  and  general  battle  ensued, 
and  continued  until  half-past  five  o'clock, 
when  the  flag  of  the  Hermes  was  shot 
away.  Lawrence  ceased  firing  to  ascer- 
tain whether  she  had  surrendered.  This 
humane  act  was  answered  by  a  broadside 


from  another  vessel.  A  raking  fire  soon 
disabled  the  Hermes.  At  length  the  flag- 
staff of  the  fort  was  shot  away,  when  the 
ships  redoubled  their  fire.  Supposing  the 
tort  had  surrendered,  the  British  leader 
on  land  assailed  it  with  his  Indians.  He 
was  soon  undeceived.  They  were  driven 
back  by  a  terrible  storm  of  grape-shot,  and 
fled  in  terror.  The  battered  ships  with- 
drew, all  but  the  Hermes.  She  was  set 
on  fire  by  her  friends,  and  at  midnight  her 
magazine  exploded.  The  British,  who  had 
brought  to  bear  upon  Fort  Bowyer  ninety- 
two  pieces  of  artillery,  and  arrayed  over 
1.300  men  against  a  garrison  of  130,  were 
repulsed  with  a  loss  of  232  men,  of  whom 
162  were  killed.  The  loss  of  the  Ameri- 
cans was  four  men  killed  and  four 
wounded.  See  JMobile;  Morgan  and 
Gaines,  Forts. 

Boxers.     See  China. 

Boycotting',  a  practice  which  derives 
its  name  from  Capt.  C.  C.  Boycott,  of 
Lough  Mask  House,  in  Mayo,  Ireland,  who 
in  1880,  as  land  agent  of  Lord  Erne,  an 
Irish  nobleman,  evicted  a  large  number  of 
tenants.  These  with  their  friends  re- 
fused to  either  work  for  him  or  trade  with 
him,  and  would  not  permit  others  to  do  so. 
Finally  sixty  Orangemen  from  the  north 
of  Ireland,  armed  with  revolvers  and  sup- 
ported by  a  strong  escort  of  cavalry,  or- 
ganized themselves  into  a  "  Boycott  relief 
expedition,"  and  after  gathering  his  crops 
carried  him  to  a  place  of  safety.  In  the 
United  States  and  England  the  boycott  is 
sometimes  used  by  trade  unions  in  times 
of  strikes.  More  or  less  stringent  laws 
against  boycotting  have  been  enacted  in 
Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Colorado,  Connecticut, 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
New  York,  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Michigan,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Ore- 
gon, South  Dakota,  Texas,  Utah,  and  Ver- 
mont. 

Boyd,  John  Parker,  military  officer; 
born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Dec.  21, 
1764;  entered  the  military  service  of  the 
United  States  in  1786,  but  soon  after- 
wards went  to  the  East  Indies  and  entered 
the  Mahratta  service,  in  which  he  rose 
to  the  rank  of  commander,  and  at  one  time 
led  10,000  men.  He  first  raised  three 
battalions  of  500  men  each,  with  a  few 
English  oflicers.  whom,  as  well  as  his  men, 
he  hired,  at  a  certain  amount  a  month,  to 


389 


BOYDEN— BOYDTON  PLANK  ROAD 


any  of  the  Indian  princes  who  needed  their 
services.  Their  equipment,  including  guns 
and  elephants,  was  at  his  own  expense. 
He  was  at  one  time  in  the  pay  of  Holkar, 
in  the   Peishwa's   service,   and   afterwards 


JOU.V    I'AHKER    BOY]). 


in  that  of  Nizam  Ali  Khan.  Arriving  at 
Madras  in  July,  1789,  he  was  given,  by 
the  ruler,  the  command  of  10,000  men. 
When  demands  for  his  services  almost 
ceased,  he  sold  out  and  went  to  Paris.  In 
1808  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
re-entered  the  army  as  colonel  of  the  4th 
Infantry  on  Oct.  7  of  that  year.  In 
that  capacity  he  was  distinguished  in  the 
battle  at  Tippecanoe  (g.  v.),  Nov.  7, 
1811.  Boyd  was  commissioned  brigadier- 
general  Aug.  26,  1812.  He  was  in  com- 
mand of  1,500  men  in  the  expedition 
down  the  St.  Lawrence  in  1813;  and 
fought  bravely  at  Chrysler's  Field,  in  Can- 
ada, Nov.  11,  1813.  He  led  his  brigade 
in  the  capture  of  Fort  George,  Upper  Can- 
ada. General  Boyd  was  appointed  naval 
officer  at  the  port  of  Boston  early  in 
1830,  and  died  there  Oct.  4  of  that  year. 

Boyden,  Seth,  inventor;  born  in  Fox- 
boro,  Mass.,  Nov.  17,  1788 ;  was  educated 
at  a  district  school.  His  mechanical  in- 
clination led  him  to  pass  much  time  ex- 
perimenting in  a  blacksmith  shop.  He 
first  devised  a  machine  for  making  nails 


and  files.  Later  he  designed  a  machine  to 
split  leather,  and  in  1815  took  it  to  New- 
ai'k,  N.  J.  and  engaged  in  leather  manu- 
facture. In  1816  he  made  a  machine  to  cut 
brads,  and  afterwards  invented  patent 
leather,  which  he  manufactured  until  1831, 
when  with  a  system  of  his  own  he  began 
making  malleable-iron  castings.  In  1835 
he  gave  his  attention  to  steam-engines, 
and  both  changed  the  crank  in  locomotives 
to  the  straight  axle  and  made  the  cut-off 
to  take  the  place  of  the  throttle-valve.  He 
went  to  California  in  1849,  but  meeting 
with  no  success,  returned  to  New  Jersey, 
engaged  in  farming,  and  produced  a  vari- 
ety of  strawberry  never  before  equalled 
in  size  or  quality.  He  spent  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  where  a 
statue  of  him  has  been  erected.  He  died  in 
Middleville,  N.  J.,  March  31,  1870. 

Boydton  Plank  Road,  Battle  of. 
After  the  National  troops  had  taken  pos- 
session of  the  Weldon  Railroad,  the  Boyd- 
ton plank  road  became  the  chief  channel  of 
communication  for  Lee  in  that  quarter, 
and  he  extended  his  intrenchments  along 
its  line  to  the  vicinity  of  Hatcher's  Run. 
The  corps  of  Warren  and  Parke  were  sent 
to  assail  the  extreme  right  of  these  in- 
trenchments, while  Hancock's  corps  and 
Gregg's  cavalry,  well  towards  its  left, 
sliould  swing  around  to  the  west  side  of 
Hatcher's  Run,  sweep  across  the  Boydton 
road,  and  seize  the  Southside  Railway.  The 
Boydton  road  was  a  few  miles  west  of  the 
Weldon  Railway.  The  movement  began  on 
the  morning  of  Oct.  27,  1864,  and  at  nine 
o'clock  the  Confederate  line  was  struck, 
but  it  was  not  broken.  Warren's  corps 
made  its  way  to  the  west  of  Hatcher's 
Run  to  gain  the  Confederate  rear.  Craw- 
ford's division  got  entangled  and  broken 
in  an  almost  impassable  swamp.  An  at- 
tempt of  a  part  of  Howard's  corps  to  form 
a  junction  with  Crawford's  troops  was  de- 
feated by  the  tangled  swamp.  These  move- 
ments had  been  eagerly  watched  by  the 
Confederates.  Heth  was  sent  by  Hill  to 
strike  Hancock.  It  was  done  at  4  p.m. 
The  blow  first  fell  upon  Pierce's  bri- 
gade, and  it  gave  way,  leaving  two  guns 
behind.  The  Confederates  were  pursuing, 
when  they,  in  turn,  were  struck  by  the 
Nationals,  driven  back,  and  the  two  guns 
recaptured.  Fully  1.000  Confederates  were 
made  prisoners.     Others,   in   their   flight, 


390 


BOYNTON— BRADDOCK 


rushed  into  Crawford's  lines,  and  200  of  supposing   them    all    to   be    slain,    rushed 

them    were    made    prisoners.      Meanwhile  forward   to   plunder   the   dead,   when   the 

Hancock   had   been   sorely   pressed   on   his  Americans  suddenly  arose,  poured  deadly 

left  and  rear  by  five  brigades  under  Wade  volleys  from  their  rifles,  killed  about  200 

ITampton.     Gregg  fought  them,  and  with  of  the  foe,   seized  their   cannon,  and  dis- 

infantry  supports  maintained  his  ground  persed  the  whole  body  of  the  assailants, 

until  dark.     In  these  encounters  Hancock  Brackenridge,    Hugh    Henry,    jurist; 

lost  about  1,500  men,  and  the  Confederates  born  in  Scotland  in  1748;  was  graduated 

about  an   equal   number.     Hancock  with-  at   Princeton   in    1771,   in   the  same   class 

drew  at  midnight,  and  the  whole  National  with  James  Madison.     He  and  Philip  Fre- 

force   retired   behind   their   intrenchments  neau  together  wrote  The  Rising  Glory  of 

at    Petersburg.      The    movement    was    in-  America,  a  dialogue  which  formed  a  part 

tended  to  favor  Butler's  operations  on  the  of  the  graduating  exercises.     During  the 

north  side  of  the  James  River.  Whiskey  Insurrection  in  1794  he  used  all 

Boynton,   Henry   Van   Ness,   military  his  influence  to  bring  about  a  settlement 

officer;   born  in  West  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  between   the   government   and   the   rebels. 

July  22,   1835;   received  a  commission  as  He  also  wrote  Incidents  of  the  Insurrec- 

major    in    the    35th    Ohio    Volunteer    In-  tion  in  Western  Pennsylvania  in  defence 

fantry  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  of  his   action.     He  died   in  Carlisle,   Pa., 

and    served    during    the    Tennessee    cam-  June  25,   1816. 

paign;    received   the  brevet  of  brigadier-  Brackett,    Albert   Gallatin,   military 

general  for  gallant  conduct  at  the  battles  officer;  born  in  Cherry  Valley,  N.  Y.,  Feb. 

of    Chickamauga    and    Chattanooga;     be-  14,  1829;   served  in  the  4th  Indiana  Vol- 

came  chairman   of  the   Chickamauga   and  unteer    Regiment    in    the    Mexican    War; 

Chattanooga  Military  Park,  and  a  briga-  was  honorably  discharged,  July  16,  1848; 

dier-general   of  volunteers   in   the  Ameri-  re-entered  the  army  as  captain  in  the  2d 

can  -  Spanish    War.      He     is     author     of  Cavalry   in    1855    and   distinguished   him- 

Sherman's  Historical  Raid,  etc.  self  in  actions  against  the  Comanche  Ind- 

Boys    in    Blue    and    Boys    in   Gray,  ians.     He     commanded     the     cavalry     at 

popular   nicknames   of   the   National   and  Blackburn's   Ford  and  the  first  battle  of 

Confederate    soldiers    respectively.  Bull    Run    in     1864.     He    was    brevetted 

Braceti,   or  Brazito,   Battle  of.     Col.  colonel  of  volunteers  and  was  made  colonel 

Alexander   W.   Doniphan,   in   command  of  in  the  regular  service  in   1879.     He  pub- 

1,000   mounted  volunteers  from   Missouri,  lished  a  History  of  the  United  States  Cav- 

was  detached  from  General  Kearny's  com-  airy ;   General  Lane's  Brigade  in  Central 

mand  for  independent  service.     In  Novem-  Mexico,  etc. 

ber,  1846,  he  marched  towards  Chihuahua,  Braddock,     Edward,    military    officer; 

Mexico,  after  forcing  the  Navajo  Indians  born  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  about  1695; 

to  make  a  treaty  of  peace.    His  object  was  entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  the  Cold- 

to  join  the  forces  under  General  Wool.    At  stream    Guards;    served    in    the   wars    in 

Braceti,  or  Brazito,  in  the  valley  of  the  Flanders;  received  a  commission  as  briga- 

Rio  del  Norte,  not  far  from  El  Paso,  he  dier-general  in  1746,  and  major-general  in 

was   attacked,    in    his    camp,    by   a    large  March,   1754.     He  arrived  in  Virginia  in 

Mexican     force      (Dec.     22)      under     Gen.  February,  1755,  and,  placed  in  command  of 

Ponce    de    Leon,    who    sent    a    black    flag,  an  expedition  against  Fort  Duquesne,  be« 

bearing  the  device  of  a   skull   and   cross-  gan  his  march  from  Will's  Creek    (Cum- 

bones,  to  the  American  commander,  with  berland,  Md.),  June  10,  with  about  2,000 

the  message,   "  We  will  neither  take  nor  men,   regulars   and   provincials.     Anxious 

give   quarter."     Doniphan  was   surprised,  to  reach  his  destination  before  Fort  Du- 

and  his  men  had  not  time  to  saddle  their  quesne    should   receive   reinforcements,   he 

horses   before   the   foe — infantry,   cavalry,  made    forced    marches    with    1,200    men, 

and    artillery — assailed    them.      Doniphan  leaving  Colonel  Dunbar,  his  second  in  com- 

hastily  drew  up  his  men  in  front  of  his  mand,  to  follow  with  the  remainder  and 

camp.     The  Mexicans   fired   three   rounds  the  wagon-train.     On  the  morning  of  July 

in  quick   succession,  and  the  Missourians  9  the  little  army  forded  the  Monongahela 

all  fell  upon  their  faces.     The  Mexicans,  River,    and    advanced    in    solid    platoons 

391 


BRADDOCK— BRADFORD 


along  the  southern  shores  of  that  stream. 
W^ashington  saw  the  perilous  arrangement 
of  the  troops  after  the  fashion  of  European 
tactics,  and  he  ventured  to  advise  Brad- 
dock  to  disperse  his  army  in  open  order 
and  employ  the  Indian  mode  of  fighting 
in  the  forests.  The  haughty  general 
angrily  replied,  "  What !  a  provincial 
colonel  teach  a  British  general  how  to 
fight!"  The  army  moved  on,  recrossed  the 
river  to  the  north  side,  and  were  march- 
ing in  fancied  security  at  about  noon, 
when  they  Avere  suddenly  assailed  by  vol- 
leys of  bullets  and  clouds  of  arrows  on 
their  fiiont  and  flanks.  They  had  fallen 
into  an  ambush,  against  which  Washing- 
ton had  vainly  warned  Braddock.  The 
assailants  were  French  regulars,  Cana- 
dians, and  Indians,  less  than  1,000  in  num- 
ber, under  De  Beaujeu,  who  had  been  sent 
from  Fort  Duquesne  by  Contrecoeur  ( see 
DuQUESNE,  Fort),  and  who  fell  at  the 
first  onslaught.  The  suddenness  of  the  at- 
tack and  the  horrid  war-whoop  of  the  Ind- 
ians, which  the  British  regulars  had  nev- 
er heard  before,  disconcerted  them,  and 
they  fell  into  great  confusion.  Braddock, 
seeing  the  peril,  took  the  front  of  the 
fight,  and  by  voice  and  example  encour- 
aged his  men.  For  more  than  two  hours 
the  battle  raged  fearfully.  Of  eighty-six 
English  officers  sixty-three  were  killed  or 
wounded;  so,  also,  were  one-half  the 
private  soldiers.  All  of  Braddock's  aides 
v/ere  disabled  excepting  Washington,  who, 
alone  unhurt,  distributed  the  general's  or- 
ders. Braddock  had  five  horses  shot  un- 
der him,  and  finally  he,  too,  fell,  mortally 
wounded.  Competent  testimony  seems  to 
prove  that  he  was  shot  by  Thomas  Fau- 
cett,  one  of  the  provincial  soldiers.  His 
plea  in  extenuation  of  the  crime  was  self- 
preservation.  Braddock,  who  had  spurned 
the  advice  of  Washington  about  the  meth- 
od of  fighting  Indians,  had  issued  a  posi- 
tive order  that  none  of  the  English  should 
protect  themselves  behind  trees,  as  the 
French  and  Indians  did.  Faucett's  brother 
had  taken  such  a  position,  and  when  Brad- 
dock perceived  it,  he  struck  him  to  the 
earth  with  his  sword.  Thomas,  on  seeing 
his  brother  fall,  shot  Braddock  in  the 
back.  The  provincials  fought  bravely,  and 
nearly  all  were  killed.  The  remnant  of  the 
regulars  broke  and  fled  when  Braddock 
fell.     Washington,  who  was  left  in  chief 


command,  perceiving  the  day  was  lost, 
lallied  the  few  provincial  troops,  and,  car- 
rying with  him  his  dying  general,  gal- 
lantly covered  the  retreat.  The  enemy  did 
not  pursue.     The   British   left  their   can- 


GENERAL  EDWAKD  BRADDOCK. 

non  and  their  dead  on  the  battle-field. 
Three  days  after  the  battle,  Braddock  died 
(July  13,  1755),  and  was  buried  in  the 
forest  more  than  50  miles  from  Cumber- 
land. Washington,  surrounded  by  sorrow- 
ing ofiicers,  read  the  funeral  service  of  the 
Church  of  England  by  torch-light  at  his 
grave.  General  Braddock  was  haughty  and 
egotistical,  and  his  private  character  was 
not  good,  he  being  known  as  a  gambler 
and  spendthrift. 

Bradford,  William,  colonial  governor; 
born  in  Austerfield,  Yorkshire,  England, 
in  March,  1588;  was  a  passenger  in  the 
Mayfloioer.  At  the  early  age  of  seventeen 
years  he  made  an  attempt  to  leave  Eng- 
land with  dissenters,  for  Holland,  and  suf- 
fered imprisonment.  He  finally  joined 
his  dissenting  brethren  at  Amsterdam, 
learned  the  art  of  silk-dyeing,  and,  coming 
into  the  possession  of  a  considerable  estate 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  he  en- 
gaged successfully  in  commerce.  One  of 
Mr.  Robinson's  congregation  at  Leyden, 
he  accompanied  the  "  Pilgrims  "  to  Amer- 


392 


BRADFORD— BRADSTREET 


ica,  and  was  one  of  the  foremost  in  select-  1756  he  was  charged  with  conveying  sup- 
ing  a  site  for  the  colony.  Before  the  "  Pil-  plies  to  Oswego.  In  1757  he  was  appoint- 
grims  "  landed,  his  wife  fell  into  the  sea  ed  captain  of  a  company  in  the  regiment 
from  the  Mai/floioer,  and  was  drowned,  of  Royal  Americans;  and  late  in  the  same 
He  succeeded  John  Carver  (April  5,  1621)  year  he  was  promoted  to  lieutenant-colo- 
as  governor  of  Plymouth  colony.  He  cul-  nel  of  the  same  regiment,  and  deputy 
tivated  friendly  relations  with  the  Ind-  quartermaster-general,  with  the  rank  of 
ians ;  and  he  was  annually  rechosen  gov-  colonel.  He  was  quartermaster  -  general 
ernor  as  long  as  he  lived,  excepting  in  five  of  Abercrombie's  forces,  with  the  rank  of 
years.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Plymouth  colonel,  in  the  expedition  against  Ticon- 
colony  from  1620  to  1647,  which  was  pub-  deroga  in  July,  1758;  and  in  August  he 
liF.hed  by  the  Massachusetts  Historical  So-  led  an  expedition  which  captured  Fort 
ciety  in  1856.  He  died  in  Plymouth,  Frontenac.  Bradstreet  was  with  Am- 
Mass.,  May  9,   1657.     See  Pilgrims.  herst  in  his  expedition  against  Ticondero- 

Bradford,  William,  printer;  born  in  ga  and  Crown  Point  in  1759.  In  May, 
Leicester,  England,  in  1658.  A  Friend,  or  1762,  he  was  commissioned  a  major-gen- 
Quaker,  he  came  to  America  with  Penn's  eral.  Pontiac's  war  had  filled  the  set- 
early  colonists  in  1682,  and  landed  near  tlements  on  the  western  frontiers  with 
the  spot  where  Philadelphia  was  after-  dire  alarm,  and  they  sent  piteous  calls  for 
wards  bviilt.  He  had  learned  the  printer's  help.  In  July,  1764,  a  little  army  of 
trade  in  London,  and,  in  1686,  he  printed  1,100  men,  composed  chiefly  of  provincial 
an  almanac  in  Philadelphia.  Mixed  up  in  battalions  from  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
a  political  and  social  dispute  in  Pennsyl-  and  Connecticut,  led  by  Bradstreet,  reach- 
vania,  and  suffering  thereby,  he  removed  to  ed  Fort  Niagara  on  its  way  farther 
New  York  in  169.3,  and  in  that  year  print-  westward.  Bradstreet  found  a  lai'ge  con- 
ed the  laws  of  that  colony.  He  began  the  course  of  Indians  there,  of  various  na- 
fivst  newspaper  in  New  York,  Oct.  16,  1725  tions,  ready  to  renew  friendship  with  the 
— the  New  York  Gazette.  He  was  printer  English,  and  expecting  presents.  The 
to  the  government  of  New  York  more  Senecas,  to  placate  the  English,  brought 
than  fifty  years,  and  for  thirty  years  the  in  prisoners,  and  ratified  a  treaty  of  peace, 
only  one  in  the  province.  He  died  in  New  On  his  march  along  the  southern  shores 
York,  May  23,  1752.  of  Lake  Erie.  Bradstreet  was  met  by  dusky 

Bradley,  Joseph  Philo,  jurist;  born  deputations  from  the  Ohio  country,  who 
in  Berne,  N.  Y.,  March  14,  1813;  was  desired  to  have  the  chain  of  friendship 
graduated  at  Rutgers  College  in  1836;  ad-  brightened;  and  he  made  a  treaty  with 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  the  nations  dwelling  between  Lake  Erie 
1839;  appointed  by  President  Grant  jus-  and  the  Ohio.  He  was  welcomed  at  De- 
tice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  troit  with  expressions  of  great  respect 
States  in  1870;  became  the  fifth  member  and  satisfaction;  and  from  that  post  he 
of  the  Electoral  Commission  created  by  sent  a  detachment  to  take  possession  of 
Congress  in  1877,  and  by  his  concurrence  Mackinaw.  On  Sept.  7  the  Ottawas  and 
in  the  judgment  of  the  Republican  mem-  Chippewas  met  Bradstreet  in  council,  and, 
bers  of  the  commission,  Rutherford  B.  cashiering  their  old  chiefs,  the  young  war- 
Hayes  (q.  V.)  became  President.  He  died  riors  made  a  covenant  of  friendship  with 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  22,  1892.  the   English,   as   brothers,   and   asked   for 

Bradstreet,  John,  military  oflScer;  peace  in  the  name  of  their  wives  and 
born  in  Harbling,  England,  in  1711:  was  children.  Pontiac  did  not  appear,  but  was 
lieutenant-colonel  of  Pepperell's  regiment  included  in  the  treaty  of  peace  then  made. 
in  the  expedition  against  Louisburg  in  By  that  treaty  the  Indian  country  be- 
1745;  and  in  September,  the  same  year,  came  a  part  of  the  royal  domain;  its 
he  was  made  a  captain  of  a  regular  regi-  tribes  were  bound  to  render  aid  to  the 
ment.  The  following  year  he  was  appoint-  English  troops ;  and,  in  return,  were 
ed  lieutenant-governor  of  St.  Johns.  New-  promised  English  protection.  Bradstreet 
foundland — a  sinecure  place.  Braddock  died  in  New  York  City,  Sept.  25,  1774. 
ordered  him  to  accompany  Shirley  to  Os-  Bradstreet,  Simon,  colonial  governor ; 
wego,   in   1755,   as   his   adjutant;    and   in    born  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  March, 

393 


BRAGG 


1603.  After  studying  one  year  in  college,  E.  Kirby  Smith,  a  native  of  Connecticut, 
he  became  steward  to  the  Countess  of  War-  led  Bragg's  advance.  He  entered  Kentucky 
wick.  He  married  Anne,  a  daughter  of  from  eastern  Tennessee,  pushed  rapidly 
Thomas  Dudley,  and  was  persuaded  to  en-  to  Lexington,  after  defeating  a  National 
gage  in  the  settlement  of  Massachusetts,  force  near  Richmond,  in  that  State,  and 
Invested  with  the  office  of  judge,  he  ar-  was  warmly  welcomed  by  the  Confederates, 
rived  at  Salem  in  the  summer  of  1630.  The  alarmed  legislature,  sitting  at  Frank- 
The  next  year  he  was  among  the  founders  fort,  fled  to  Louisville;  while  Smith  press- 
of  Cambridge,  and  was  one  of  the  first  ed  on  towards  the  Ohio,  where  he  was 
settlers  at  Andover.  Very  active,  he  was  confronted  by  strong  fortifications  oppo- 
almost  continually  in  public  life,  and  lived  site  Cincinnati.  The  invader  recoiled,  and, 
at  Salem,  Ipswich,  and  Boston.  He  was  falling  back  to  Frankfort,  awaited  the  ar- 
secretary,  agent,  and  commissioner  of  rival  of  Bragg,  who  entered  Kentucky 
the  United  Colonies  of  New  England;  and  (Sept.  5)  with  forty  regiments  and  as 
in  1662  he  was  despatched  to  congratulate  many  cannon.  His  advance,  8,000  strong, 
Charles  II.  on  his  restoration.  He  was  as-  under  General  Chalmers,  encountered  a 
sistant  from  1630  to  1679,  and  deputy-  National  force  under  Colonel  Wilder  at 
governor  from  1673  to  1679.  From  that  Mumfordsville,  on  the  line  of  the  Nash- 
time  till  1686  (when  the  charter  was  an-  ville  and  Louisville  Railway.  The  Con- 
nulled)  he  was  governor.  When,  in  1689,  federates  were  repulsed;  but  Wilder  was 
Andros  was  imprisoned,  he  was  restored  compelled  to  yield  to  General  Polk  a  few 
to  the  office,  which  he  held  until  the  ar-  days  later.  Bragg  joined  Smith  at  Frank- 
rival  of  Governor  Phipps,  in  1692,  with  fort,  where  the  combined  armies  number- 
the  new  charter.  His  wife,  Anne  Brad-  ed  about  65,000  effective  men.  He  now 
street,  was  a  poetess  of  considerable  merit,  expected  to  make  an  easy  march  to  Louis- 
Her  poems  were  published  in  London  in  ville,  but  was  confronted  by  General  Buell, 
1650,  and  a  second  edition  was  published  who  had  been  marching  abreast  of  Bragg, 
in  Boston  in  1678.  Simon  died  in  Salem,  Buell  suddenly  turned  upon  Bragg  with 
Mass.,  March  27,  1697.  about   60,000   troops,   and   a   fierce   battle 

Bragg,  Braxton,  military  officer;  born  ensued  near  Perryville    (Oct.  8,  1862),  in 

in  Warren  county,  N.  C,  March  22,  1817;  which  the  invaders  were  so  roughly  han- 

was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Mil-  died  that  they  fled  in  haste  towards  eastern 

itary  Academy   in   1837;    entered   the  ar-  Tennessee,    followed    by    their    marauding 

tillery;   and  served  in  the  Seminole  War  bands,  who  had  plundered  the  inhabitants 

and    in    the    war    with    Mexico,    receiving  in  every  direction.    Bragg  soon  afterwards 

for    good    conduct    in    the    latter    several  abandoned  Kentucky. 

brevets  and  promotions.  The  last  brevet  The  armies  of  Rosecrans  and  Bragg 
was  that  of  lieutenant-colonel,  for  Buena  confronted  each  other  for  several  months 
Vista,  Feb.  23,  1847.  He  was  made  major  in  Tennessee  after  the  battle  of  Stone 
in  1855;  resigned  the  next  year,  and  lived  River  (q.  v.).  Rosecrans  remained  on 
(an  extensive  planter)  in  Louisiana  until  the  scene  of  the  battle;  Bragg  was  below 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War,  when  the  Duck  River.  Finally  the  Army  of  the 
(March,  1861)  he  was  made  a  brigadier-  Cumberland,  in  three  divisions,  command- 
general  in  the  Confederate  army.  Made  ed  respectively  by  Generals  Thomas, 
major-general  in  February,  1862,  he  took  McCook,  and  Crittenden,  began  its  march 
an  important  part  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh  (June  23, 1863)  from  Murfreesboro  to  Chat- 
in  April.  He  was  made  general  in  place  tanooga.  General  Burnside,  in  Kentucky, 
of  A.  S.  Johnston,  killed;  and  in  May  sue-  was  ordered  to  move  through  the  moun- 
ceeded  Beauregard  in  command.  tains    into    eastern   Tennessee   to    co-oper- 

John  H.  Morgan,  the  guerilla  chief,  and  ate  with  Rosecrans.  At  that  time  Bragg's 
N.  B.  Forrest,  the  leader  of  a  strong  caval-  left  wing,  under  General  ( Bishop )  Polk, 
ry  force,  had  for  some  time  (in  1862)  roam-  lay  at  Shelbyville,  behind  formidable  in- 
ed,  with  very  little  serious  opposition,  over  trenchments  about  5  miles  in  length,  cast 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  preparatory  to  up  by  legally  emancipated  slaves  draAvn 
the  invasion  of  the  former  by  a  large  Con-  from  northern  Georgia  and  Alabama.  Gen- 
federate  force  under  General  Bragg.    Gen.  eral    Hardee,    -with    12,000    men,    was    at 

394 


BRAGG— BRANDYWINE 


War  Trace,  on  the  railway  between  Mur-  He  died  in  Galveston,  Tex.,  Sept.  27, 
freesboro    and    Chattanooga,    and    holding    1876. 

the  front  of  rugged  hills,  behind  which  Brandy  Station,  Skirmish  near.  While 
v/as  a  strongly  intrenched  camp  at  Tulla-  Meade,  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
homa.  Bragg  had  about  40,000  men,  and  was  halting  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Rosecrans  60,000.  By  skilful  movements  Rappahannock  River,  in  the  summer  of 
he  manoeuvred  Bragg  out  of  his  strong  1863,  his  cavalry  were  not  idle.  On  Aug. 
position.  The  latter  was  pressed  back  to  1,  General  Buford,  with  his  troopers,  dash- 
Tullahoma.  Rosecrans  meanwhile  had  ed  across  that  river,  struck  Stuart's  cav- 
seized  mountain  passes  on  Bragg's  front  airy,  and  pushed  them  back  almost  to 
and  seriously  menaced  his  flank.  Per-  Culpeper  Court  -  House.  So  vigorous  and 
ceiving  this,  Bragg  turned  and  fled  with-  sudden  was  the  assault  that  the  daring 
out  giving  a  blow,  the  Nationals  pressing  Confederate  leader  and  his  staff  came  near 
hard  upon  his  rear.  Having  the  advan-  being  captured  at  a  house  near  Brandy 
tage  of  railway  communication,  the  re-  Station,  where  they  were  about  to  dine, 
treating  forces  very  easily  kept  ahead  of  They  left  their  dinner  untouched  and 
their  pursuers;  and  passing  rapidly  over  immediately  decamped,  leaving  the  viands 
the  Cumberland  Mountains  towards  the  to  be  eaten  by -the  Union  officers.  Bu- 
Tennessee  River,  they  crossed  that  stream  ford  pursued,  and  from  Auburn  (the 
at  Bridgeport,  destroying  the  bridge  be-  residence  of  the  stanch  Virginia  Unionist, 
hind  them,  and  made  a  rapid  march  to  John  Minor  Botts)  there  was  a  running 
Chattanooga.  The  expulsion  of  Bragg  fight  back  towards  Brandy  Station;  for, 
from  Tennessee  alarmed  and  disheartened  strongly  confronted  there  by  Stuart,  Bu- 
the  Confederates,  and  they  felt  that  every-  ford  became  a  fugitive  in  turn.  In  that 
thing  depended  upon  their  holding  Chatta-  engagement  he  lost  140  men,  of  whom 
nooga,  the  key  to  eastern  Tennessee  and    sixteen  were  killed. 

northern  Georgia.  Towards  that  point  Brandywine,  Battle  on  the.  When 
the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  pressed  on  Washington  learned  that  Howe  was  as- 
slowly;  and  late  in  August  it  had  crossed  cending  Chesapeake  Bay  in  the  fleet  of 
the   mountains,   and   was   stretched   along    his  brother,  he  marched    (Aug.  24,   1777) 

from   Philadelphia  to  meet  him. 
^_^  At    about    the    time    he    reached 

Wilmington  Howe  was  landing 
his  army,  18,000  strong,  at  the 
head  of  the  Elk  River,  54  miles 
from  Philadelphia.  Washing- 
ton's effective  force  did  not  ex- 
ceed 11,000  men,  including  1,800 
Pennsylvania  militia.  Howe's 
objective  was  Philadelphia,  and 
he  began  his  march  (Sept.  3)  in 
that  direction  through  a  coun- 
try swarming  Avith  Tories.  One 
division  was  led  by  Earl  Corn- 
wallis,  and  the  other  by  General 
Knyphausen.  Washington  had 
advanced  almost  to  Red  Clay 
Creek,  and  sent  General  Max- 
well with  his  brigade  to  form  an 
ambuscade  in  the  direction  of 
the  enemy.  In  a  skirmish  the 
the  Tennessee  River  from  above  Chatta-  British  were  checked,  but  moved  forward 
nooga  many  a  league  westward.  ( Sept.  8 )   to  attack  Washington  and  turn 

General  Bragg  was  relieved  of  his  com-  his  flank.  By  a  dexterous  movement  in 
mand  soon  after  his  defeat  by  General  the  night,  the  latter  fell  back  to  Chad's 
Grant  at  Missionary  Ridge  in  November.    Ford,    on    the    Brandywine    Creek,    above 

395 


WASHINGTON'S   HEADQUARTERS   ON   THE    BRANDYWINE. 


BRAND YWINE 

Wilmington,    and    took   post    in    a    strong  Then    he    turned    upon    his    pursuers    and 

position  on  the  hills  that  skirt  the  eastern  drove  them  back  to  the  main  line.     Per- 

borders   of   that   stream.      The   astonished  eeiving  danger  of  being  flanked,  Maxwell 

Britons  gave  chase  the  next  morning,  but  fled  across  the  stream,  leaving  its  western 

found  Washington  standing  in  their  path-  banks  in  possession  of  the  enemy.    Knyp- 


VIEW  AT  chad's  ford  ON  THE  BRANDYWINE. 


way  to  Philadelphia.  The  two  divisions 
of  Howe's  army  met  at  Kennet  Square 
(Sept.  10),  and  the  next  morning  Corn- 
wallis  led  a  large  portion  of  them  up  the 
Lancaster  road  towards  the  forks  of  the 
Brandywine,  leaving  all  their  baggage 
— even  their  knapsacks — with  the  other 
division.  The  latter  moved  for  Chad's 
Ford  a  few  hours  later  in  a  dense  fog. 
Washington's  left  wing,  composed  of  the 
brigades  of  Muhlenberg  and  Weedon,  of 
Greene's  division,  and  Wayne's  division, 
with  Proctor's  artillery,  were  on  the  hills 
east  of  Chad's  Ford.  The  brigades  of  Sul- 
livan, Stirling,  and  Stephen,  composing 
the  right  wing,  extended  along  the  Brandy- 
wine  Creek  to  a  point  above  the  forks ; 
and  1,000  Pennsylvania  militia  under  Gen- 
eral Armstrong  were  at  Pyle's  Ford,  2 
miles  below  Chad's.  General  Maxwell, 
with  1,000  light  troops,  was  posted  on  the 
west  side  of  the  creek  to  dispute  the  pas- 
sage of  Knyphausen.  The  latter  attempt- 
ed to  dislodge  Maxwell,  who,  after  a  se- 
vere fight,  was  pushed  to  the  edge  of  the 
Brandywine,    where     he     was    reinforced. 

3 


hausen  now  brought  his  great  guns  to  bear 
upon  the  Americans  at  Chad's  Ford.  It 
was  to  divert  Washington's  attention  from 
Cornwallis,  who  was  pushing  forward  to 
cross  the  Brandywine  and  gain  the  rear 
of  the  Americans.  This  accomplished, 
Knyphausen  was  to  cross  over,  when  a 
simultaneous  attack  by  both  parties  was 
to  be  made.  Washington  directed  Sullivan 
to  cross  the  Brandywine  above  and  attack 
Cornwallis,  while  he  (Washington)  should 
cross  the  stream  and  assail  Knyphausen. 
Through  misinformation,  Sullivan  failed 
to  perform  his  part.  A  message  which 
he  sent  to  Washington  kept  the  latter  in 
suspense  a  long  time.  Greene,  who  had 
crossed  at  Chad's  Ford  with  his  advanced 
guard,  was  recalled;  and  Cornwallis,  in 
the  mean  time,  had  made  a  wide  circuit, 
crossed  the  Brand^'wine,  and  gained  a 
hill  near  Birmingham  Meeting-house,  not 
far  from  Sullivan's  right,  before  that  offi- 
cer discovered  him.  The  surprised  gen- 
eral informed  Washington  of  his  peril,  and 
immediately  prepared  to  attack  the  enemy. 
Before  he  could  do  so,  Cornwallis,  with  his 
06 


BRAND  YWINE— BRANT 


rested  troops,  fell  upon  Sullivan,  and  a 
severe  conflict  ensued.  For  a  while  the 
result  vv;as  doubtful.  Finally  the  right 
wing  of  the  Americans,  under  General 
Deborre,  gave  way;  then  the  left,  under 
Sullivan ;  but  the  centre,  under  Stirling, 
remained  firm  for  a  while.     Then  it,  too, 


BIRMINGHAM   MEETING-HOUSE. 

broke  and  fled  in  confusion.  Lafayette, 
who  was  with  this  corps,  fighting  as  a  vol- 
unteer on  foot,  was  badly  wounded  in  his 
leg.  The  scattered  troops  could  not  be 
rallied,  excepting  a  few  who  made  a  stand 
at  Dilworth.  They,  too,  soon  joined  the 
fugitives  in  the  flight  towards  the  main 
army,  closely  pursued  by  the  victors,  Corn- 
wallis's  cannon  having  made  dreadful 
havoc  in  the  ranks  of  the  Americans. 
Meanwhile  Washington,  with  Greene  and 
two  brigades,  had  hastened  to  the  aid  of 
the  right  wing.  They  met  the  fugitives, 
opened  their  ranks  to  receive  them,  and, 
by  a  constant  cannonade,  checked  their 
pursuers;  and  at  a  narrow  defile  the  regi- 
ments of  Stephen  and  Stewart  held  the 
British  back  until  night,  when  the  latter 
encamped.  In  the  mean  time,  Knyphausen 
had  crossed  at  Chad's  Ford  and  attacked 
the  left  wing  under  Wayne.  After  a 
gallant  fight,  the  latter,  seeing  the  British 
gaining  his  rear,  abandoned  his  cannon 
and  munitions  of  war  and  made  a  dis- 
orderly retreat  behind  the  division  of 
Greene.  At  twilight  there  was  a  skirmish 
near  Dilworth  between  Maxwell  and  his 
light  troops,  lying  in  ambush  to  cover 
the  retreat  of  the  Americans,  and  some 
British  grenadiers.  The  contest  was  brief, 
for  darkness  put  an  end  to  it.  The  Ameri- 
cans, defeated,  marched  leisurely  to  Ches- 


ter; for  the  British,  who  held  the  field, 
did  not  pursue.  The  next  morning  (Sept. 
12,  1777)  Washington  gathered  his  broken 
army,  marched  towards  Philadelphia,  and 
encamped  near  Germantown.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  the  Americans  lost,  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners,  about  1,200;  the 
British,  about  800. 

Brant,  John,  Indian  chief;  son  of  Jo- 
seph Brant;  born  in  the  Mohawk  village 
on  the  Grand  River,  in  Canada,  Sept.  27, 
1794;  took  up  arms  for  the  British 
when  the  War  of  1812-15  broke  out,  and 
led  a  party  of  Indians  at  the  battle  of 
QuEENSTON  {q.  V.) .  He  was  then  only 
eighteen  years  of  age,  and  was  conspicuous 
for  his  bravery.  He  had  received  a  good 
English  education  at  Ancaster  and  Niag- 
ara, and  was  a  diligent  student  of  English 
authors.  Young  Brant  was  an  ardent 
lover  of  nature,  was  manly  and  amiable, 
and  was  in  every  respect  an  accomplished 
gentleman.  On  the  death  of  his  father, 
he  became  the  principal  chief  of  the  Six 
Nations,  although  he  was  the  fourth  and 
youngest  son.  Brant  Avas  engaged  in  most 
of  the  military  events  on  the  Niagara 
frontier  during  the  war ;  and  at  its  close 
he  and  his  young  sister  Elizabeth  occupied 


JOHN   BRANT. 


397 


BRANT 


the  homestead  at  the  head  of  Lake  On- 
tario, and  there  dispensed  a  generous  hos- 
pitality. He  went  to  England  in  1821  on 
business  for  the  Six  Nations,  and  there 
took  occasion  to  defend  the  character  of 
his  father  from  the  aspersions  contained 
in  Campbell's  Gertrude  of  Wyoming.  He 
proved  that  his  father  was  not  present  at 
the  massacre  in  Wyoming;  but  the  poet 
had  not  the  generosity  or  manliness  to 
strike  out  of  the  poem  the  calumnious 
words,  and  so  it  remains  until  this  day. 
In  1827  Governor  Dalhousie  gave  him  the 
commission  of  captain,  and  as  such  he  ap- 
peared as  in  the  engraving.  In  1832  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Provincial 
Parliament  for  the  county  of  Haldimand. 
He  died  on  the  Grand  River  reservation 
in  September,  1832. 

Brant,  Joseph  (Thay-en-da-ne-gea), 
Mohawk  chief;  born  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ohio  River  in  1742.  In  1761  Sir  William 
Johnson  sent  him  to  Dr..Wheelock's  school 
at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  where  he  translated 
portions  of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Mohawk  language.  Brant  engaged  in  the 
war    against    Pontiac    in     1763,    and    at 


the    rebellious    colonists.     It   was   an   un- 
favorable time  for  him  to  make  such  an 


JOSEPH   BRANT. 


the  beginning  of  the  war  for  independence 
was  secretary  to  Guy  Johnson,  the  Indian 
Superintendent.  In  the  spring  of  1776 
he  was  in  England ;  and  to  the  ministry 
he  expressed  his  willingness,  and  that  of 
his  people,  to  join  in  the  chastisement  of 


THE   BRANT   MAUSOLEUM. 

offer  with  an  expectation  of  securing  very 
favorable  arrangements  for  his  people,  for 
the  ministry  were  elated  with  the  news 
of  the  disasters  to  the  "  rebels  "  at  Quebec. 
Besides,  they  had  completed  the  bargain 
for  a  host  of  German  mercenaries,  a  part 
of  whom  were  then  on  their  way  to  .Amer- 
ica to  crush  the  rebellion.  They  concluded 
the  next  ship  would  bring  news  that  the 
Americans  were  willing  to  agree  to  un- 
conditional submission,  the  only  terms 
which  the  imperial  government  would 
grant.  Brant  returned,  but  to  find  the 
Americans  successful  in  many  places,  and 
determined  to  persevere.  He  took  up 
arms  for  the  British;  and  in  the  raids  of 
Tories  and  Indians  in  central  New  York 
upon  the  patriotic  inhabitants  he  was 
often  a  leader,  holding  the  commission  of 
colonel  from  the  King  of  England.  He 
prevailed  on  the  Six  Nations  to  make  a 
permanent  peace  after  the  war;  and  in 
1786  he  went  to  England  the  second  time, 
but  then  for  the  purpose  of  collecting 
funds  to  build  a  church  on  the  Indian  res- 
ervation on  the  Grand  River,  in  Canada. 
This  was  the  first  church  erected  in  the 
Upper  Province.  Brant  did  much  to  in- 
duce his  people  to  engage  in  the  arts 
of  peace.  He  died  on  his  estate  at  the 
head  of  Lake  Ontario,  Canada,  Nov.  24, 
1807.  The  remains  of  Brant  rest  beneath 
a  handsome  mausoleum  near  the  church 
98 


BRASHEAR    CITY— BREAKWATER 


on,  the  reservation  on  the  Grand  River, 
Canada.  It  was  erected  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  .vicinity  in  1850.  On  the  slab 
that  surmounts  it  is  an  inscription  in 
commemoration  of  the  chief  and  of  his 
son  John. 

Brashear  City,  Military  Operations 
NEAR.  This  town  of  Louisiana,  afterwards 
Morgan  City,  was,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War,  in  a  singular  country,  com- 
posed of  fertile  plantations,  extensive  for- 
ests, sluggish  lagoons  and  bayous,  passable 
and  impassable  swamps,  made  dark  by 
umbrageous  cypress-trees  draped  with 
Spanish  moss  and  festooned  with  inter- 
lacing vines,  the  earth  in  many  places 
matted  and  miry,  and  the  waters  abound- 
ing in  alligators.  At  that  time  the  whole 
country  was  half  submerged  by  the  super- 
abundant waters  of  the  Mississippi  and 
its  tributaries.  A  single  railroad  passed 
through  this  country  from  New  Orleans  to 
Brashear  City,  on  the  Atchafalaya,  a  dis- 
tance of  80  miles,  at  which  point  the 
waters  of  the  great  bayou  Teche  meet 
those  of  the  Atchafalaya  and  others.  Near 
Pattersonville,  on  the  Teche,  the  Confeder- 
ates had  erected  fortifications,  and  gather- 
ed troops  to  dispute  the  passage  of  these 
important  waters  by  National  gunboats. 
Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  the  Gulf,  determined  to 
expel  the  armed  Confederates  from  Brash- 
ear City  and  its  vicinity.  An  expedi- 
tion for  that  purpose  was  led  by  Gen. 
Godfrey  Weitzel,  accompanied  by  a  squad- 
ron of  gunboats,  under  Com.  McKean  Bu- 
chanan, brother  of  the  commander  of  the 
Merrimac  iq.  v.).  They  penetrated  to 
Brashear  City,  and  then  proceeded  (Jan. 
11,  1863)  to  attack  the  works  near  Pat- 
tersonville. Weitzel's  infantry  were  placed 
in  the  gunboats,  and  his  cavalry  and  ar- 
tillery proceeded  by  land.  They  encoun- 
tered formidable  river  obstructions — torpe- 
does, an  armored  steamboat,  and  batteries 
well  manned  by  1,100  men,  on  each  side  of 
the  bayou.  These  were  attacked  on  the 
15th,  and  in  that  engagement  Buchanan 
was  killed  by  a  rifle-ball  that  passed 
through  his  head.  The  Confederates  were 
driven  from  their  works,  and  their  mon- 
ster steamer  was  abandoned  and  burned. 
In  this  affair  the  Nationals  lost  thirty- 
four  men  killed  and  wounded. 

Braxton,  Carter,  a  signer  of  the  Dec- 


laration of  Independence;  born  in  New- 
ington,  Va.,  Sept.  10,  1736;  was  educated 
at  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  in 
1756,  and  resided  in  England  until  1760. 
He  was  a  distinguished  member  and  pa- 
triot in  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses 
in  supporting  the  resolutions  of  Patrick 
Henry  in  1765,  and  in  subsequent  assem- 
blies dissolved  by  the  governor.  He  re- 
mained in  the  Virginia  Assembly  until 
royal  rule  ceased  in  that  colony,  and  was 
active  in  measures  for  defeating  the 
schemes  of  Lord  Dunmore.  Braxton  was 
in  the  convention  at  Richmond  in  1775, 
for  devising  measures  for  the  defence  of 
the  colony  and  the  public  good ;  and  in 
December  he  became  the  successor  of  Pey- 
ton Randolph  in  Congress.  He  remained 
in  that  body  to  vote  for  and  sign  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence.  In  1786,  after 
serving  in  the  Virginia  legislature,  he 
became  one  of  the  executive  council.  He 
died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Oct.  10,  1797. 

Brazil.  An  event  of  great  interest 
to  Americans  was  the  overthrow  of  the 
Brazilian  empire,  the  last  monarchy  in  the 
New  World,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
republic  in  November,  1889.  A  constitu- 
tion was  adopted,  framed  on  the  Ameri- 
can model,  and  Fonseca  was  the  first 
President.  Brazil  was  included  in  the  reci- 
procity arrangements  of  the  Harrison 
administration.  Peixoto  succeeded  as  Pres- 
ident in  1891,  but  the  new  republic  has 
been  disturbed  by  internal  troubles.  Most 
serious  of  these  outbreaks  was  the  revolt 
of  the  fleet  under  Admiral  Mello  in  the 
summer  of  1893,  followed  by  the  blockade 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  the  insurgents.  To 
supply  the  loss  of  vessels,  the  Brazilian 
government  purchased  a  powerful  mer- 
chantman. El  Cid,  plying  between  New 
York  and  New  Orleans,  transformed  it  in 
New  York  Harbor  into  the  dynamite  cruiser 
Nictheroy,  and  despatched  it  at  the  end  of 
1893  to  the  scene  of  action.  Other  vessels 
were  purchased  to  cope  with  the  strong 
naval  force  of  Mello.  The  rebellion  was 
not  ended  until  June,  1895.  M.  de  Moraes, 
who  had  meanwhile  been  elected  President, 
granted  full  amnesty  to  all  concerned  in 
the  revolt.  In  1896  Brazil  entered  into 
a  reciprocity  treaty  for  trade  with  the 
United  States. 

Brazito,  Battle  of.    See  Braceti. 

Breakwater,  in  civil  engineering,  a  con- 


390 


BRECKENRIDGE— BREVET 


structioii  in  deep  water  to  protect  an 
anchorage  for  vessels  during  storms  and 
for  other  purposes.  They  are  technically 
classified  as  sloping,  composite,  and  verti- 
cal. The  most  notable  breakwater  in  the 
United  States  is  at  the  entrance  of  Dela- 
ware Bay,  which  cost  considerably  over 
$2,000,000.  There  are  others  at  Galveston, 
Tex.;  at  Buffalo,  Chicago,  and  Oswego, 
on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  at  several  ports 
of  entry  in  the  Southern  States,  which 
have  been  constructed  by  the  federal  gov- 
ernment since  the  close  of  the  Civil  War. 
The  Eads  jetties,  below  New  Orleans,  are 
practicallj'  a  breakwater  construction,  al- 
though built  for  a  different  purpose. 

Breckenridge,  John,  statesman;  born 
in  Augusta  county,  Va.,  Dec.  2,  1760; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1785;  elected 
to  Congress  in  1793  but  did  not  accept, 
having  determined  to  remove  to  Kentucky, 
where  he  settled  near  Lexington.  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  of  Kentucky 
in  1795.  In  1798  he  met  JefFerson  and 
Nicholas  at  Monticello  and  prepared  the 
famous  Kentucky  resolutions  of  1798,  of 
which  Jefferson  claimed  the  authorship. 
In  1801  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  resigned  in  1805  to 
become  Attorney-General  under  President 
Jefferson,  which  office  he  filled  about  four 
months.  He  died  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  Dec. 
14.   1806. 

Breckinridge,  John  Cabell,  states- 
man;  born  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  Jan.  21, 


JOHN   CABELL   BRECKINRIDGE. 


1821.  Studying  law  at  the  Transylvania 
Institute,  he  began  its  practice  at  Lexing- 
ton. He  served  as  major  in  the  war  with 
Mexico;  was  a  member  of  his  State  legis- 


lature; and  from  1851  to  1855  was  in  Con- 
gress. President  Pierce  tendered  him  the 
mission  to  Spain,  which  he  declined.  In 
March,  1857,  he  became  Vice-President, 
under  Buchanan,  and  succeeded  John  J. 
Crittenden  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  in  1861.  He  was  then  a  defeated 
candidate  for  the  Presidency.  His  friend- 
ship for  the  Confederates  caused  his  expul- 
sion from  the  Senate  in  December,  1861, 
when  he  joined  the  Confederate  army  and 
was  made  a  major-general,  Aug.  5,  1862. 
He  was  active  at  various  points  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  war.  Breck- 
inridge was  Secretary  of  War  of  the  Con- 
federacy when  it  fell  (1865),  and  soon 
afterwards  departed  for  Europe,  return- 
ing to  his  native  State  in  a  short  time. 
He  was  the  youngest  man  who  ever  held 
the  office  of  Vice-President.  He  died  in 
Lexington,  Ky.,  May  17,  1875. 

Breed's    Hill.     See  Bunkek  Hill. 

Brenton,  William,  royal  governor; 
born  in  England;  was  governor  of  Rhode 
Island  in  1666  under  the  charter  from 
Charles  II.,  and  was  one  of  the  original 
nine  proprietors  of  Rhode  Island.  Bren- 
ton's  Point  and  Brenton's  Reef  in  Narra- 
ganset  Bay  were  named  after  him.  He 
died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  1674. 

Bressani,  Francis  Joseph.  See  Jes- 
uit Missions. 

Brevard,  Ephraim,  physician;  born  in 
Charlotte,  N.  C,  about  1750;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1768; 
was  educated  for  a  physician,  and  prac- 
tised the  profession  in  Charlotte.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  famous  Mecklenbui'g  Con- 
vention. When  the  British  invaded  the 
Carolinas,  he  entered  the  Continental  army 
as  a  surgeon,  and  was  made  a  prisoner  at 
Charleston  in  1780.  Broken  with  disease, 
he  returned  to  Charlotte  after  his  release, 
and  died  about  1783. 

Brevet,  a  French  word  implying  a  royal 
act,  conferring  some  privilege  or  distinc- 
tion ;  in  England  it  is  applied  to  a  com- 
mission giving  nominal  rank  higher  than 
that  for  which  pay  is  received.  Thus,  a 
brevet  major  serves  and  draws  pay  as  cap- 
tain. The  first  time  it  was  used  in  the 
United  States  army  was  in  1812,  when 
Capt.  Zachary  Taylor  was  promoted  to 
major  by  brevet  for  his  defence  of  Fort 
Harrison.  It  was  sometimes  used  in  the 
Continental  army  after  the  arrival  of  the 


400 


BREWER— BRICE 


ELDER   BREWSTER'S   CHEST   AND   DINNER-POT. 


French   troops   in   1780.      The  word   came  the    lid    of    his    chest    that    the    political 

into    very    general    use    during    the    Civil  compact   was   signed   on   board   the   Elay- 

War,  and,  as  an  intermediate  distinction  fioioer.      At    New    Plymouth    he    supplied 

between    an    actual    low    and    a    possible  the   vacant   pulpit   most   of   the   time   for 
higher  rank,  is  still   frequently  conferred 

by  the  President.     Officers  receiving  it  are  " 
privileged   to   include    it   in   their    official 
titles,  as  "  Colonel  and  Brevet  Brigadier- 
General,   U.S.A.,"   or   "U.  S.V." 

Brewer,  Cavib  Josiah,  jurist;  born  in 
Smyrna,  Asia,  June  20,  1837;  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1856;  removed  to  Kansas  in 
1859;  appointed  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  in  1894. 

Brewster,  Benjamin  Harris,  lawyer; 
born  in  Salem  county,  N.  J.,  Oct.  13,  1816; 
graduated  at  Princeton  College  in  1834, 
and    admitted    to    the    Philadelphia    bar 

in     1838;     was    appointed    Attorney-Gen-  nine  years,  preaching  very  impressive  ser- 

eral    of   the    United    States   in    December,  mons;    but   he   could   never   be   persuaded 

1881,  and  conducted  the  prosecution  of  the  to   administer   the  Lord's   supper,   though 

Star  Route  trials.     He  died  in  Philadel-  he  had  the  care  of  the  church.     He  died 

phia.  Pa.,  April  4,   1888.  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  April  10,  1644. 

Brewster,  William,  a  Pilgrim  Father;  Bribery,  in  the  United  States,  an  act 
born  in  Scrooby,  England,  in  1560.  Edu-  prohibited  and  made  punishable  by  acts 
cated  at  Cambridge,  he  entered  the  ser-  of  Congress  and  by  legislation  in  nearly 
vice  of  William  Davidson,  ambassador  of  all  of  the  States.  The  penalties  apply 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  Holland.  He  with-  equally  to  the  persons  offering  and  ac- 
drew  from  the  Church  of  England  and  cepting  a  bribe.  The  acts  of  Congress 
established  a  society  of  Separatists,  apply  particularly  to  persons  connected 
This  new  society  worshipped  on  Sabbath  with  the  government  in  various  capacities, 
days  at  Mr.  Brewster's  house  until  per-  and  also  to  federal  elections,  and  the 
secution  began  to  interrupt  them.  He,  legislation  of  a  State  to  public  officers 
with  Mr.  Bradford  and  others,  was  among  generally  under  its  jurisdiction,  and  also 
those  who  attempted  to  fly  to  Holland  in  to  State  and  municipal  elections.  One  of 
1607.  (See  Robinson,  John.)  They  were  the  most  noted  cases  of  wholesale  bribery 
arrested  and  imprisoned  at  Boston  in  Lin-  in  the  United  States  was  that  involving  a 
colnshire.  As  Mr.  Brewster  had  the  most  number  of  aldermen  of  New  York  City, 
property,  he  was  the  greater  sufferer.  At  which  grew  out  of  a  grant  of  a  street  rail- 
much  expense  he  gained  his  liberty,  and  road  franchise  in  1884.  The  legislature 
then  he  assisted  the  poorer  members  of  ordered  an  investigation,  and  several  of 
the  church  to  escape,  following  them  him-  the  aldermen,  a  former  president  of  the 
self  soon  afterwards.  At  Leyden  he  open-  railroad  company,  and  Jacob  Sharp,  the 
ed  a  school  for  teaching  the  English  Ian-  alleged  leader  in  the  bribery,  were  con- 
guage,   to   replenish  his   exhausted   funds,  victed. 

He  had  then  been  an  elder  and  teacher  Brice,  Ben.jamin  W.,  military  officer; 
for  some  time.  By  the  assistance  of  some  born  in  Virginia  in  1809;  was  graduated 
friends  he  procured  a  printing-press,  and  at  West  Point  in  1829;  served  in  the  ex- 
published  several  books  against  the  Eng-  pedition  against  the  Sac  Indians  in  1831, 
lish  hierarchy.  In  Mr.  Robinson's  church  then  resigned  from  the  army  and  became 
in  Leyden  Brewster  was  a  ruling  elder,  a  lawyer,  judge,  and  adjutant-general  of 
and  was  so  highly  esteemed  that  he  was  Ohio.  He  re-entered  the  army  as  major  at 
chosen  the  spiritual  guide  of  the  "  Pil-  the  beginning  of  the  Mexican  War,  and 
grims "  who  emigrated  to  America.  He  served  as  paymaster.  He  served  through 
took  with  him  to  the  wilderness  his  wife  the  Civil  War  in  the  pay  department;  be- 
and  numerous  children.  It  was  upon  came  paymaster-general  in  1864,  and  was 
1,-2  c                                                        401 


BUICKETT— BRIDGIES 

brevetted   major-general    for   faithful    ser-  built    for    carriages    and    foot-passengers; 

vices   in    1865.      He   died   in   Washington,  has    a   span    of    1,260.  feet;    begun    1867; 

D.  C,  Dec.  4,  1892.  completed  in   1869;   blown  down  Jan.   10, 

Brickett,  James,  military  officer;  born  1889,  and  a  new  structure  of  iron,  hung 

in    1737;    was   a   physician    in    Haverhill,  on  steel  cables,  opened  May  7,  1889. 

Mass.,  until  the  beginning  of  the  French  Brooklyn  Bridge,  a  wire  cable  suspension 

and   Indian   War ;    was   a   surgeon   in   the  bridge    connecting    New    York    City    with 

army  at  Ticonderoga ;  was  wounded  in  the  Brooklyn ;   designed  by  John  A.  Roebling, 

battle   of   Bunker   Hill;    appointed   briga-  and   built   by   his    son,    W.   A.    Eoebling; 

dier-general  in  the  expedition  designed  for  carriage  -  way,    5,989    feet,    and    including 

Canada    in     1776;     and    commanded    the  extensions,   6,537   feet;    a  central  span  of 

American    escort    of    Burgoyne's    surren-  1,595    feet,    and    two    side    spans    of    930 

dered  army  from  the  Saratoga  battle-field  feet  each,  with  a  clear  headway  under  the 

to  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1777.     He  died  in  centre    of    the   bridge    of    135    feet   above 

Haverhill,  Mass.,  Dec.  9,   1818.  high-water;   total  height  of  towers  above 

Bridges.      The    most    notable    ones    in  high-water,     278     feet.      There     are    four 

United  States  history  are:  suspension  cables,  composed  of  5,296  gal- 

Arch  Bridges. — St.  Louis  Bridge  across  vanized   steel   wires,   bound   together,   but 

the  Mississippi   at   St.   Louis,  Mo.;    three  not    twisted;    width    of    bridge,    85    feet; 

arches  formed  of  tubes  of  cast-steel,  and  cost,     $15,000,000;     bridge     begun     1870; 

built   out    from    the    piers    without    scaf-  opened  May  24,   1883. 

folding;  the  centre  span,  520  feet;  the  New  East  River  Bridge  (under  con- 
others,  502  feet  each ;  2,200  tons  of  steel  struction ) ,  connecting  New  York  City 
and  3,400  tons  of  iron  were  used  in  its  with  Brooklyn;  north  of  the  Brooklyn 
construction.  Built  by  Col.  James  B.  Bridge.  The  roadway  of  this  bridge  is  sup- 
Eads  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000.  Begim  ported  by  six  steel  cables  passing  over 
1867,  and  completed  July  4,  1874.  steel  towers  on  each  side  of  the  river. 

High  Bridge,  across  the  Harlem  River,  North  River  Bridge  (under  construe- 
in  New  York  City;  built  to  carry  the  tion),  across  the  Hudson,  between  New 
Croton  aqueduct  across  the  river.  It  York  City  and  Hoboken,  N.  J.  In  this 
consists  of  thirteen  arches,  and  is  1,460  bridge  the  towers  are  to  be  of  steel,  557 
feet  long.  feet  high.     The  central  span  will  be  3,110 

Washington  Bridge,  across  the  Harlem  feet    long,    and    the    lowest    point    of    the 

River,    just   north   of   High    Bridge;    con-  bridge    150    feet    above    high-water,. 

sists  of  nine  arches,  three  of  granite  on  Cantilever       Bridges. — Niagara       Falls 

the  east  side,  four  of  granite  on  the  west,  Cantilever,    over   the   gorge,    a    short   dis- 

and  two  steel  arches  spanning  the  river,  tance    above    the    old    suspension    bridge; 

This  bridge  is  2,400  feet  long  and  80  feet  the    first    true    metal     cantilever    bridge 

wide;    completed   in   1888.  erected,    comprising   two    cantilevers,    385 

Suspension      Bridges. — Niagara      Falls  feet   each   in   length,   extending   from   the 

Suspension    Bridge,    across    the    gorge,    2  shores  to  piers,  and  reaching  out  over  the 

miles   below   the  falls;    built  by  John  A.  river,    supporting    a    central    girder    120 

Roebling;  length  of  span  between  towers,  feet    in    length;    distance    between    piers, 

800  feet;    supported  by  four  wire  cables,  495  feet;  height  of  bridge,  180  feet  above 

each  containing  3,640  No.  9  wires;  height  the  water;   opened  Dec.  20,  1883. 

of  track  above  the  water,   245   feet;    car-  Kentucky  and  Indiana  Bridge,  over  the 

riage-way*  beneath    the    track;     cost    of  Ohio  River,  at  Louisville;   has  two  canti- 

bridge,  $400,000;   w^ork  begun   1852;   first  lever  spans  of  480  and  483  feet;  begun  in 

locomotives   crossed   March   8,    1855.  1883;  completed  in  1888. 

Cincinnati  and  Covington  Suspension  Poughkeepsie  Bridge,  crossing  the  Hud- 
Bridge,  over  the  Ohio  River,  at  an  ele-  son  River  at  Poughkeepsie;  is  composed 
ration  of  91  feet  above  low-water,  and  of  two  cantilever,  spans  on  each  shore  of 
with  a  span  of  1,057  feet;  built  by  Roeb-  523  feet,  and  a  central  cantilever  span  of 
ling,  and  completed  in  1867.  521  feet,  joined  by  two  ordinary  girders  of 
Clifton  Suspension  Bridge,  at  Niagara  500  feet  span  with  projecting  cantilever 
Falls,  a   short   distance  below  the   falls;  ends;  work  begun  1886;  opened  in  1888. 

402 


BBIDGEWATER— BRISTOW    STATION 


Blackwell's  Island  Bridge  (under  con- 
struction), across  the  East  River  north  of 
the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  It  has  four  chan- 
nel piers,  135  feet  above  high- water.  The 
bridge  will  be  2  miles  in  length,  with 
two  channel  spans  of  846  feet  each,  and 
one  across  Blackwell's  Island  of  613  feet. 

Girder  and  Miscellaneous  Bridges. — 
Arthur  Kill  Bridge,  between  Staten  Isl- 
and and  New  Jersey,  consists  of  two  shore- 
spans  of  150  feet  each,  covered  by  fixed 
trusses,  and  a  draw  500  feet  in  length; 
can  be  opened  and  closed  in  two  minutes; 
bridge  authorized  by  act  of  Congress  June 
16,  1886;  completed  at  a  cost  of  $450,000, 
Jime  13,   1888. 

Wooden  bridge,  over  the  Connecticut  at 
Hanover,  with  a  single  arch  of  236  feet; 
erected  in   1796. 

Potomac  Run  Bridge,  a  famous  trestle- 
work  400  feet  long  and  80  feet  high ;  built 
in  nine  days  by  soldiers  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  under  the  supervision  of  Gen. 
Herman  Haupt.  It  contained  more  than 
2,000,000  feet  of  lumber,  chiefly  round 
sticks,  fresh  cut  from  the  neighboring 
woods;   erected  May,  1862. 

Portage  Bridge,  over  the  Genesee  River, 
on  the  line  of  the  Erie  Railroad  at  Port- 
age, N.  Y.  An  iron  truss  bridge  on  iron 
trestles,  built  in  1875,  to  replace  the 
original  wooden  trestle  bridge;  completed 
Aug.  14,  1852,  and  burned  down.  May  6, 
1875;  total  length,  800  feet,  comprising 
one  span  of  180  feet,  two  of  100  feet,  and 
seven  of  50  feet;  height,  130  feet  above 
the  river;  contract  let.  May  10,  1875; 
opened   for    traffic    July    31,    1875. 

Wrought-iron  girder  bridge,  at  Cincin- 
nati, over  the  Ohio  River,  with  a  span  of 
519  feet;  105  feet  above  low- water;  built 
in  1877. 

Kentucky  River  Bridge,  a  trussed  girder 
bridge  of  iron,  on  the  line  of  the  Cincin- 
nati Southern  Railroad ;  three  spans  of 
375  feet;  built  without  false  work;  begun 
Oct.  16,  1876,  and  completed  at  a  cost  of 
$404,230,  Feb.  20,   1877. 

Bridgewater,  Battle  of.  See  Lundy's 
Laxe. 

Brier  Creek,  Battle  of.  Colonel  Ashe, 
of  North  Carolina,  was  sent  by  General 
Lincoln,  with  2,000  men,  to  drive  the  Brit- 
ish from  Augusta,  Ga.,  in  1779.  The  lat- 
ter fled  when  Ashe  appeared  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  river,  and  pushed  towards 

4r 


the  sea,  led  by  Lieutenant-Colonel  Camp- 
bell. Ashe  crossed  and  pursued  as  far  as 
Brier  Creek,  40  miles  below  Augusta,  on 
the  Georgia  side  of  the  Savannah  River, 
where  he  encamped.  He  was  surprised 
( March  3 )  and  utterly  defeated  by  General 
Prevost,  who  Avas  marching  up  from  Sa- 
vannah to  support  Campbell.  Ashe  lost 
almost  his  entire  army  by  death,  captivity, 
and  dispersion.  Some  were  killed,  others 
perished  in  the  morasses,  and  many  were 
drowned  in  attempting  to  pass  the  Savan- 
nah River.  This  blow  deprived  Lincoln  of 
about  one-fourth  of  his  army  and  led  to 
the  temporary  re-establishment  of  royal 
authority  in  Georgia. 

Bright,  Jesse  D.;  born  in  Norwich, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  18,  1812;  removed  to  Indiana 
in  1820;  United  States  Senator,  1845-62, 
when  he  was  expelled  for  having  recog- 
nized Jeft'erson  Davis  as  President  of  the 
Confederate  States.  He  died  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  May  20,  1875. 

Brinton,  Daniel  Garrison,  surgeon 
and  archaeologist;  born  in  Thornbury,  Pa., 
May  13,  1837;  graduated  at  JeflTerson 
Medical  College  in  1861;  was  appointed 
medical  director  in  the  11th  Army  Corps 
in  1802-65.  His  writings  include  Notes 
on  the  Floridian  Peninsula;  American 
Eero  Myths;  Aboriginal  American  Anthol- 
ogy; Primer  of  Mayan  Hieroglyphics;  Re- 
ligion of  Primitive  Peoples,  etc.  He  died 
in  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  July  31,  1899. 

Bristow,  Benjamin  Helm,  statesman; 
born  in  Elkton,  Ky.,  June  20,  1832;  was 
graduated  at  Jefferson  College  in  1851; 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Kentucky  in 
1853.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  accepted  a  commission  in  the  Union 
army  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  25th 
Kentucky  Infantry;  afterwards  became 
colonel  of  the  8th  Kentucky  Cavalry.  He 
served  through  the  war  with  distinction, 
and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh. 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  United  States 
Treasury  in  1874-76,  when  he  resigned. 
He  was  a  leading  candidate  for  the  Re- 
publican Presidential  nomination  in  1876. 

Bristow  Station,  Battle  of.  In  the 
third  race  of  the  National  and  Confederate 
armies  for  Washington,  the  struggle  to 
first  pass  Bristow  Station,  on  the  Cen- 
tral Virginia  Railroad,  was  very  hot.  Lee 
pushed  Hill  and  Ewell  forward  to  gain 
that  point  before   the  Nationals   should 


BRITISH   ORDERS   IN   COUNCIL— BROCK 


reach  it.  When  they  approached  it  the  ministrator  of  the  government  of  Upper 
entire  Army  of  the  Potomac  h^-d  passed  Canada,  Oct.  9,  1811.  When  war  was  de- 
it,  excepting  Gen.  G.  K.  Warren's  corps,  dared  by  the  United  States,  he  took  prompt 
which  was  then  not  in  sight  of  the  Con-  measures  for  the  defence  of  the  province, 
federates.  Hill  was  about  to  attack  the  He  heard  of  Hill's  invasion  from  Detroit 
3d    Corps,    when,    at    about    noon 


(Oct.  15),  he  was  startled  by  the 
appearance  of  Warren's  troops  ap- 
jjroaching  his  rear.  They  had  out- 
stripped Ewell's,  and  were  expect- 
ing to  meet  Sykes's  at  Bristow 
Station.  Hill  instantly  turned  and 
opened  his  batteries  upon  Warren, 
who  was  surprised  for  a  moment; 
but  in  the  space  of  ten  minutes 
the  batteries  of  Arnold  and  Brown, 
assisted  by  the  infantry  divisions 
of  Hayes  and  Webb,  drove  back  the 
Confederates  and  captured  six  of 
their  guns.  These  were  instantly 
turned  upon  the  fugitives.  A  flank 
attack  by  the  Confederates  was  re- 
pulsed with  a  loss  to  them  of  450 
men  made  prisoners.  This  was  an 
effectual  check  upon  Hill's  march. 
Just  at  sunset  Ewell  came  up,  and 
Warren's  corps  (5th)  was  con- 
fronted by  a  greater  portion  of 
Lee's  army.  Seeing  his  peril,  War- 
ren skilfully  withdrew  under  cover 
of  the  approaching  darkness,  and 
joined  the  main  army  in  the  morn- 
ing on  the  heights  of  Centreville.  ^ 
Warren's  loss  in  the  battle  was 
about  200  in  killed  and  wounded. 

British  Orders  in  Council.  See 
Orders  in  Council. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  military  officer; 
born  in  Guernsey,  Oct.  6,  1769;  en- 
tered  the   British   army  as   an   ensign   in 


aiONUMIi.NT   WHERE    GEKERAL   BROCK   FELL. 


on  July  20,  1812.  He  knew  the  weak- 
ness of  Fort  Maiden,  below  Detroit, 
and  felt  anxious.  The  legislature  was 
about  to  assemble  at  York  (Toronto), 
and  he  could  not  personally  conduct 
affairs  in  the  west.  Divided  duties 
perplexed  him.  Leaving  the  military 
which  he  had  gathered  along  the  Ni- 
agara frontier  in  charge  of  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Myers,  he  hastened  to  York,  and, 
with  much  parade,  opened  the  session  of 
the  legislature.  His  address  was  warm- 
ly received,  but  he  found  that  either  dis- 
loyalty or  timidity  prevailed  in  the  legis- 
lature. Some  were  decidedly  in  favor  of 
the  Americans,  -and  most  of  them  were 
1783;  saw  service  in  Holland,  and  was  lukewarm.  Perceiving  this.  Brock  pro- 
in  the  attack  on  Copenhagen  in  1801.  Ris-  rogued  the  Assembly  so  soon  as  they  had 
ing  by  degrees,  he  became  a  major-gen-  passed  the  necessary  supply  bills.  But  a 
eral,  and  was  appointed  president  and  ad-    change   soon   came.     News   of   the   seizure 

404 


MEDAL   ly   MEMORY    OF   GENERAL   BROCK. 


SRODERICK— BROKie 


of  Mackinaw  and  reverses  to  the  Ameri- 
cans on  the  Detroit  frontier,  together  with 
Brock's  continually  confident  tone  in  pub- 
lic expressions,  gave  the  people  courage, 
and  he  was  enabled  to  write  to  Sir  George 
Prevost  (July  29,  1812),  "  The  militia  sta- 
tioned here  have  volunteered  their  ser- 
vices this  morning  to  any  part  of  the 
province."  He  soon  led  quite  a  large  body 
of  them,  and  captured  Detroit  (q.  v.) . 
He  also  personally  led  the  troops  in  the 
battle  of  Queenston,  where  he  was  killed, 
Oct.  13,  1812.  The  British  government 
caused  a  fine  monument  to  be  erected  to 
his  memory  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Lon- 
don, bearing  the  following  inscription: 
"  Erected  at  the  public  expense  to  the 
memory  of  Ma j. -Gen.  Sir  Isaac  Brock,  who 
gloriously  fell  on  the  13th  of  October, 
MDCCCXIL,  in  resisting  an  attack  on 
Queenston,  Upper  Canada."  To  the  four 
surviving  brothers  of  Brock  12,000  acres 
of  land  in  Canada  were  given,  and  a  pen- 
sion of  $1,000  a  year  each  for  life.  In  1816 
the  Canadians  struck  a  medal  to  his  mem- 
oiy;  and  on  the  Heights  of  Queenston 
they  raised  a  beautiful  Tuscan  column 
135  feet  in  height.  In  the  base  of  the 
monument  a  tomb  was  formed,  in  which 
the  general's  remains  repose.  They  were 
taken  to  this  last  resting-place  from  Fort 
George  on  Oct.  13,  1824.  A  small  monu- 
ment marks  the  place  Avhere  he  fell. 

Broderick,  Davis  Colbretii,  legisla- 
tor: born  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  4, 
1820;  was  actively  engaged  in  New  York 
politics  until  his  removal  to  California 
in  1846,  where  he  became  a  leader  in 
political  matters.  He  was  elected  a 
United  States  Senator  for  that  State  in 
1856.  In  consequence  of  political  diffi- 
culties he  was  challenged  to  fight  a  duel 
by  David  S.  Terry,  chief  -  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  California;  fell  at  the 
first  fire;  and  died  shortly  thereafter, 
near  Lake  Merced,  Cal.,  Sept.  16,  1859. 

Brodhead,  John  Romeyn,  historian; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Jan.  2,  1814. 
He  graduated  at  Rutgers  College  in  1831; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1835;  was  attach- 
ed to  the  American  legation  at  the  Hague 
in  1839,  and  was  appointed  by  the  legislat- 
ure of  New  York  its  agent  to  procure  and 
transcribe  original  documents  concerning 
the  history  of  the  State.  He  spent  three 
years  in  searching  the  archives  of  Holland, 

40 


England,  and  France,  and  obtained  copies 
of  more  than  5,000  separate  papers,  com- 
prising the  reports  of  home  and  colonial 
authorities.  They  have  been  published  in 
11  quarto  volumes  by  the  State  of  New 
York,  edited  by  E.  B.  O'Callaghan,  LL.D. 
Mr.  Brodhead  was  secretary  of  the  Amer- 
ican legation  in  London  from  1846  till 
1849.  On  his  return  he  began  the  prep- 
aration of  a  History  of  the  State  of 
Neiv  York.  The  first  volume  was  publish- 
ed in  1853,  and  the  second  in  1871.  He 
was  naval  officer  of  New  York  from  1853 
till  1857.  Mr.  Brodhead  left  his  History 
of  the  State  of  New  York  unfinished.  He 
died  in  New  York  City,  May  6,  1873. 

Broke,  Sir  Philip  Bowes  Vere,  an 
English  admiral;  born  Sept.  9,  1776; 
entered  the  British  navy  in  1792,  and  be- 
came post-captain  in  1801.  His  most  con- 
spicuous exploit  was  his  capture  of  the 
American  frigate  Chesapeake  in  June, 
1813.  (See  Chesapeake  and  Shannon.) 
This  afi'air  caused  him  to  receive  knight- 


SIR   PHILIP   BOWES   TKRE   BROKE. 

hood;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he 
held  the  commission  of  rear-admiral  of 
the  Red.  In  the  action  with  the  Chesa- 
peake he  was  so  badly  wounded  that  he 
was  never  fit  for  service  afterwards.  He 
died  in  London.  Jan.  2,  1841. 


BROOK    FARM    ASSOCIATION— BROOKE 


Brook  Farm  Association.  The  Brook 
Farm  project  originated  with  George  Rip- 
ley, a  prominent  humanitarian  of  Boston, 
and  Dr.  William  H.  Channing.  The  origi- 
nal plan  was  to  make  of  it  a  religious  and 
literary  community,  supported  by  joint 
labor  of  its  members  on  a  farm  which 
was  the  common  property  of  all.  All 
were  to  live  simply,  and,  as  the  hours  of 
labor  were  brief,  abundant  leisure  was  to 
be  secured  for  social  and  intellectual  inter- 
course. All  the  members  of  the  commu- 
nity were  to  be  stockholders  in  the  com- 
munity's property,  some  giving  money  and 
others  contributing  labor  as  an  equiva- 
lent. Many  persons  of  note  in  the  literary 
world  were  members  of  the  association, 
including  Theodore  Parker,  George  Will- 
iam Curtis,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  Charles 
A.  Dana,  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody,  Margaret 
Fuller,  and  others.  The  association  was 
organized  in  1841,  the  farm  purchased,  and 
by  the  following  spring  its  plan  was  fairly 
in  working  order.  It  was  then  known 
simply  as  the  West  Roxbury  Community, 
Brook  Farm  being  the  name  of  the  place 
owned  by  the  society.  A  quarterly  jour- 
nal called  the  Dial  was  carried  on  by 
the  members  of  the  society.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1843,  a  convention  of  reformers  of 
various  grades  was  held  in  Boston,  to  dis- 
cuss the  ideas  of  Fourier,  which  had  just 
become  known  in  this  country.  The  result 
was  the  conversion  of  all  the  Brook  Farm- 
ers to  Fourierism,  and  the  transformation 
of  their  simple  community  into  a  Fourier- 
ist  "  phalanx,"  under  the  name  of  the 
Brook  Farm  Association.  The  leaders  of 
this  movement  were  George  Ripley,  Minot 
Pratt,  and  Charles  A.  Dana.  The  land 
owned  by  the  association  at  this  time  ag- 
gregated 208  acres,  situated  at  West  Rox- 
bury, 8  miles  from  Boston,  and  their 
property,  real  and  personal,  was  estimated 
at  $30,000.  In  the  summer  of  1844  the 
Dial  suspended  publication.  The  new  or- 
gan of  the  association  was  the  Phalanx, 
then  published  in  New  York,  afterwards 
removed  to  Boston,  where  its  name  was 
changed  to  the  Earhinger.  The  Brook 
Farm  Association  was  incorporated  by  the 
Massachusetts  legislature  in  the  winter 
of  1844-45,  under  the  name  of  "  The 
Brook  Farm  Phalanx."  From  this  time 
the  main  function  of  Brook  Farm  was 
propagandism.     It  continued  the  manage- 


ment of  the  communal  affairs  at  West 
Roxbury,  and  made  many  improvements 
there,  and  put  up  large  workshops  and 
other  buildings.  But  outside  of  this  work 
its  members  conducted  the  Earhinger, 
which  was  published  weekly  and  was  given 
up  almost  wholly  to  advocacy  of  Fourier- 
ism. It  also  instituted  a  missionary  so- 
ciety and  a  lecturing  system.  Its  mem- 
bers, with  some  outside  sympathizers, 
formed  an  organization,  the  American 
Union  of  Associationists,  the  two  foremost 
workers  in  which  were  William  H.  Chan- 
ning and  Charles  A.  Dana,  and  eloquent 
appeals  in  the  form  of  circulars  were  sent 
out,  urging  the  formation  of  similar  so- 
cieties all  over  the  country.  A  number  of 
these  were  formed,  but,  unfortunately, 
nearly  all  were  failures.  March  3,  1846, 
the  large  "  phalanstery,"  in  process  of 
erection  at  Brook  Farm,  was  burned.  This 
was  a  terrible  blow  to  the  society,  and 
one  from  which  it  never  recovered.  The 
organization  lingered  and  continued  the 
publication  of  the  Earhinger  till  October, 
1847,  but  the  hope  of  becoming  a  model 
"  phalanx  "  died  out  long  before  that  time. 
The  associate  life  was  broken  up  in  1847, 
and  the  Brook  Farmers  sought  other  fields 
of  labor.  The  end  of  Brook  Farm  was 
virtually  the  end  of  Fourierism  in  the 
United  States,  for  though  other  organiza- 
tions of  a  similar  character  had  been 
formed  after  its  example,  their  lives  were 
of  short  duration,  when  the  inspiration 
of  the  Roxbury  apostles  was  gone. 

Brooke,  John  Rutter,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Pottsville,  Pa.,  July  21,  1838. 
When  the  Civil  War  began  he  joined  the 
Union  army  as  a  captain  of  a  volunteer 
regiment,  and  resigned  from  the  volunteer 
army  with  the  rank  of  brevet  major-gen- 
eral in  1866.  He  was  appointed  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  the  37th  United  States  In- 
fantry in  July,  1866;  and  promoted  to 
colonel  in  1879,  brigadier-general  in  1888, 
and  major-general  in  1897.  In  1898,  on 
the  declaration  of  war  against  Spain,  he 
Avas  appointed  commander  of  the  1st  Pro- 
visional Army  Corps.  After  serving  in  the 
Porto  Rico  campaign,  he  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  joint  military  commission 
to  arrange  the  cession  of  that  island  to 
the  United  States.  He  was  military  and 
civil  governor  of  Cuba  from  December, 
1898,  till  April,  1900;  was  then  succeeded 


406 


BROOKLYN 


by  Gen.  Leonard  Wood;  and  on  May  10, 
1900,  succeeded  Ma j. -Gen.  Wesley  Merritt 
as  commander  of  the  Military  Department 
of  the  East,  with  headquarters  in  New 
York  City. 

Brooklyn,  a  former  city  and  county 
seat  of  Kings  county,  N.  Y.,  at  the  west 
end  of  Long  Island;  since  Jan.  1,  1898,. 
one  of  the  five  boroughs  of  the  city  of  New 
York.  Under  the  census  of  1890  it  was 
the  fourth  city  in  population  in  the 
United  States— 806,343;  under  that  of 
1900  the  borough  had  a  population  of 
1,166,582.  In  1900  the  area  was  66.39 
square  miles;  assessed  valuation  of  tax- 
able property,  $695,335,940;  and  net  debt, 
$70,005,384.  The  borough  derived  its  name 
from  Breuckelen  ("  marshy  land  ")  ,a  place 
in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  Holland.     The 


gust,  1814),  there  were  stirring  scenes  at 
Brooklyn,  when  hosts  of  citizens  went 
over  from  New  York  to  assist  in  strength- 
ening the  old  fortifications  there,  in  ex- 
pectation of  an  attack  by  the  British.  In 
the  Civil  War  the  citizens  of  Brooklyn 
contributed  largely  to  the  support  of  the 
Union  cause  in  every  way.  The  fair  held 
here  for  the  benefit  of  the  United  States 
Sanitary  Commission  yielded  the  sum  of 
$402,943.  Brooklyn  was  incorporated  a 
village  in  April,  1816,  and  became  a  char- 
tered city  in  1834.  Williamsburg  and 
Greenpoint  were  annexed  to  it  in  1855; 
the  towns  of  Flatbush,  New  Utrecht, 
and  Gravesend,  in  1894;  and  the  town 
of  Flatlands  became  a  ward  of  the  city 
in  1896. 

The  bridge  across  the  East  Eiver,  con- 


THE    BROOKLYN    BRIDGE. 


first  movement  towards  settlement  there 
was  the  purchase  of  land  from  the  Indians, 
in  1636,  lying  at  Gowanus,  and  of  land 
at  Wallabout  Bay,  in  1637.  A  ferry  be- 
tween it  and  New  Amsterdam  was  estab- 
lished in  1642.  It  held  a  leading  position 
among  the  towns  for  wealth  and  popu- 
lation at  the  time  of  the  surrender  to  the 
English.  At  or  near  Brooklyn  occurred 
the  battle  of  Long  Island  (see  Long  Isl- 
and, Battle  of),  in  1776.  The  govern- 
ment established  a  navy-yard  in  Brooklyn 
in  1801.    During  the  War  of  1812-15  (Au- 


necting  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  was  de- 
signed by  John  A.  Roebling  {q.  v.) .  It 
was  begun  in  1870  and  finished  in  1883. 
The  steel  cables  by  which  it  is  suspended 
were  made  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  and  are 
supported  on  stone  piers,  272  feet  above 
high  tide.  The  total  length  of  the  bridge 
is  5,989  feet,  and  the  carriage-way  is  135 
feet  above  the  water.  The  cost  was  $15,- 
000,000,  of  which  the  city  of  Brooklyn  paid 
$10,000,000  and  New  York  City  $5,000,000. 
The  bridge  now  accommodates  pedestrians,' 
carriages    and   wagons,    bridge    cable-cars, 


407 


BKOOKS 


and  electric  cars.  The  bridge  soon  proved 
inadequate  for  the  enormous  traffic  be- 
tween New  York  and  Brooklyn,  and  a  sec- 
ond and  larger  bridge  on  steel  piers  was 
built  about  a  mile  above,  and  a  third 
bridge  ordered  to  parallel  the  original, 
and  a  fourth  bridge  across  Blackwell's 
Island.  In  addition  a  tunnel  has  been 
authorized  under  the  East  River  from  the 
Battery  in  New  York  to  the  Brooklyn 
City  Hall. 

Brooks,  James,  journalist;  born  in 
Portland,  Me.,  Nov.  10,  IS  10;  became  a 
Washington  correspondent  of  the  Port- 
land Advertiser  in  1832;  established  the 
Express  in  New  York  City  in  1832;  was 
a  member  of  the  New  York  State  con- 
stitutional convention;  a  government  di- 
rector of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway; 
and  one  of  the  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  censured  for  his  connec^ 
tion  with  the  Credit  Mobilier.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  April  30,  1873. 
See  Credit  Mobilier. 

Brooks,  John,  soldier  and  statesman; 
born  in  Medford,  Mass.,  May  31,  1752;  re- 
ceived a  common-school  education,  studied 
medicine,  and  settled  in  its  practice  at 
Reading,  where  he  commanded  a  company 
of  minute-men  when  the  Revolution  be- 
gan. With  his  men  he  was  engaged  in  the 
aflairs  of  April  19,  1775,  at  Lexington  and 
Concord.  Bi'ooks  was  active  in  intrench- 
ing Breed's  Hill  (see  Bunker  Hill)  on 
the  night  of  June  16,  1775,  and  was  major 
of  a  regiment  that  assisted  in  fortifying 
Dorchester  Heights.  Earlj^  in  1776  he  ac- 
companied it  to  Long  Island,  and  fought 
there.  The  battle  of  White  Plains  tested 
his  capacity  as  a  disciplinarian  and  leader; 
and  early  in  1777  he  was  promoted  to  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  the  8th  Massachusetts 
Regiment,  which  was  chiefly  recruited  by 
himself.  He  became  colonel  of  the  7th  Massa- 
chusetts Regiment  late  in  1778;  and  he  ac- 
companied Arnold  on  his  expedition  to  re- 
lieve Fort  Stanwix  in  1777.  He  led  his 
regiment  in  battle  with  great  prowess  and 
success  at  Saratoga,  Oct.  7,  1777;  and  in 
the  battle  of  Monmouth  (q.  v.)  he  was 
acting  adjutant  -  general.  He  was  adju- 
tant-general of  Massachusetts  during  the 
War  of  1812-15;  and  was  governor  of  that 
commonwealth  from  1816  to  1823,  when  he 
retired  to  private  life.  In  1816  Harvard 
University  conferred  upon  him  the  degrees 


of  M.D.  and  LL.D.     From   1817  until  his 
death,  March  1,  1825,  he  was  president  of 


JOHN  BROOKS. 

the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society;  of  the 
State  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  from  1787; 
and  of  the  Massachusetts  Bible  Society. 

Brooks,  Phillips;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Dec.  13,  1835;  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1855;  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Boston, 
1869;  bishop  of  Massachusetts,  1891.  He 
wrote  many  books  on  religious  subjects. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Jan.  23,  1893. 

Brooks,  Preston  Smith,  legislator; 
born  in  Edgefield  District,  S.  C,  Aug.  4, 
1819;  was  graduated  at  the  South  Caro- 
lina College  in  1839;  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1843;  and  elected  to  the  State  legis- 
lature in  the  following  year.  He  served 
with  the  South  Carolina  Palmetto  Regi- 
ment through  the  Mexican  War,  and  after- 
wards engaged  in  planting.  He  Avas  elect- 
ed to  Congress  as  a  State-Rights  Democrat 
in  1853,  and  held  his  seat  till  his  death, 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  27,  1857.  On 
May  22,  1856,  he  made  a  murderous  as- 
sault on  Charles  Sumner,  who  had  re- 
mained in  his  seat  in  the  Senate  Chamber 
attending  to  some  unfinished  business  af- 
ter the  adjournment  of  the  Senate  for  the 
day.  Mr.  Sumner  became  insensible  from 
the  attack,  and  is  said  to  have  suffered 
more  or  less  from  it  till  his  death.  When 
the  fact  of  the  assault  became  kno\ATi,  the 
House  of  Representatives  directed  an  in- 
vestigation, and  its  committee  reported  in 
favor  of  expelling  Mr.  Brooks.  Subse- 
quently, however,  when  the  resolution  came 


408 


BROOKS,  PRESTON  SMITH 

up  for  final  action  it  was  defeated  through  high  places,  and  permit  a  member  of  Con- 
lack  of  the  required  two-thirds  vote,  gress  to  publish  and  circulate  a  libel 
Soon  afterwards  Representative  Anson  on  another,  and  then  call  upon  either 
I^UKLiNGAME  {q.  V.) ,  of  Massachusetts,  House  to  protect  him  against  the  per- 
challenged  Mr.  Brooks  to  fight  a  duel  in  sonal  responsibilities  which  he  had  thus 
consequence    of    words    used    in    a    debate  incurred. 

in  the  House,  but  Mr.  Brooks  failed  to  ap-  But  if  I  had  committed  a  breach  of 
pear  at  the  designated  time  and  place  in  privilege,  it  was  the  privilege  of  the  Sen- 
Canada.  After  the  assault  Mr.  Brooks  ate,  and  not  of  this  House,  which  was 
resigned  his  seat  in  the  House,  but  his  violated.  I  was  answerable  there,  and 
constituents  immediately  re-elected  him,  not  /ie?-e.  They  had  no  right,  as  it  seems 
and  he  was  presented  with  numerous  to  me,  to  prosecute  me  in  these  halls,  nor 
tokens  of  esteem  by  friends  in  different  have  you  the  right  in  law  or  under  the 
parts  of  the  South.  Constitution,  as  I  respectfully  submit,  to 

His  Defence  of   the  Assault. — On   July  take  jurisdiction  over  offences  committed 

14,  1856,  Mr.  Brooks  delivered  the  follow-  against  them.     The  Constitution  does  not 

ing  speech: justify   them   in   making   such   a   request, 

nor  this  House  in  granting  it.     If,  unhap- 

Mr,   Speaker, — Some  time   since   a   Sen-  pily,  the  day  should  ever  come  when  sec- 

ator    from    Massachusetts    allowed    him-  tional  or  party  feeling  should  run  so  high 

self,  in  an  elaborately  prepared  speech,  to  as   to   control   all   other   considerations  of 

offer  a  gross  insult  to  my  State,  and  to  a  public  duty  or   justice,   how  easy  it  will 

venerable  friend,  who  is  my  State  repre-  be  to  use  such  precedents  for  the  excuse  of 

scntative,    and    who    was    absent    at    the  arbitrary  power,  in  either  House,  to  expel 

time.  members   of  the   minority  who  may  have 

Not  content  with  that,  he  published  to  rendered  themselves  obnoxious  to  the  pre- 

the  world,  and  circulated  extensively,  this  vailing  spirit  in  the  House  to  which  they 

uncalled-for    libel    on    my    State    and    my  belong. 

blood.  Whatever  insults  my  State  in-  Matters  may  go  smoothly  enough  when 
suits  me.  Her  history  and  character  have  one  House  asks  the  other  to  punish  a 
commanded  my  pious  veneration ;  and  in  member  who  is  offensive  to  a  majority  of 
her  defence  I  hope  I  shall  always  be  pre-  its  own  body;  but  how  will  it  be  when, 
pared,  humbly  and  modestly,  to  perform  upon  a  pretence  of  insulted  dignity,  de- 
the  duty  of  a  son.  I  should  have  forfeited  viands  are  made  of  this  House  to  expel 
my  own  self-respect,  and  perhaps  the  good  a  member  who  happens  to  run  counter 
opinion  of  my  counti-ymen,  if  I  had  failed  to  its  party  predilections,  or  other  de- 
to  resent  such  an  injury  by  calling  the  mands  which  it  may  not  be  so  agreeable- 
offender  in  question  to  a  personal  account,  to  grant?  It  could  never  have  been  de- 
It  was  a  personal  affair,  and  in  taking  signed  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
redress  into  my  own  hands  I  meant  no  dis-  States  to  expose  the  two  Houses  to  such 
respect  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  temptations  to  collision,  or  to  extend  so 
or  to  this  House.  Neither  did  I  design  far  the  discretionary  power  which  was 
insult  or  disrespect  to  the  State  of  Massa-  given  to  either  House  to  punish  its  own 
chusetts.  I  was  aware  of  the  personal  members  for  the  violation  of  its  rules 
responsibilities  I  incurred,  and  was  will-  and  orders.  Discretion  has  been  said  to 
ing  to  meet  them.  I  knew,  too,  that  I  was  be  the  law  of  the  tyrant,  and  when  exer- 
amenable  to  the  laws  of  the  country,  cised  under  the  color  of  the  law,  and 
which  afford  the  same  protection  to  all,  under  the  influence  of  party  dictation,  it 
whether  they  be  members  of  Congress  or  may  and  will  become  a  terrible  and  in- 
private   citizens.     I   did   not,   and   do   not  sufferable  despotism. 

now,  believe  that  I  could  be  properly  pun-  This    House,    however,    it    would    seem, 

ished,   not   only   in    a    court   of   law,    but  from    the    unmistakable    tendency    of    its 

here  also,   at  the  pleasure  and   discretion  proceedings,   takes   a   different   view  from 

of   the   House.      I   did   not   then,    and    do  that    which    T    deliberately    entertain    in 

not  now,  believe  that  the  spirit  of  Amer-  common  with  many  others. 

ican    freemen    would    tolerate    slander    in  So  far   as  public  interests  or   constitu- 

409 


BROOKS,    PRESTON    SMITH 

tional  rights  are  involved,  I  have  now  ex-  perform — I  might  have  been  compelled  to 

hausted    my    means    of    defence.      I    may,  do  that  which  I  would  have  regretted  the 

then,  be  allowed  to  take  a  more  personal  balance  of  my  natural  life. 

view  of   the  question  at  issue.     The  fur-  The  question  has  been  asked  in  certain 

ther    prosecution   of   this    subject,    in   the  newspapers,    why    I    did    not    invite    the 

shape  it  has  now  assumed,  may  not  only  Senator   to   personal   combat  in  the  mode 

involve  my  friends,   but  the  House  itself,  usually   adopted.      Well,    sir,    as    I   desire 

in    agitations    which    might    be    unhappy  the   whole   truth   to   be   known   about   the 

in  their  consequences  to  the  country.     If  matter,  I  will  for  once  notice  a  newspaper 

tliese    consequences    could   be    confined    to  article  on  the  floor  of  the  House,  and  an- 

myself    individually,    I    think    I    am    pre-  swer  here. 

pared  and  ready  to  meet  them,  here  or  My  answer  is,  that  the  Senator  would 
elsewhere;  and  when  I  use  this  language  not  accept  a  message;  and  having  formed 
I  mean  what  I  say.  But  others  must  not  the  unalterable  determination  to  punish 
suffer  for  me.  T  have  felt  more  on  ac-  him,  I  believe  that  the  offence  of  "  send- 
count  of  my  two  friends  who  have  been  ing  a  hostile  message,"  superadded  to  the 
implicated  than  for  myself,  for  they  have  indictment  for  assault  and  battery,  would 
proven  that  "  there  is  a  friend  that  stick-  subject  me  to  legal  penalties  more  severe 
eth  closer  than  a  brother."  I  will  not  tlian  would  be  imposed  for  a  simple  as- 
constrain  gentlemen  to  assume  a  respon-  sault  and  battery.  That  is  my  answer, 
sibility  on  my  account,  which  possibly  Now,  Mr.  Speaker,  I  have  nearly  fin- 
they  would  not  run  on  their  own.  ished  what  I  intended  to  say.  If  my  op- 
Sir,  I  cannot,  on  my  own  account,  as-  ponents,  Avho  have  pursued  me  Avith  un- 
sume  the  responsibility,  in  the  face  of  paralleled  bitterness,  are  satisfied  with 
the  American  people,  of  commencing  a  the  present  condition  of  this  affair,  I  am. 
line  of  conduct  which  in  my  heart  of  I  return  my  thanks  to  my  friends,  and 
hearts  I  believe  would  result  in  subvert-  especially  to  those  who  are  from  non- 
ing  the  foundations  of  this  government,  slave-owning  States,  who  have  magnani- 
and  in  drenching  this  hall  in  blood.  No  mously  sustained  me,  and  felt  that  it  was 
act  of  mine,  on  my  personal  account,  a  higher  honor  to  themselves  to  be  just 
shall  inaugurate  revolution;  but  when  in  their  judgment  of  a  gentleman  than 
you,  Mr.  Speaker,  return  to  your  own  to  be  a  member  of  Congress  for  life.  In 
home,  and  hear  the  people  of  the  great  taking  my  leave,  I  feel  that  it  is  proper 
Xorth— and  they  are  a  great  people—  that  I  should  say  that  I  believe  that  some 
speak  of  me  as  "a  bad  man,  you  will  do  of  the  votes  that  have  been  cast  against 
me  the  justice  to  say  that  a  blow  struck  me  have  been  extorted  by  an  outside  pres- 
by  me  at  this  time  w^ould  be  followed  by  sure  at  home,  and  that  their  votes  do  not 
revolution,  and  this  I  know.  (Applause  express  the  feelings  or  opinions  of  the 
and  hisses  in  the  gallery.)  members  who  gave  them. 

Mr.   Brooks    (resuming)  :— If  I   desired  To   such   of   these   as   have   given   their 

to  kill  the  Senator,  why  did  not  I  do  it?  votes  and  made  their  speeches  on  the  con- 

You  all  admit  that  I  had  him  in  my  power,  stitutional   principles  involved,  and  Avith- 

Let  me  tell  the  member  from  New  Jersey  out     indulging     in     personal     vilification, 

that  it  Avas  expressly  to  avoid  taking  life  I   owe   my   respect.      But,    sir,    they   have 

tliat  I  used  an  ordinary  cane,  presented  to  Avritten    me    doA\m    upon    the    history    of 

me  by  a  friend  in  Baltimore,  nearly  three  the     country     as     Avorthy     of     expulsion, 

months  before  its  application  to  the"  bare  and    in   no   unkindness   I   must   tell    them 

head"   of  the   Massachusetts   Senator.      I  that   for   all   future   time   my   self-respect 

Av^ent  to  work  very  deliberately,  as  I  am  requires  that  I  shall  pass  them  as  stran- 

charged — and  this  is  admitted — and  spec-  gers. 

ulated  somcAvhat  as  to  Avhether  I  should  And  noAV,  Mr.  Speaker.  I  announce  to 
employ  a  horseAvhip  or  a  cowhide;  but  you  and  to  this  House,  that  I  am  no  long- 
knowing  that  the  Senator  Avas  my  supe-  er  a  member  of  the  thirty-fourth  Con- 
rior  in  strength,  it  occurred  to  me  that  he  gress. 

might  wrest"  it  from  my  hand,  and  then  Mr.    Brooks    then    AvithdrcAV    from    the 

— for  I  never  attempt  anvthing  I  do  not  chamber. 

410 


BROOKS— BRO  WIST 


Brooks,  WiLLiAii  Thomas  Haebaugh, 
military  officer;  born  in  New  Lisbon,  O., 
Jan.  28,  1821;  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1841;  served  under  Scott  in  the  war 
against  Mexico,  and  became  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers  in  1861,  serving  in  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  In  July,  1864,  he 
was  temporarily  in  command  of  the  lOtli 
Army  Corps,  and  resigned  the  same  month. 
He  died  in  Huntsville,  Ala.,  July  19,  1870. 

Brother  Jonathan.  See  Trumbull, 
Jonathan. 

Brotherly  Love,  City  of.  See  Phila- 
delphia. 

Brough,  John,  journalist;  born  in 
Marietta,  0.,  in  1811;  learned  the  print- 
er's trade  in  the  office  of  the  Marietta 
Gazette;  and  was  editor  of  Democratic 
newspapers  in  Lancaster  and  Cincinnati. 
He  held  several  State  offices  in  Ohio; 
was  a  member  of  the  joint  commission 
to  adjust  the  boundary  line  between  that 
State  and  Virginia;  became  a  popular 
Democratic  orator;  was  an  active  "war" 
Democrat  in  the  early  part  of  the  Civil 
War;  and  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio 
as  the  Kepublic-Union  candidate  in  1863. 
He  died  in  Cleveland,  0.,  Aug.  29,  1865. 

Brown,  x^aron  Vail;  born  in  Virginia, 
Aug.  15,  1795;  moved  to  North  Carolina 
in  1815;  was  member  of  the  State  legis- 
lature for  some  j'ears,  and  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1839,  and  governor  of  the  State  in 
1845.  He  was  Postmaster-General  in  Bu- 
chanan's cabinet.  He  died  in  Washington, 
March  8,  1859. 

Brown,  Benjamin  Gratz;  born  in 
Lexington,  Ky.,  May  28,  1826;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1847 ;  and  settled  in  St. 
Louis,  where  he  edited  the  Missouri  Demo- 
crat. He  assisted  in  preventing  the  se- 
cession of  Missouri,  and  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1863,  and  gov- 
ernor of  the  State  in  1871.  He  was  the 
candidate  for  Vice  -  President  on  the 
Greeley  ticket  in  1872.  He  died  in  St. 
Louis,  Dec.  13,  1885. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden,  author; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  17,  1771;  studied 
law,  but  abandoned  it  for  literature.  In 
addition  to  novels  and  works  of  literature 
he  published  An  Address  to  Franklin;  An 
Address  to  Congress  on  Foreign  Commerce. 
He  was  the  first  American  author  who 
made  literature  his  profession.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia,  Peb.  22,  1810. 

41 


Brown,  Fort,  a  fortified  post  on  the 
Eio  Grande,  erected  in  1846,  and  named 
in  honor  of  Maj.  Jacob  Brown,  U.  S.  A. 
It  was  built  by  General  Taylor  immediate- 
ly after  his  arrival  at  the  river  opposite 
Matamoras  with  a  part  of  the  army  of 
occupation  (March  29,  1846),  and  was  de- 
signed to  accommodate  2,000  men.  It  was 
placed  in  command  of  Major  Brown.  Tay- 
lor was  ordered  by  General  Ampudia,  com- 
mander of  the  Mexican  forces  at  Mata- 
moras, to  withdraw  within  twenty-four 
hours,  as  he  claimed  the  territory  around 
Fort  Brown  belonged  to  the  Department 
of  Tamaulipas,  a  part  of  Mexico.  Taylor 
refused  to  do  so;  and  when  he  had  gone 
back  to  Point  Isabel  with  a  part  of  his 
forces,  leaving  Major  Brown  in  command. 
Arista  crossed  the  river  with  some  troops 
to  attack  the  fort.  His  army  was  hourly 
increasing  in  strength.  On  the  night  of 
May  4  the  Mexicans  erected  a  battery  be- 
hind the  fort,  and  early  the  next  morning 
opened  a  heavy  fire  from  it  upon  the  forti- 
fication. At  the  same  time  the  batteries 
at  Matamoras,  which  had  fired  upon  the 
fort  on  the  3d,  hurled  shot  and  shell,  but 
with  little  effect,  for  Bro\vn  had  erected 
bomb-proof  shelter.  Almost  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  bombardment,  the  gallant  com- 
mander was  killed.  The  bombardment 
continued  thirty-six  hours,  when  Arista 
demanded  a  surrender  of  the  fort.  It  was 
refused,  and  towards  evening  (April  6)  a 
heavy  tempest  of  shot  and  shell  fell  upon 
the  fort.  The  fort  withstood  the  attack 
until  relieved  by  approaching  troops  under 
General  Taylor.     See  Mexico,  War  with. 

Brown,  Henry  Billings,  jurist;  born 
in  Lee,  Mass.,  March  2,  1836;  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1856;  circuit  judge  of  Wayne 
county,  Mich.,  in  1868;  United  States  dis- 
trict judge  in  1875;  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  in  1890. 

Brown,  Henry  Kirke,  sculptor;  born 
in  Leyden,  Mass.,  Feb.  24,  1814.  Among 
his  best  works  are  an  equestrian  statue 
of  Washington,  in  New  York ;  an  eques- 
trian statue  of  General  Greene ;  a  colossal 
statue  of  De  Witt  Clinton ;  and  Angel  of 
the  Resurrection,  in  Greenwood  Cemetery; 
a  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  General 
Scott,  and  a  statue  of  President  Lincoln. 
He  died  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  July  10,  1886. 

Brown,    Isaac   U.,   naval   officer;    com- 
manded the  ram  Arkansas    (g.  v.). 
1 


SEOWl? 


Brown,  Jacob,  military  officer;  born  in 
Bucks  county,  Pa.,  May  9,  1775,  of  Quaker 
parentage.  He  taught  school  at  Cross- 
wicks,  N".. J.,  for  three  years,  and  passed  two 


fight  the  French.  On  leaving  that  service 
he  went  to  northern  New  Yoik,  purchased 
lands  on  the  banks  of  the  Black  Kiver,  not 
manv   miles   from   Sackett's   Harbor,   and 


MEDAL   PRESENTED   TO   GENERAL    BROWN    BY    CONGRESS. 


years  in  surveying  lands  in  Ohio.  In  1798 
he  opened  a  select  school  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  studied  law.  Some  of  his 
newspaper   essays  attracted  the  notice  of 


GENERAL   BROWN-'S   MONUMENT. 

Gen.  Alexander  Hamilton,  to  whom  he  be- 
came secretary  while  that  officer  was  act- 
ing general-in-chief  of  the  army  raised  to 

41 


founded  the  flourishing  settlement  of 
Brownsville,  where  he  erected  the  first 
building  within  30  miles  of  Lake  Ontario. 
There  he  became  county  judge;  colonel  of 
the  militia  in  1809;  brigadier-general  in 
1810;  and,  in  1812,  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  commander  of  the  frontier  from 
Oswego  to  Lake  St.  Francis,  a  line  200 
miles  in  extent.  He  performed  excellent 
service  on  that  frontier  and  that  of  the 
Niagara  during  the  War  of  1812-15,  re- 
ceiving two  severe  wounds  in  battle.  For 
his  services  he  received  the  thanks  of  Con- 
gress and  a  gold  medal.  At  the  close  of 
the  war,  General  Brown  was  retained  in 
command  of  the  northern  division  of  the 
army,  and  was  made  general-in-chief  of 
the  army  of  the  United  States,  March  10, 
1821.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb. 
24,  1828.  General  Brown's  remains  were 
interred  in  the  congressional  burying- 
ground,  and  over  them  is  a  truncated 
column  of  white  marble  upon  an  inscribed 
pedestal.     See  Freedom  of  a  City. 

Brown,  John,  patriot;  born  in  San- 
disfield,  Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1744;  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1761 ;  became  a 
lawyer  and  active  patriot;  entered  Canada 
in  disguise  (1774-75)  to  obtain  informa- 
tion and  secure  the  co-operation  of  the 
Canadians   with   the   other   colonists,   and 


MAJOR-GENERAL   JACOB    BROWN 


BROWN,    JOHN 

aided  Ethan  Allen  in  the  capture  of  Ti-  companies  of  British  regulars,  a  quantity 

conderoga.     He  was  active  with  Montgom-  of    stores    and    cannon,    and    destroyed    a 

ery  in  the   siege  of   Quebec.     In   August,  number  of  boats  and  an  armed  sloop.     He 

1776,  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel,  and,  left  the  service  because  of  his  detestation 

on  the  morning  of  Sept.  18,  1776,  he  sur-  of  Benedict  Arnold,  but  continued  to  act 

prised    the    outposts    of    Ticonderoga,    set  with  the  militia.     He  was  killed  by  Ind- 

free  100  American  prisoners,  captured  four  ians  in  the  Mohawk  Valley,  Oct.  19,  1780. 


BROWN,     JOHN 


Brown,  John,  abolitionist ;  born  in  Tor- 
rington,  Conn.,  May  9,  1800;  hanged  in 
Charlestown,  Va.,  Dec.  2,  1859;  was  a  de- 
scendant of  Peter  Brown  of  the  Mayflower. 
His  grandfather  was  a  soldier  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  perished  in  that  war.  When 
John  was  five  years  of  age,  his  father 
moved  to  Ohio;  and  in  1815-20  he  worked 
at  the  trade  of  a  tanner.  He  became  a 
dealer  in  wool ;  visited  Europe  on  busi- 
ness; and  in  1855  he  emigrated  to  Kansas, 
where,  as  an  anti-slavery  champion,  he 
took  an  active  part  against  the  pro-slavery 
party,  engaging  in  some  of  the  conflicts 
of  the  short  civil  war  in  that  Territory. 
Devout,  moral,  courageous,  and  intensely 
earnest,  he  sought  to  be  an  instrument  for 
the  abolition  of  African  slavery  from  the 
republic.  The  idea  that  he  might  become 
a  liberator  was  conceived  so  early  as  1839. 
In  May,  1859,  he  made  his  first  movement 
in  an  attempt  to  liberate  the  slaves  in  Vir- 
ginia, which  ended  so  disastrously  to  him- 
self at  Harper's  Ferry. 

There  seemed  to  be  a  peculiar  serenity 
and  calmness  in  the  public  mind  about 
public  affairs  in  the  fall  of  1859,  when 
suddenly  a  rumor  went  out  of  Baltimore 
that  the  abolitionists  had  seized  the  gov- 
ernment armory  and  arsenal  at  Harper's 
Ferry,  at  the  junction  of  the  Shenandoah 
and  Potomac  rivers,  and  that  a  general 
insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  Virginia  was 
imminent.  The  rumor  was  mostly  true. 
John  Brown  had  suddenly  appeared  at 
Harper's  Ferry  with  a  few  followers,  to 
induce  the  slaves  of  Virginia  to  rise  in 
insurrection  and  assert  their  right  to 
freedom.  With  a  few  white  followers  and 
twelve  slaves  from  Missouri,  he  went  into 
Canada  West,  and  at  Chatham  a  con- 
vention of  sympathizers  was  held  in  May, 
1859,  whereat  a  "  Provisional  Constitu- 
tion and  Ordinances  for  the  People  of  the 
United  States  "  was  adopted — not,  as  the 


instrument  declared,  "  for  the  overthrow 
of  any  government,  but  simply  to  amend 
and  repeal."  It  was  a  part  of  the  scheme 
for  promoting  the  uprising  of  the 
slaves. 

Brown  spent  the  summer  of  1859  in  prep- 
arations for  his  work.  He  hired  a  farm 
a  few  miles  from  Harper's  Ferry,  where 
he  was  known  by  the  name  of  Smith.  One 
by  one  his  followers  joined  him  there,  and 
stealthily  gathered  pikes  and  other  weap- 


JOHN    BROWN. 


ons,  with  ammunition,  for  the  purpose 
of  first  arming  the  insurgent  slaves  of 
Virginia.  On  a  very  dark  night,  Brown, 
Avith  seventeen  white  men  and  five  negroes, 
stole  into  the  village  of  Harper's  Ferry, 
put  out  the  street-lights,  seized  the  gov- 
ernment armory  and  the  railway-bridge 
there,  and  quietly  arrested  and  impi-ison- 
ed  in  the  government  buildings  every  citi- 
zen found  in  the  street  at  the  earlier  hours 
of  the  next  morning,  each  one  ignorant  of 
what  else  had  happened.     These  invaders 


413 


BROWN,    JOHN 


had   seized   Colonel   Washington,   living  a    thor  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850, 


few  miles  from  the  ferry,  with  his  arms 
and  horses,  and  liberated  his  slaves;  and 
at  eight  o'clock  on  Monday  morning,  Oct. 
17,  Brown  and  his  followers  (among  whom 
were  two  of  his  sons)  had  full  possession 
of  the  village  and  the  government  works. 
He  had  felt  assured  that  when  the  first 
blow  should  be  struck  the  negroes  of  the 
surrounding  country  would  rise  and  flock 
to  his  standard,  that  a  general  uprising 
of  the  slaves  throughout  the  Union  would 
follow,  and  that  he  would  win  the  satis- 
faction and  the  honors  of  a  great  liber- 
ator. When  asked  what  was  his  purpose, 
and  by  what  authority  he  acted,  he  replied, 
"  To  free  the  slaves ;  and  by  the  authority 
of  God  Almighty." 

News  of  this  affair  went  swiftly  abroad, 
and  before  night  a  large  number  of  Vir- 
ginia militia  had  gathered  at  Harper's 
Ferry.  Struggles  between  these  and 
Brown's  followers  ensued,  in  which  the 
two  sons  of  the  latter  perished.  The  in- 
vaders were  finally  driven  into  a  fire- 
engine  house,  where  Brown  bravely  de- 
fended himself.  With  one  son  dead  by  his 
side  and  the  other  shot  through  the  body, 
he  felt  the  pulse  of  his  dying  child  with 
one  hand,  held  his  rifle  with  the  other, 
and  issued  oral  commands  to  his  men  with 
all  the  composure  of  a  general  in  his  mar- 
quee, telling  them  to  be  firm,  and  sell  their 
lives  as  dearly  as  possible.  They  held  their 
citadel  until  Monday  evening,  when  Col. 
Robert  E.  Lee  arrived  with  ninety  United 
States  marines  and  two  pieces  of  artillery. 
The  doors  of  the  engine-house  were  forced 
open,  and  Brown  and  his  followers  were 
captured.  The  bold  leader  was  speedily 
tried  for  murder  and  treason,  was  found 
guilty  (Oct.  29),  and  on  Dec.  3,  1859,  was 
hanged.  Meanwhile  the  wildest  tales  of 
the  raid  had  gone  over  the  land.  The  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  (Henry  A.  Wise)  was 
beside  himself  with  excitement,  and  de- 
clared himself  ready  to  make  war  on  all 
the  free-labor  States ;  and  he  declared,  in  a 
letter  to  the  President  (Nov.  25),  that  he 
had  authority  for  the  belief  that  a  con- 
spiracy to  rescue  Brown  existed  in  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  other  States. 
Attempts  were  made  to  implicate  leading 
Republicans  in  a  scheme  for  liberating 
the  slaves.  A  committee  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  with  James  M.  Mason,  au- 


its  chairman,  was  ajjpointed  to  investigate 
the  subject.  The  result  was  the  obtain- 
ing of  positive  proof  that  Brown  had  no 
accomplices,  and  only  about  twenty-five 
followers.  Although  Brown's  mad  attempt 
to  free  the  slaves  was  a  total  failure,  it 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  important  events 
which  speedily  brought  about  the  result 
he  so  much  desired. 

Autobiographical  Notes. — 

brown's  letter  on   slavery  to  his 
brother  frederick. 

Rajvdolph,  Pa.,  Nov.  21,  1834. 

Dear  Brother, — As  I  have  had  only  one 
letter  from  Hudson  since  you  left  here, 
and  that  some  weeks  since,  I  begin  to 
get  uneasy  and  apprehensive  that  all  is 
not  well.  I  had  satisfied  my  mind  about 
it  for  some  time,  in  expectation  of  seeing 
father  here,  but  I  begin  to  give  that  up 
for  the  present.  Since  you  left  me  I  have 
been  trying  to  devise  some  means  whereby 
I  might  do  something  in  a  practical  way 
for  my  poor  fellow-men  who  are  in  bond- 
age, and  having  fully  consulted  the  feel- 
ings of  my  wife  and  my  three  boys,  we 
have  agreed  to  get  at  least  one  negro  boy 
or  youth,  and  bring  him  up  as  we  do  our 
own— i;i^.,  give  him  a  good  English  edu- 
cation, learn  him  what  we  can  about  the 
history  of  the  world,  about  business,  about 
general  subjects,  and,  above  all,  try  to 
teach  him  the  fear  of  God.  We  think  of 
three  ways  to  obtain  one:  First,  to  try 
to  get  some  Christian  slave-holder  to  re- 
lease one  to  us.  Second,  to  get  a  free 
one  if  no  one  will  let  us  have  one  that  is 
a  slave.  Third,  if  that  does  not  succeed, 
we  have  all  agreed  to  submit  to  consider- 
able privation  in  order  to  buy  one.  This 
we  are  now  using  means  in  order  to  effect, 
in  the  confident  expectation  that  God  is 
about  to  bring  them  all  out  of  the  house 
of  bondage. 

I  will  just  mention  that  when  this  sub- 
ject was  first  introduced,  Jason  had  gone 
to  bed;  but  no  sooner  did  he  hear  the 
thing  hinted,  than  his  warm  heart 
kindled,  and  he  turned  out  to  have  a  part 
in  the  discussion  of  a  subject  of  such  ex- 
ceeding interest.  I  have  for  years  been 
trying  to  devise  some  way  to  get  a  school 
a-going  here  for  blacks,  and  I  think  that 


414 


BB0W13",    JOHN 

on   many   accounts    it   would   be   a   most  insteuctions    to    the   "  gileadites,"    an 

favorable   location.      Children   here  would  organization  of  colored  people. 
have  no  intercourse  with  vicious  people  of 

their  own  kind,  nor  with  openly  vicious  Nothing  so  charms  the  American  people 
persons  of  any  kind.  There  would  be  no  as  personal  bravery.  Witness  the  case  of 
powerful  opposition  influence  against  Cinques,  of  everlasting  memory,  on  board 
such  a  thing;  and  should  there  be  any,  I  the  Amistad.  The  trial  for  life  of  one 
believe  the  settlement  might  be  so  effected  bold  and  to  some  extent  successful  man, 
in  future  as  to  have  almost  the  Avhole  for  defending  his  rights  in  good  earnest, 
influence  of  the  place  in  favor  of  such  would  arouse  more  sympathy  throughout 
a  school.  Write  me  how  you  would  the  nation  than  the  accumulated  wrongs 
like  to  join  me,  and  try  to  get  on  from  and  sufferings  of  more  than  three  mill- 
Hudson  and  thereabouts  some  first-rate  ions  of  our  submissive  colored  popula- 
abolitionist  families  with  you.  I  do  hon-  tion.  W^e  need  not  mention  the  Greeks 
estly  believe  that  our  united  exertions  struggling  against  the  oppressive  Turks, 
alone  might  soon,  with  the  good  hand  of  the  Poles  against  Russia,  nor  the  Hun- 
our  God  upon  us,  efTect  it  all.  garians  against  Austria  and  Russia  com- 
This  has  been  with  me  a  favorite  theme  bined,  to  prove  this.  No  jury  can  he 
of  reflection  for  years.  I  think  that  a  found  in  the  Northern  States  that  would 
place  which  might  be  in  some  measure  convict  a  man  for  defending  his  rights 
settled  with  a  view  to  such  an  object  to  the  last  extremity.  This  is  xoell  under- 
would  be  much  more  favorable  to  such  an  stood  hy  Southern  Congressmen,  who  in- 
undertaking  than  would  any  such  place  as  sisted  that  the  right  of  trial  hy  jury 
Hudson,  with  all  its  conflicting  interests  should  not  he  granted  to  the  fugitive. 
and  feelings;  and  I  do  think  such  advaii-  Colored  people  have  ten  times  the  number 
tages  ought  to  be  afforded  the  young  of  fast  friends  among  the  whites  than 
blacks,  whether  they  are  all  to  be  imniedi-  they  suppose,  and  would  have  ten  times 
ately  set  free  or  not.  Perhaps  we  might,  the  number  they  now  have  were  they  but 
under  God,  in  that  way  do  more  towards  half  as  much  in  earnest  to  secure  their 
breaking  their  yoke  effectually  than  in  dearest  rights  as  they  are  to  ape  the  fol- 
any  other.  If  the  young  blacks  of  our  lies  and  extravagances  of  their  white 
country  could  once  become  enlightened,  it  neighbors,  and  to  indulge  in  idle  show, 
would  most  assuredly  operate  on  slavery  in  ease,  and  in  luxury.  Just  think  of  the 
like  firing  powder  confined  in  rock,  and  money  expended  by  individuals  in  your  be- 
all  slave-holders  know  it  well.  Witness  half  in  the  past  twenty  years!  Think 
their  heaven-daring  laws  against  teaching  of  the  number  who  have  been  mobbed  and 
blacks.  If  once  the  Christians  in  the  free  imprisoned  on  yovir  account!  Have  any  of 
States  would  set  to  work  in  earnest  in  you  seen  the  Branded  Hand?  Do  you  re- 
teaching  the  blacks,  the  people  of  the  member  the  names  of  Love  joy  and  Torrey? 
slave-holding  States  would  find  themselves  Should  one  of  your  number  be  arrest- 
constitutionally  driven  to  set  about  the  ed,  you  must  collect  together  as  quickly 
work  of  emancipation  immediately.  The  as  possible,  so  as  to  outnumber  your  ad- 
laws  of  this  State  are  now  such  that  the  versaries  who  are  taking  an  active  part 
inhabitants  of  any  township  may  raise  against  you.  Let  no  able-bodied  man  ap- 
by  a  tax  in  aid  of  the  State  school-fund  pear  on  the  ground  unequipped,  or  with 
any  amount  of  money  they  may  choose  his  weapons  exposed  to  view:  let  that  be 
by  a  vote,  for  the  purpose  of  common  understood  beforehand.  Your  plans  must 
schools,  which  any  child  may  have  access  be  kno^VTl  only  to  yourself,  and  with  the 
to  by  application.  If  you  will  join  me  in  imder standing  that  all  traitors  must  die, 
this  undertaking,  I  will  make  with  you  wherever  caught  and  proven  to  be  guilty. 
any  arrangement  of  our  temporal  con-  '•'  Whosoever  is  fearful  or  afraid,  let  him 
cerns  that  shall  be  fair.  Our  health  is  return  and  depart  early  from  Mount 
good,  and  our  prospects  about  business  Gilead "  (Judges,  vii.  3;  Deut.  xx.  8). 
rather  brightening.  Give  all  cowards  an  opportunity  to  show 
Affectionately  yours,  it  on  condition  of  holding  their  peace. 
John  Brown.  Do  not  delay  one  moment  after  you  are 
415 


BROWIO^,    JOHN 


ready:  you  toill  lose  all  your  resolution 
if  you  do.  Let  the  first  hloiv  be  the  signal 
for  all  to  engage;  and  when  engaged  do 
not  do  your  loork  by  halves,  hut  make 
clean  work  with  your  enemies, — and  be 
sure  you  meddle  not  with  any  others.  By 
going  about  your  business  quietly,  you 
will  get  the  job  disposed  of  before  the 
number  that  an  uproar  would  bring  to- 
gether can  collect;  and  you  will  have  the 
advantage  of  those  who  come  out  against 
you,  for  they  will  be  wholly  unprepared 
with  either  equipments  or  matured  plans; 
all  with  them  will  be  confusion  and  terror. 
Your  enemies  wall  be  slow  to  attack  you 
after  you  have  done  up  the  w^ork  nicely; 
and  if  they  should,  they  will  have  to  en- 
counter your  white  friends  as  well  as  you ; 
for  you  may  safely  calculate  on  a  division 
of  the  whites,  and  may  by  that  means 
get  to  an  honorable  parley. 

Be  firm,  determined,  and  cool ;  but  let 
it  be  understood  that  you  are  not  to  be 
driven  to  desperation  without  making  it 
an  awful  dear  job  to  others  as  well  as  to 
you.  Give  them  to  know  distinctly  that 
those  who  live  in  wooden  houses  should 
not  throw  lire,  and  that  you  are  just  as 
able  to  suffer  as  your  white  neighbors. 
After  effecting  a  rescue,  if  you  are  assail- 
ed, go  into  the  houses  of  your  most  promi- 
nent and  influential  tohite  friends  loith 
your  wives;  and  that  tvill  effectually 
fasten  upon  them  the  suspicion  of  being 
connected  with  you,  and  vnll  compel  them 
to  make  a  common  cause  with  you, 
whether  they  would  otherwise  live  up  to 
their  profession  or  not.  This  would  leave 
them  no  choice  in  the  matter.  Some 
would  doubtless  prove  themselves  true  of 
their  own  choice;  others  would  flinch; 
That  would  be  taking  them  at  their  own 
words.  You  may  make  a  tumult  in  the 
court-room  where  a  trial  is  going  on,  by 
burning  gunpowder  freely  in  paper  pack- 
ages, if  you  cannot  think  of  any  better 
way  to  create  a  momentary  alarm,  and 
might  possibly  give  one  or  more  of  your 
enemies  a  hoist.  But  in  such  case  the 
prisoner  will  need  to  take  the  hint  at 
once,  and  bestir  himself;  and  so  should 
his  friends  improve  the  opportunity  for 
a  general   rush. 

A  lasso  might  probably  be  applied  to  a 
slave-catcher  for  once  with  good  eflFect. 
Hold  on  to  your  weapons,  and  never  be 

41 


persuaded  to  leave  them,  part  with  them, 
or  have  them  far  away  from  you.  Stand 
by  one  another  and  by  your  friends,  while 
a  drop  of  blood  remains;  and  be  hanged, 
if  you  must,  but  tell  no  tales  out  of 
school.     Make  no  confession. 

Union  is  strength.  Without  some  well- 
digested  arrangements  nothing  to  any 
good  purpose  is  likely  to  be  done,  let  the 
demand  be  never  so  great.  Witness  the  case 
of  Hamlet  and  Long  in  New  York,  when 
there  was  no  well-defined  plan  of  opera- 
tions or  suitable  preparation  beforehand. 

The  desired  end  may  be  effectually  se- 
cured by  the  means  proposed;  namely,  the 
enjoyment  of  our  inalienable  rights. 

THE    FIGHT    OF    OSAWATOMIE. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  Aug.  30  the 
enemy's  scouts  approached  to  within 
one  mile  and  a  half  of  the  western  boun- 
dary of  the  town  of  Osawatomie.  At 
this  place  my  son  Frederick  (who  was  not 
attached  to  my  force)  had  lodged,  with 
some  four  other  young  men  from  Law- 
rence, and  a  young  man  named  Garrison, 
from  Middle  Creek.  The  scouts,  led  by 
a  pro-slavery  preacher  named  White,  shot 
my  son  dead  in  the  road,  while  he — as  I 
have  since  ascertained — -supposed  them  to 
be  friendly.  At  the  same  time  they 
butchered  Mr.  Garrison,  and  badly  man- 
gled one  of  the  young  men  from  Law- 
rence, who  came  Avith  my  son,  leaving 
him  for  dead.  This  was  not  far  from  sun- 
rise. I  had  stopi^ed  during  the  night 
about  two  and  one-half  miles  from  them, 
and  nearly  one  mile  from  Osawatomie.  I 
had  no  organized  force,  but  only  some 
twelve  or  fifteen  new  recruits,  who  were 
ordered  to  leave  their  preparations  for 
breakfast  and  follow  me  into  the  town, 
as  soon  as  this  news  was  brought  to  me. 

As  I  had  no  means  of  learning  correctly 
the  force  of  the  enemy,  I  placed  twelve 
of  the  recruits  in  a  log-house,  hoping  we 
might  be  able  to  defend  the  town.  I  then 
gathered  some  fifteen  more  men  together, 
whom  we  armed?  with  guns ;  and  we  start- 
ed in  the  direction  of  the  enemy.  After 
going  a  few  rods,  we  could  see  them  ap- 
proaching the  town  in  line  of  battle,  about 
half  a  mile  off,  upon  a  hill  west  of  the 
village.  I  then  gave  up  all  idea  of  doing 
more  than  to  annoy,  from  the  timber  near 
the  town,  into  which  we  were  all  retreat- 
6 


BROWN,    JOHN 


ed,  and  which  was  filled  with  a  thick 
growth  of  underbrush;  but  I  had  no  time 
to  recall  the  twelve  men  in  the  log- 
house,  and  so  lost  their  assistance  in  the 
fight.  At  the  point  above  named  I-  met 
with  Captain  Cline,  a  very  active  young 
man,  who  had  with  him  some  twelve  or 
fifteen  mounted  men,  and  persuaded  him 
to  go  with  us  into  the  timber,  on  the 
southern   shore   of   the   Osage,   or   Marais 


whom  neither  party  claimed,  they  took 
a  hasty  leave,  carrying  their  dead  and 
wounded  with  them.  They  did  not  at- 
tempt to  cross  the  river,  nor  to  search 
for  us,  and  have  not  since  returned  to 
look  over  their  work. 

I  give  this  in  great  haste,  in  the  midst 
of  constant  interruptions.  My  second  son 
was  with  me  in  the  fight,  and  escaped 
unharmed.     This  I  mention  for  the  benefit 


des  Cygnes,  a  little  to  the  northwest  from    of  his  friends.  Old  Preacher  White,  I  hear, 


the  village.  Here  the  men,  numbering  not 
more  than  thirty  in  all,  were  directed  to 
scatter  and  secrete  themselves  as  well 
as  they  could,  and  await  the  approach 
of  the  enemy.  This  was  done  in  full  view 
of  them  (who  must  have  seen  the  whole 
movement ) ,  and  had  to  be  done  in  the  ut- 
most haste.  I  believe  Captain  Cline  and 
some  of  his  men  were  not  even  dismount- 
ed in  the  fight,  but  cannot  assert  positive- 
ly. When  the  left  wing  of  the  enemy  had 
approached  to  within  common  rifle-shot, 
we  commenced  firing,  and  very  soon  threw 
the  northern  branch  of  the  enemy's  lino 
into  disorder.  This  continued  some  fif- 
teen or  twenty  minutes,  which  gave  us 
an  uncommon  opportimity  to  annoy  them. 
Captain  Cline  and  his  men  soon  got  out  of 
ammunition,  and  retired  across  the  river. 

After  the  enemy  rallied,  we  kept  up 
our  fire,  until,  by  the  leaving  of  one  and 
another,  we  had  but  six  or  seven  left. 
We  then  retired  across  the  river.  We 
had  one  man  killed — a  Mr.  Powers,  from 
Captain  Cline's  company — in  the  fight. 
One  of  my  men,  a  Mr.  Partridge,  was  shot 
in  crossing  the  river.  Two  or  three  of  the 
party  who  took  part  in  the  fight  are  yet 
missing,  and  may  be  lost  or  taken  pris- 
oners. Two  were  wounded;  namely.  Dr. 
Updegraff  and  a  Mr.  Collis.  I  cannot 
speak  in  too  high  terms  of  them,  and  of 
many  others  I  have  not  now  time  to  men- 
tion. 

One  of  my  best  men,  together  with  my- 
self, was  struck  by  a  partially  spent  ball 
from  the  enemy,  in  the  commencement  of 
the  fight,  but  we  were  only  bruised.  The 
loss  I  refer  to  is  one  of  my  missing  men. 
The  loss  of  the  enemy,  as  we  learn  by  the    may   judge    from    myself)    believed 


different  statements  of  our  own  as  well 
as  other  people,  was  some  thirty-one  or 
two  killed,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  wound- 
ed. After  burning  the  town  to  ashes  and 
killing   a   Mr.   Williams   they   had   taken, 


boasts  of  having  killed  my  son.     Of  course 
he  is  a  lion.  John  Brown. 

Lawrence,  Kansas,  Sept.  7,  1856. 

brown's  plan  as  explained  in  1858, 
reported  by  richard  realf. 

John  Brown  stated  that  for  twenty  or 
thirty  years  the  idea  had  possessed  him 
like  a  passion  of  giving  liberty  to  the 
slaves;  that  he  made  a  journey  to  Eng- 
land, during  which  he  made  a  tour  upon 
the  European  continent,  inspecting  all 
fortifications,  and  especially  all  earth- 
work forts  which  he  could  find,  with  a 
view  of  applying  the  knowledge  thus  gain- 
ed, with  modifications  and  inventions  of 
his  own.  to  a  mountain  warfare  in  the 
United  States.  He  stated  that  he  had 
read  all  the  books  upon  insurrectionary 
warfare  that  he  could  lay  his  hands  on: 
the  Roman  warfare,  the  successful  oppo- 
sition of  the  Spanish  chieftains  during 
the  period  when  Spain  was  a  Roman 
province — how  with  10.000  men,  divided 
and  subdivided  into  small  companies,  act- 
ing simultaneously  yet  separately,  they 
withstood  the  whole  consolidated  power 
of  the  Roman  Empire  through  a  number 
of  years.  In  addition  to  this,  he  had  be- 
come very  familiar  with  the  successful 
warfare  waged  by  Sohamyl.  the  Circas- 
sian chief,  against  the  Russians;  he  had 
posted  himself  m  relation  to  the  war 
of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture :  he  had  be- 
come thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  wars 
in  Hayti  and  the  islands  round  about; 
and  from  all  these  things  he  had  drawn 
the  conclusion — believing,  as  he  stated 
there  he  did  believe,  and  as  we  all    (if  I 

-that 


I.— 2  D 


417 


upon  the  first  intimation  of  a  plan  formed 
for  the  liberation  of  the  slaves,  they 
would  immediately  rise  all  over  the 
Southern  States.  He  supposed  that  they 
would   come   into  the   mountains   to   join 


BBOWN,    JOHN 


him,  where  he  purposed  to  work,  and  that 
by  flocking  to  his  standard  they  would 
enable  him  (making  the  line  of  moun- 
tains which  cut  diagonally  through  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  down  through  the 
Southern  States  into  Tennessee  and  Ala- 
bama, the  base  of  his  operations)  to  act 
upon  the  plantations  on  the  plains  lying 
on  each  side  of  that  range  of  mountains; 
that  we  should  be  able  to  establish  our- 
selves in  the  fastnesses.  And  if  any  hos- 
tile action  were  taken  against  us,  either 
by  the  militia  of  the  States  or  by  the 
armies  of  the  United  States,  we  purposed 
to  defeat  first  the  militia,  and  next,  if 
possible,  the  troops  of  the  United  States; 
and  then  organize  the  free  blacks  under 
the  provisional  constitution,  Avhich  would 
carve  out  for  the  locality  of  its  jurisdic- 
tion all  that  mountainous  region  in  which 
the  blacks  were  to  be  established,  in  which 
they  were  to  be  taught  the  useful  and 
mechanical  arts,  and  all  the  business  of 
life.  Schools  were  also  to  be  established, 
and  so  on.  The  negroes  were  to  be  his 
soldiers. 

PROVISIONAL  CONSTITUTION  AND  ORDINANCES 
FOR  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

[This  is  the  preamble  of  the  constitu- 
tion drawn  up  by  Brown  in  1858  for  the 
government  of  the  slaves  whom  he  pro- 
posed to  free.] 

Preamble. 

Whereas  slavery,  throughout  its  entire 
existence  in  the  United  States,  is  none 
other  than  a  most  barbarous,  unprovoked, 
and  unjustifiable  war  of  one  portion  of 
its  citizens  upon  another  portion — the 
only  conditions  of  which  are  perpetual 
imprisonment  and  hopeless  servitude  or 
absolute  extermination  — -  in  utter  disre- 
gard and  violation  of  those  eternal  and 
self-evident  truths  set  forth  in  our  Decla- 
ration of  Independence: 

Therefore,  we,  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  oppressed  people  who  by 
a  recent  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court 
are  declared  to  have  no  rights  which  the 
white  man  is  bound  to  respect,  together 
with  all  other  people  degraded  by  the 
laws  thereof,  do,  for  the  time  being,  or- 
dain and  establish  for  ourselves  the  fol- 
lowing Provisional  Constitution  and  Ordi- 
nances, the  better  to  protect  our  persons. 


property,  lives,  and  liberties,  and  to  gov- 
ern our  actions. 

LETTER  TO   THEODORE   PARKER. 

Boston,  Mass.,  March  7,  1858. 

My  DEAR  Sir, — Since  you  know  I  have 
an  almost  countless  brood  of  poor  hun- 
gry chickens  to  "  scratch  for,"  you  will 
not  reproach  me  for  scratching  even  on  the 
Sabbath.  At  any  rate,  I  trust  God  will  not. 
I  want  you  to  undertake  to  provide  a  sub- 
stitute for  an  address  you  saw  last  sea- 
son, directed  to  the  officers  and  soldiers  of 
the  United  States  army.  The  ideas  con- 
tained in  that  address  I  of  course  like,  for 
I  furnished  the  skeleton.  I  never  had  the 
ability  to  clothe  those  ideas  in  language 
at  all  to  satisfy  myself ;  and  I  was  by  no 
means  satisfied  with  the  style  of  that  ad- 
dress, and  do  not  know  as  I  can  give  any 
correct  idea  of  what  I  want.  I  will,  how- 
ever, try. 

In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  short,  or 
it  will  not  be  generally  read.  It  must  be 
in  the  simplest  or  plainest  language,  with- 
out the  least  affectation  of  the  scholar 
about  it,  and  yet  be  worded  with  great 
clearness  and  power.  The  anonymous 
writer  must  (in  the  language  of  the  Pad- 
dy) be  "  afther  others,"  and  not  "  afther 
himself  at  all,  at  all."  If  the  spirit  that 
communicated  Franklin's  Poor  Richard  (or 
some  other  good  spirit)  would  dictate,  I 
think  it  would  be  quite  as  well  employed 
as  the  "  dear  sister  spirits "  have  been 
for  some  years  past.  The  address  should 
be  appropriate,  and  particularly  adapted 
to  the  peculiar  circumstances  we  antici- 
pate, and  should  look  to  the  actual  change 
of  service  from  that  of  Satan  to  the  ser- 
vice of  God.  It  should  be,  in  short,  a 
most  earnest  and  powerful  appeal  to  men's 
sense  of  right  and  to  their  feelings  of  hu- 
manity. Soldiers  are  men,  and  no  man  can 
certainly  calculate  the  value  and  impor- 
tance of  getting  a  single  "nail  into  old  Cap- 
tain Kidd's  chest."  It  should  be  provided 
beforehand,  and  be  ready  in  advance  to 
distribute  by  all  persons,  male  and  female, 
who  may  be  disposed  to  favor  the  right. 

I  also  want  a  similar  short  address,  ap- 
propriate to  the  peculiar  circumstances, 
intended  for  all  persons,  old  and  young, 
male  and  female,  slave-holding  and  non- 
slave-holding,  to  be  sent  out  broadcast  over 
the  entire  nation.     So  by  every  male  and 


418 


BROWN,    JOHN 


female  prisoner  on  being  set  at  liberty, 
and  to  be  read  by  them  during  confinement. 
I  know  that  men  will  listen,  and  reflect, 
loo,  under  such  circumstances.  Persons 
will  hear  your  anti-slavery  lectures  and 
abolition  lectures  when  they  have  become 
virtually  slaves  themselves.  The  impres- 
sions made  on  prisoners  by  kindness  and 
plain  dealing,  instead  of  barbarous  and 
cruel  treatment,  such  as  they  might  give, 
and  instead  of  being  slaughtered  like 
wild  reptiles,  as  they  might  very  natural- 
ly expect,  are  not  only  powerful, 'but  last- 
ing. Females  are  susceptible  of  being  car- 
ried away  entirely  by  the  kindness  of  an 
intrepid  and  magnanimous  soldier,  even 
when  his  bare  name  was  but  a  terror  the 
day  previous.  Now,  dear  sir,  I  have  told 
you  about  as  well  as  I  know  what  I  am 
anxious  at  once  to  secure.  Will  you  write 
the  tracts,  or  get  them  written,  so  that  I 
may  commence  colporteur? 

Very  respectfully  your  friend, 

John  Brown. 

brown's  address  to  governor  wise. 

Governor,— I  have  from  all  appearances 
not  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  years  the 
start  of  you  in  the  journey  to  that  eternity 
of  which  you  kindly  warn  me;  and, 
whether  my  time  here  shall  be  fifteen 
months  or  fifteen  days  or  fifteen  hours, 
1  am  equally  prepared  to  go.  There  is  an 
eternity  behind  and  an  eternity  before ; 
and  this  little  speck  in  the  centre,  how- 
ever long,  is  but  comparatively  a  min- 
ute. The  difference  between  your  tenure 
and  mine  is  trifiing,  and  I  therefore  tell 
you  to  be  prepared.  I  am  prepared.  You 
all  have  a  heavy  responsibility,  and  it  be- 
hooves you  to  prepare  more  than  it  does 
me. 

brown's   last   speech   to  the   COTTRT,  NOV. 

2,  1859. 

I  have,  may  it  please  the  court,  a  few 
words  to  say. 

In  the  first  place,  I  deny  everything  but 
what  I  have  all  along  admitted — the  de- 
sign on  my  part  to  free  the  slaves.  I 
intended  certainly  to  have  made  a  clean 
thing  of  that  matter^  as  I  did  last  win- 
ter, when  I  went  into  Missouri  and  there 
took  slaves  without  the  snapping  of  a 
gun  on  either  side,  moved  them  through 
the    country,    and    finally    left    them    in 


Canada.  I  designed  to  have  done  the  same 
thing  again,  on  a  larger  scale.  That  was 
all  I  intended.  I  never  did  intend  mur- 
der, or  treason,  or  the  destruction  of 
property,  or  to  excite  or  incite  slaves 
to  rebellion,  or  to  make  insurrection. 

I  have  another  objection ;  and  that  is, 
it  is  unjust  that  I  should  suffer  such  a 
penalty.  Had  I  interfered  in  the  manner 
which  I  admit,  and  which  I  admit  has 
been  fairly  proved  ( for  I  admire  the  truth- 
fulness and  candor  of  the  great  portion 
of  the  witnesses  who  have  testified  in  this 
case) — had  I  so  interfered  in  behalf  of 
the  rich,  the  powerful,  the  intelligent,  the 
so-called  great,  or  in  behalf  of  any  of  their 
friends — either  father,  mother,  brother, 
sister,  wife,  or  children,  or  any  of  that 
class — and  suffered  and  sacrificed  what 
I  have  in  this  interference,  it  would  have 
been  all  right;  and  every  man  in  this 
court  would  have  deemed  it  an  act  worthy 
of  reward  rather  than  punishment. 

This  court  acknowledges,  as  I  suppose, 
the  validity  of  the  law  of  God.  I  see  a 
book  kissed  here  which  I  suppose  to  be 
the  Bible,  or  at  least  the  New  Testament. 
That  teaches  me  that  all  things  whatso- 
ever I  would  that  men  should  do  to  me, 
I  should  do  even  so  to  them.  It  teaches 
me,  further,  to  "  remember  them  that  are 
in  bonds,  as  bound  with  them."  I  en- 
deavored to  act  up  to  that  instruction. 
I  say,  I  am  yet  too  young  to  understand 
that  God  is  any  respecter  of  persons.  I 
believe  that  to  have  interfered  as  I  have 
d9ne — as  I  have  always  freely  admitted 
I  have  done — in  behalf  of  His  despised 
poor,  was  not  wrong,  but  right.  Now, 
if  it  be  deemed  necessary  that  I  should 
forfeit  my  life  for  the  furtherance  of 
the  ends  of  justice,  and  mingle  my  blood 
further  with  the  blood  of  my  children 
and  with  the*  blood  of  millions  in  this 
slave  country  whose  rights  are  disregard- 
ed by  wicked,  cruel,  and  unjust  enact- 
ments— I  submit;  so  let  it  be  done! 

Let  me  say  one  word  further. 

I  feel  entirely  satisfied  with  the  treat- 
ment I  have  received  on  my  trial.  Consid- 
ering all  the  circumstances,  it  has  been 
more  generous  than  I  expected.  But  I 
feel  no  consciousness  of  guilt.  I  have 
stated  from  the  first  what  was  my  inten- 
tion, and  what  was  not.  I  never  had 
nny   design   against   the   life   of   any   per- 


419 


BROWN 


son,  nor  any  disposition  to  commit  trea- 
son, or  excite  slaves  to  rebel,  or  make  any 
general  insurrection.  I  never  encouraged 
any  man  to  do  so,  but  always  discouraged 
any  idea  of  that  kind. 

Let  '  me  say,  also,  a  word  in  regard 
to  the  statements  made  by  some  of  those 
connected  with  me.  I  hear  it  has  been 
stated  by  some  of  them  that  I  have  in- 
duced them  to  join  me.  But  the  contrary 
is  true.  I  do  not  say  this  to  injure  them, 
but  as  regretting  their  weakness.  There 
is  not  one  of  them  but  joined  me  of  his 
own  accord,  and  the  greater  part  of  them 
at  their  own  expense.  A  number  of  them 
I  never  saw,  and  never  had  a  word  of 
conversation  with,  till  the  day  they  came 
to  me;  and  that  was  for  the  purpose  I 
have  stated. 

Now  I  have  done. 

Brown,  John,  merchant ;  born  in  Prov- 
idence, R.  I.,  Jan.  27,  1736.  In  the  at- 
tack on  the  British  sloop-of-war  Gaspee 
iq.  V.)  in  1772  he  was  one  of  the  leaders. 
In  his  account  of  the  burning  of  the  ship, 
Bancroft  says :  "  The  following  night  a 
party  of  men  in  six  or  seven  boats,  led 
by  John  and  Joseph  Brown,  of  Providence, 
and  Simeon  Potter,  of  Bristol,  boarded  the 
stranded  ship,  after  a  scuffle  in  which 
Dudingston  was  wounded,  took  and  landed 
its  crew,  and  then  set  it  on  fire."  Brown 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  State  legislat- 
ure several  times,  and  was  a  member  of 
Congress,  1799-1801.  He  died  Sept.  20, 
1803. 

Brown,  John,  military  officer;  born  in 
Sandisfield,  Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1744;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1771;  studied  law 
Avith  Oliver  Arnold  in  Providence;  ap- 
pointed King's  attorney  at  Johnstown, 
N.  Y. ;  resigned  this  office  in  1773  to  prac- 
tise law  at  Pittsfield,  Mass. ;  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress, 
1774,  in  which  year  he  was  selected  by  the 
State  committee  of  correspondence  to  go 
to  Canada  for  the  purpose  of  exciting  the 
Canadians  to  revolt.  Brown  returned  in 
the  autumn  of  1774.  He  notified  the  com- 
mittee that  Ethan  Allen  and  the  Green 
Mountain  Boys  would  attack  Fort  Ticon- 
DEROGA  {q.  V.)  as  soon  as  hostilities  be- 
gan. When  the  fort  was  captured.  Brown 
took  charge  of  the  prisoners,  and  on  May 
17  he  reported  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress in  Philadelphia,  of  which  he  was  a 


member.  In  July  he  accompanied  Allen 
on  his  Canadian  expedition,  and  Sept.  24 
he  took  Fort  Chambly  {q.  v.).  The  next 
day  Allen,  who  expected  the  co-operation  of 
Brown,  marched  upon  Montreal,  but  was 
attacked  by  a  superior  force  and  was  taken 
prisoner. 

While  Arnold  was  before  Quebec,  Major 
Brown  arrived  from  Sorel  to  join  him. 
Montgomery  had  arrived  two  days  earlier. 
In  the  attack  on  Quebec  {q.  v.),  Dec.  31, 
he  was  directed  to  make  a  false  attack  to 
the  south  of  St.  John's  gate  and  to  set 
lire  to  the  gate  itself.  He  successfully 
executed  his  orders. 

Congress  promoted  Brown  to  lieutenant- 
colonel  Aug.  1,  1776,  with  rank  and  pay 
from  November,  1775.  After  the  defeat  of 
Colonel  Baum  at  Bennington  in  1777, 
Brown  was  despatched  by  General  Lin- 
coln to  Lake  George  with  500  men.  He 
attacked  the  British  at  break  of  day,  Sept. 
17,  three  miles  from  Ticonderoga,  set  at 
liberty  100  American  prisoners,  captured 
nearly  300  British,  400  batteaux,  a  sloop, 
several  gunboats,  some  cannon,  and  a  vast 
amount  of  plunder.  After  this  exploit  he 
joined  the  main  army  a  few  weeks  before 
the  surrender  of  Burgoyne.  Soon  after 
this  event  Colonel  Brown  resigned  his 
commission  on  account  of  his  detestation 
of  Arnold.  Three  years  before  Arnold's 
treason,  Brown  published  a  handbill  of 
thirteen  or  fourteen  articles  against  Ar- 
nold, then  at  the  height  of  his  fame, 
charging  him  with  levying  contributions 
on  the  Canadians  for  his  private  use,  and 
adding  that  Arnold  would  prove  a  traitor, 
for  he  had  sold  many  a  life  for  money.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  General 
Court  of  Massachusetts  in   1778. 

In  the  fall  of  1780  he  marched  up  the 
Mohawk  Valley  to  the  relief  of  General 
Schuyler,  but  was  led  into  an  ambuscade 
at  Stone  Arabia,  and  killed  in  the  conflict, 
Oct.  19,  1780. 

Brown,  John,  pioneer;  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1630;  removed  with  his  parents 
to  Rhode  Island  in  1638;  held  many  of- 
fices in  the  colony.     He  died  about  1706. 

Brown,  John,  statesman;  born  in 
Staunton,  Va.,  Sept.  12,  1757;  enlisted  in 
the  Continental  army  while  a  student  at 
Princeton ;  member  of  the  Virginia  legis- 
lature, 1783;  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  1787-88;  United  States  Senator 


420 


BROWN 


from  Kentucky,  1792-1805.  At  his  death, 
Aug.  29,  1837,  he  was  the  last  surviving 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress. 

Brown,  John  B.,  statesman;  born  in 
Richfield,  N.  Y.,  July  16,  1807;  removed 
to  Virginia  in  1849;  delegate  to  the  Re- 
publican national  conventions  of  1856  and 
1860;  arrested  in  Virginia  on  the  charge 
of  circulating  incendiary  documents,  and 
imprisoned.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Dec.  9,  1867. 

Brown,  John  Calvin,  military  officer; 
born  in  Giles  county,  Tenn.,  Jan.  6,  1827; 
graduated  at  Jackson  College  in  1846;  en- 
tered the  Confederate  army  as  captain  in 
1861,  reaching  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  president  of  the  Tennessee  con- 
stitutional convention  of  1870,  and  was 
governor  of  the  State,  1870-74.  He  died 
in  Red  Boiling  Spring,  Tenn.,  Aug.  17, 
1889. 

Brown,  John  Carter,  merchant;  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Aug.  28,  1797;  second 
son  of  Nicholas  Brown,  2d,  the  patron  of 
Brown  University,  at  which  he  gradu- 
ated in  1816.  He  engaged  largely  in  the 
business  of  manufactures  and  merchan- 
dise. He  travelled  much  in  the  United 
States,  and  resided  in  Europe,  at  different 
times,  for  several  years.  In  1828  he  was 
chosen  a  trustee,  and  in  1842  a  fellow,  of 
Brown  University,  and  so  remained  until 
his  death  in  Providence,  June  10,  1874, 
bestowing  many  munificent  gifts  upon  that 
institution.  Together  they  amounted  to 
$70,000.  In  his  will  he  made  liberal  pro- 
vision for  a  new  library  building,  which 
has  since  been  erected.  His  entire  bene- 
factions to  the  university  amounted  to 
nearly  $160,000.  Mr.  Brown  never  took 
any  prominent  part  in  public  affairs;  but 
he  was  an  active  friend  of  the  bondsmen, 
and  did  much,  in  his  quiet  way,  in  aid  of 
the  cause  of  freedom  in  the  struggle  in 
Kansas,  giving  money  •  liberally  for  the 
promotion  of  emigration  thither  from 
New  England.  During  almost  his  whole 
life  Mr.  Brown  was  engaged  in  the  col- 
lection of  a  library  of  American  history, 
in  which  his  friend  John  Russell  Bart- 
LETT  iq.  V.)  materially  aided  him.  He 
aimed  to  gather  early,  rare,  and  valuable 
books,  which,  by  proper  classification, 
would  show  the  methods  of  American 
colonization  and  subsequent  development 
of  its  civilization.     For  fully  forty  years 

4 


before  his  death  he  pursued  this  object 
with  zeal,  and  left  one  of  the  rarest  col- 
lections of  the  kind  ever  made.  It  com- 
prised about  10,000  volumes;  and  it  gave 
to  John  Carter  Brown  a  foremost  place 
among  the  distinguished  historical  col- 
lectors of  the  world.  See  Brown  Univer- 
sity. 

Brown,  John  Henry,  author;  born  in 
Pike  county.  Miss.,  Oct.  29,  1820;  served 
in  the  regiment  of  Texas  Rangers  during 
the  Mexican  War,  1846-48;  served  =n  the 
Confederate  army  during  the  Civil  War. 
Among  his  writings  are  History  of  Texas 
from  1685  to  1892;  Life  of  Henry  Smith, 
First  Governor  of  Texas;  Indian  Wars 
and  Pioneers  of  Texas,  etc. 

Brown,  Joseph  Emerson,  jurist;  born 
in  Pickens  county,  S.  C,  April  15,  1821; 
removed  to  Georgia  in  1836;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1845;  elected  to  the  State 
Senate  in  1849;  and  v/as  governor  of 
Georgia  in  1857-65.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  threw  his  influence  on  the  side 
of  the  Confederacy,  but  antagonized  some 
of  the  war  measures  of  Jefferson  Davis 
and  refused  to  allow  State  troops  to  be 
sent  out  of  the  State  to  check  Sherman's 
march.  When  peace  Avas  concluded  he 
favored  the  reconstruction  policy  of  the 
federal  government,  though  the  Demo- 
cratic party  of  Georgia  opposed  it.  In 
1880-91  he  held  a  seat  in  the  United 
States  Senate,  and  during  his  last  term 
in  that  body  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittees on  civil  service,  retrenchment, 
foreign  relations,  and  railroads.  He  died 
in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Nov.  30,  1894. 

Brown,  Moses,  naval  officer;  born  in 
Newburyport,  Mass.,  Jan.  20,  1742;  served 
through  the  Revolutionary  War.  While 
in  command  of  the  Intrepid  he  captured 
four  English  vessels  in  the  latter  half  of 
1779,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Merrimac  when  that  vessel  was  com- 
pleted for  the  government.  In  1799-1801 
he  captured  the  French  ships  Le  Phenix, 
Le  Magicien,  Le  Bonaparte,  and  Le  Brill- 
atite.     He  died  at  sea,  Jan.  1,  1804. 

Brown,  Nicholas,  philanthropist;  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  April  4,  1769;  son 
of  Nicholas  Brown,  1st;  graduated  at 
Rhode  Island  College  (afterwards  Brown 
University)  in  1786;  became  a  very  suc- 
cessful merchant  in  1791;  was  a  member 
of  the  Rhode  Island  legislature,  and,  giving 
21 


BROWN    UNIVERSITY— BROWNLOW 


money  liberally  to  his  alma  mater,  the 
name  of  Brown  University  was  given  to 
it.  He  gave  in  all  about  $100,000  to  that 
college,  and  liberally  patronized  other  in- 
stitutions of  learning.  He  gave  nearly 
$10,000  to  the  Providence  Athenaeum,  and 
bequeathed  $30,000  for  an  insane  asylum 
in  Providence.  He  died  in  Providence, 
Sept.  27,  1841. 

Brown  University,  a  coeducational  in- 
stitution ;  originally  established  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  War- 
ren, R.  I.,  in  1764;  and  incorporated  un- 
der the  title  of  Rhode  Island  College.  In 
1770  the  institution  was  removed  to  Prov- 
idence, where  it  has  since  remained,  and  in 
1804  its  name  was  changed  to  Brown 
University  in  recognition  of  the  liberal- 
ity of  Nicholas  Brown  {q.  v.).  In  1900 
the  university  reported  seventy-five  pro- 
fessors and  instructors;  886  students  in 
all  departments;  two  fellowships;  100 
scholarships;  5,260  graduates;  105,000 
bound  volumes  and  35,000  pamphlets  in 
the  library;  scientific  apparatus  valued 
at  $340,000;  ground  and  buildings  valued 
at  $1,177,967;  productive  funds  aggre- 
gating $1,297,227;  and  total  income  for 
the  year  $176,923. 

Browne,  Charles  Farrar,  humorist; 
born  in  Waterford,  Maine,  April  26,  1834; 
bred  a  printer,  later  became  a  journalist. 
His  clever  and  witty  sketches,  combined 
with  the  most  atrocious  spelling,  won  him 
a  great  reputation  as  a  humorist,  under 
the  pen  -  name  of  Artemus  Ward.  He 
lectured  in  the  United  States  from  1861 
to  1866,  when  he  removed  to  England, 
where  he  was  very  successful.  He  died 
in  Southampton,  England,  March  6,  1867. 

Browne,  Francis  Fisher,  author;  born 
in  South  Halifax,  Vt.,  Dec.  1,  1843;  en- 
listed as  a  private  in  the  46th  Massachu- 
setts U.  S.  V.  in  1862;  removed  to  Chicago 
in  1867;  founded  the  Dial  in  1880.  Among 
his  works  are  The  Every-day  Life  of  Abra- 
ham Lincoln;  Bugle  Echoes;  Northern  and 
Southern,  etc. 

Browne,  John  Ross,  artist  and  author; 
born  in  Ireland  in  1817;  engaged  on  the 
United  States  official  publication.  Re- 
sources of  the  Pacific  Slope,  in  1866  and 
1868;  United  States  minister  to  China  in 
1868.  Among  his  works,  illustrated  by 
himself,  are  An  American  Family  in  Ger- 
many;  the  Land  of  War;  Yusef;  Crusoe's 

A 


Island;  Etchings  of  a  Whaling  Cruise,  etc. 
He  died  in  Oakland,  Cal.,  Dec.  9,  1875. 

Browne,  William,  loyalist;  born  in 
Massachusetts,  Feb.  27,  1737;  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1755;  judge  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Superior  Court,  1773-74;  re- 
moved to  England  in  1776.  He  was  ban- 
ished in  1778  and  his  estates  confiscated. 
He  was  governor  of  Bermuda,  1781-90. 
He  died  in  England,  Feb.  13,  1802. 

Browne,  William  Hand,  author;  born 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  31,  1828;  gradu- 
ated at  the  University  of  Maryland  in  1850 ; 
editor  of  the  Southern  Revieio  and  the 
Southern  Magazine,  1867-75.  He  wrote 
The  Life  of  Alexander  H.  Stephens;  History 
of  Maryland;  George  and  Cecil  Calvert,  etc. 

Browning,  Orville  Hickman,  states- 
man; born  in  Harrison  county,  Ky.,  in 
1810;  removed  to  Illinois  in  1831;  served 
in  the  Black  Hawk  War  in  1832;  United 
States  Senator,  1861-63;  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  186.5-69;  and  acted  as  Attorney- 
General,  1868-69.  He  died  in  Quincy,  111., 
Aug.   10,   1881. 

Brownists,  the  name  given  to  those 
Puritans  who  went  to  Holland  and  after- 
wards emigrated  to  New  England;  so 
named  from  their  leader,  Robert  Brown. 
As  early  as  1580,  Brown  began  to  inveigh 
against  the  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of 
England.  Being  opposed  by  the  bishops, 
he  and  his  congregation  left  England  and 
settled  in  Holland.  At  the  close  of  the 
centurj^  there  were  about  20,000  Brownists 
in  England.  Of  that  sect  were  Rev.  Mr. 
Robinson,  Elder  Brewster,  and  the  congre- 
gation at  Leyden  in  1620.  The  founder 
of  this  sect  was  born  about  the  year  1550, 
and  died  about  1630.  His  family  were 
closely  connected  with  Cecil,  afterwards 
Lord  Burleigh.  Educated  at  Cambridge, 
as  soon  as  he  left  college  he  began  a 
vigorous  opposition  to  the  whole  discipline 
and  liturgy  of  the  Established  Church. 
He  taught  that  all  tlie  members  of  a 
church  were  equal,  and  that  the  pastor 
should  be  cliosen  by  the  congregation.  See 
Bradford,  William. 

Brownlow,  William  -  Gannaway, 
clergyman  and  journalist ;  born  in  Wythe 
county,  Va.,  Aug.  29,  1805;  was  left  an 
orphan  at  eleven  years  of  age,  and,  by 
means  of  wages  as  a  carpenter  in  his 
youth,  acquired  a  fair  English  education. 
At   the   age   of   twenty-four   years   he   en- 


BROWNLOW,    WILLIAM    GANNAWAY 


tered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  was  an  itinerant  for 
ten  years.  While  on  his  circuit  in  South 
Carolina  he  opposed  the  nullification 
movement  in  that  State  (see  Nullifica- 
tion), which  excited  strong  opposition  to 
him.  About  1837  he  began  the  publication 
of  the  Knoxville  Whig,  a  political  news- 
paper, which  soon  circulated  widely,  and, 
for  its  vigorous  polemics,  obtained  for 
Brownlow  the  name  of  the  "  Fighting  Par- 
son." In  1858  he  engaged  in  a  public  de- 
bate in  Philadelphia  on  the  question, 
"  Ought  American  Slavery  to  be  Perpetu- 
ated?" in  which  he  took  the  affirmative. 
When  the  secession  movement  began,  he 
boldly  opposed  it,  taking  the  ground  that 
the  preservation  of  the  Union  would  fur- 
nish the  best  safeguard  of  Southern  in- 
stitutions, and  especially  of  slavery.  So 
outspoken  and  influential  was  Mr.  Brown- 
low  that,  in  December,  1861,  he  was  ar- 
rested, by  order  of  the  Confederate  au- 
tliorities,  on  a  charge  of  treason  against 
the  Confederacy,  and  confined  in  Knox- 
ville jail,  where  he  suffered  much  until  re- 
leased in  March,  1862.  Then  he  was  sent 
within  the  Union  lines  at  Nashville.  Af- 
terwards he  made  a  tour  in  the  Northern 
States,  delivering  speeches  in  the  principal 
cities.  At  Philadelphia  he  was  joined  by 
his  family,  who  had  been  expelled  from 
Knoxville,  where  he  published  Sketches  of 
the  Rise,  Progress,  and  Decline  of  Seces- 
sion, tvith  a  Narrative  of  Personal  Ad- 
ventures among  the  Rebels.  Brownlow 
was  governor  of  Tennessee  in  1865-69.  and 
United  States  Senator  from  1869  rmtil  his 
death  in  Knoxville,  April  29,  1877.  He 
was  a  man  of  fearless  spirit,  held  such  a 
caustic  pen,  and  maintained  such  influen- 
tial social  and  political  relations  that  he 
was  intensely  hated  and  feared  by  the 
Confederates.  The  latter  longed  for  an 
occasion  to  silence  him,  and  finally  they 
made  the  false  charge  that  he  was  acces- 
sory to  the  firing  of  several  railway 
bridges  in  eastern  Tennessee  to  cut  off" 
communication  between  Virginia  and  that 
region.  His  life  had  been  frequently 
menaced  by  Confederate  soldiers,  and,  at 
the  urgent  solicitation  of  his  family,  he 
left  home  in  the  autumn  (1861),  and  went 
into  another  district.  While  he  was  ab- 
sent several  bridges  were  burned.  Believ- 
ing  him   to   have   been   concerned    in    the 


burning,  the  Confederate  Colonel  Wood — 
a  Methodist  preacher  from  Alabama- — was 
sent  out,  with  some  cavalry,  with  orders, 
publicly  given  at  Knoxville,  not  to  take 
him  prisoner,  but  to  shoot  him  at  once. 
Informed  of  his  peril,  Brownlow,  Avith 
other   loyal  men,   secreted  himself   in   the 


WILLIAM   GAN'NAWAT   BROWNLOW. 

Smoky  Mountains,  on  the  borders  of 
North  Carolina,  where  they  were  fed  by 
loyalists.  The  Confederates  finally  re- 
solved to  get  rid  of  this  "  dangerous  citi- 
zen '"'  by  giving  him  a  pass  to  go  into 
Kentucky  under  a  military  escort.  He  re- 
ceived such  a  pass  at  Knoxville,  and  was 
about  to  depart  for  the  Union  lines,  when 
he  was  arrested  for  treason.  By  the  as- 
surance of  safety  he  had  gone  to  Knox- 
ville for  his  pass,  and  so  put  himself  in 
the  hands  of  his  enemies.  He  and  some 
of  the  best  men  in  eastern  Tennessee  were 
cast  into  the  county  jail,  where  they  suf- 
fered intensely.  Deprived  of  every  com- 
fort, they  were  subjected  to  the  vile  rib- 
aldry of  the  guards,  and  constantly 
threatened  with  death  by  hanging.  Act- 
ing upon  the  suggestions  of  Benjamin, 
men  charged  with  bridge-burning,  and  con- 
fined with  Brownlow,  were  hanged,  and 
their  bodies  were  left  suspended  as  a  warn- 
ing. In  the  midst  of  these  fiery  trials 
Bro\\Tilow  remained  firm,  and  exercised 
great  boldness  of  speech.  They  dared  not 
hang  him  without  a  legal  trial  and  convic- 
tion. They  offered  him  life  and  liberty  if 
he  would  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  Confederacy.  He  refused  with  scorn. 
To  Boijamin  he  wrote:     "  You  are  report- 

:3 


BROWN'S    FERRY— BRYAN 


ed  to  have  said  to  a  gentleman  in  Rich- 
mond that  I  am  a  bad  man,  and  dangerous 
to  the  Confederacy,  and  that  you  desire  me 
out  of  it.  Just  give  me  my  passport,  and 
1  will  do  for  your  Confederacy  more  than 
the  devil  has  ever  done — I  will  quit  the 
country.'"'  Benjamin  soon  afterwards  indi- 
cated a  wish  that  Brownlow  should  be  sent 
out  of  the  Confederacy,  "  only,"  he  said, 
'■  because  color  is  given  to  the  suspicion 
that  he  has  been  entrapped."  He  was  final- 
ly released,  and  sent  to  Nashville  (then  in 
possession  of  National  troops)  early  in 
March,  1862. 

Brown's  Ferry,  Seizure  of.  Gen.  G. 
W.  F.  Smith  undertook  to  open  a  more  di- 
rect way  for  supplies  for  the  National 
troops  at  Chattanooga  {q.  v.).  In  co- 
operation with  Hooker's  advance  on  Wau- 
hatchie,  he  sent  General  Hazen  from  Chat- 
tanooga, with  1,800  men  in  bateaux,  to 
construct  a  pontoon  bridge  below.  These 
floated  noiselessly  and  undiscerned  in  the 
night  (Oct.  26-27,  1863)  down  the  Ten- 
nessee River,  past  the  point  of  Lookout 
Mountain,  along  a  line  of  Confederate 
pickets  7  miles  in  length.  They  landed 
at  Brown's  Ferry,  on  the  south  side,  capt- 
ured the  pickets  there,  and  seized  a  low 
range  of  hills  that  commanded  Lookout 
Valley.  Another  force,  1,200  strong,  under 
General  Turchin,  had  moved  down  the 
north   bank  of   the   river   to   the   ferry   at 


about  the  same  time;  and  by  ten  o'clock 
a  pontoon  bridge  was  laid,  and  a  strong 
abatis  for  defence  was  constructed.  The 
Confederates,  bewildered,  withdrew  up  the 
valley.  Before  night  the  left  of  Hooker's 
line  rested  on  Smith's  right  at  the  pon- 
toon bridge.  By  this  operation  the  railway 
from  Bridgeport  well  up  towards  Chatta- 
nooga was  put  in  possession  of  the  Nation- 
als, and  the  route  for  supplies  for  the 
troops  at  the  latter  place  was  reduced 
by  land  from  60  to  28  miles  along  a 
safe  road;  and  by  using  the  river  to 
Kelly's  Ferry,  to  8  miles. 

Brownstown,  Mich.,  Battle  at.  See 
Van  Horne,  Thomas  B. 

Brush,  Charles  Francis,  inventor; 
born  in  Euclid,  0.,  March  17,  1849;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1869.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  work- 
ers in  the  field  of  electric  lighting,  and 
invented  the  arc  electric  light.  He  is  a 
fellow  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  and  a  life- 
member  of  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science.  In  1881  the 
French  government  decorated  him,  and  in 
March,  1900,  he  received  the  Rumford 
medal  from  the  American  Academy. 

Brussels  Conference.  See  Monetary 
Reform. 

Bruyas,  Jacques.  See  Jesuit  Mis- 
sions. 


BRYAN,    WILLIAM    JENNINGS 


Bryan,  William  Jennings,  politician; 
born  in  Salem,  111.,  March  19,  1860;  was 
graduated  at  Illinois  College  in  1881,  and 
at  Union  College  of  Law,  Chicago,  in 
1883.  lie  practised  in  Jacksonville,  111., 
from  1883  till  1887,  then  removed  to  Lin- 
coln, Neb.,  and  was  elected  to  Congress 
as  a  Democrat,  serving  in  1891-95.  In 
1894-96  he  was  editor  of  the  Omaha 
World-HeraJd,  and  in  the  latter  year  a 
delegate  to  the  National  Democratic  Con- 
vention at  Chicago.  He  there  made  a 
notable  speech  advocating  the  free  and 
unlimited  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio 
of  16  to  1.  The  free-silver  element  in  the 
convention  was  far  stronger  than  the 
leaders  of  the  party  imagined,  and  there 
was  as  much  surprise  in  the  convention 
as  out  of  it  when  its  prize,  the  Presidential 


nomination,  was  awarded  to  him.  The 
Sound-money  Democrats  repudiated  the 
nomination,  organized  the  National  Demo- 
cratic party,  and  put  forth  a  separate 
platform  and  national  ticket.  The  Popu- 
lists, however,  adopted  the  Democratic 
nominee  as  their  own,  but  with  a  different 
candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency.  Dur- 
ing the  campaign  that  ensued,  Mr.  Bryan 
made  a  speaking  tour  more  than  18,000 
miles  in  extent.  With  virtually  seven 
Presidential  tickets  in  the  field,  Mr.  Bryan 
as  the  Democratic  and  Populist  candidate 
received  6,502,925  popular  and  176  electo- 
ral votes,  while  Mr.McKinley,  the  Republi- 
can candidate,  received  7,104.779  popular 
and  271  electoral  votes.  In  1897  and  the 
early  part  of  1898  Mr.  Bryan  delivered 
a    number    of    lectures    on    Bimetallism 


424 


BUYAN,    WILLIAM    JENNINGS 


(q.  v.).  On  the  declaration  of  war  against 
Spain  he  offered  his  services  to  tlie  gov- 
ernor of  his  State,  and  in  May  was  com- 
missioned colonel  of  the  3d  Nebraska  Vol- 
unteer Infantry.  Neither  he  nor  his  regi- 
ment saw  fighting  during  the  war,   both 


WILLIAM   JENNINGS    BRYAN. 


being  held  in  reserve  in  the  United  States, 
with  other  regiments,  at  Camp  Onward, 
where  he  brought  his  regiment  to  a  state 
of  discipline  and  efficiency  that  was  highly 
commended  by  experienced  military  offi- 
cers. 

As  the  time  approached  for  holding  the 
national  conventions  of  1900,  it  was  evi- 
dent that  Mr.  Bryan  would  receive  the 
renomination  of  his  party,  although  it 
was  equally  evident  that  a  very  lai'ge 
number  of  influential  Democrats  would 
oppose  his  candidacy.  The  national  con- 
vention made  declarations  antagonistic  to 
President  McKinley's  administration,  bas- 
ing its  chief  opposition  on  allegations  that 
the  Republican  party  had  become  Avedded 
to  a  policy  of  territorial  expansion  and  to 
the  encouragement  of  large  financial  com- 
binations or  trusts.  Mr.  Bryan  made  an- 
other remarkable  speaking  tour,  and  while 
supporting  the  above  points  of  opposition 
to  the  McKinley  administration,  neglected 
no  opportunity  to  expound  the  free-silver 
policy.  The  results  of  the  elections  were: 
For  the  Republican  candidates,  7,217,677 
popular  and  292  electoral  votes;  for  the 
Democratic  candidates,  6,357,853  popu- 
lar  and   155   electoral  votes;    showing  an 

4 


increase  in  the  Republican  plurality  over 
that  of  1896  of  246,025.  Immediately 
after  the  result  of  the  election  was  known, 
Mr.  Bryan  and  President  McKinley  ex- 
changed telegrams  of  personal  esteem, 
and  Mr.  Bryan  soon  afterwards  estab- 
lished a  weekly  newspaper  for  the  purpose 
of  continuing  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  free 
silver'. 

The  Cross  of  Gold. — At  the  National 
Democratic  Convention  in  Chicago,  in  1896, 
Mr.  Bryan  delivered  the  following  speech: 


Mr.  Chairman  and  Gentlemen  of  the 
Convention, — I  would  be  presumptuous, 
indeed,  to  present  myself  against  the  dis- 
tinguished gentlemen  to  whom  you  have 
listened,  if  this  were  a  mere  measuring  of 
abilities ;  but  this  is  not  a  contest  between 
persons.  The  humblest  in  all  the  land, 
when  clad  in  the  armor  of  a  righteous 
cause,  is  stronger  than  all  the  hosts  of 
error.  I  come  to  speak  to  you  in  defence 
of  a  cause  as  holy  as  the  cause  of  liberty 
- — the  cause  of  humanity. 

When  this  debate  is  concluded,  a  motion 
will  be  made  to  lay  upon  the  table  the 
resolution  offered  in  commendation  of  the 
administration,  and  also  the  resolution 
offered  in  condemnation  of  the  adminis- 
tration. We  object  to  bringing  this  ques- 
tion down  to  the  level  of  persons.  The 
individual  is  but  an  atom;  he  is  born,  he 
acts,  he  dies ;  but  principles  are  eternal ; 
and  this  has  been  a  contest  over  a  prin- 
ciple. 

Never  before  in  the  history  of  this  coun- 
try has  there  been  witnessed  such  a  con- 
test as  that  through  which  we  have  just 
passed.  Never  before  in  the  history  of 
American  politics  has  a  great  issue  been 
fought  out  as  this  issue  has  been,  by 
the  voters  of  a  great  party.  On  the  4th 
of  March,  1895,  a  few  Democrats,  most 
of  them  members  of  Congress,  issued  an 
address  to  the  Democrats  of  the  nation, 
asserting  that  the  money  question  was 
the  paramount  issue  of  the  hour;  declar- 
ing that  a  majority  of  the  Democratic 
party  had  the  right  to  control  the  action 
of  the  party  on  this  paramount  issue ;  and 
concluding  with  the  request  that  the  be- 
lievers in  the  free  coinage  of  silver  in 
the  Democratic  party  should  organize, 
take  charge  of,  and  control  the  policy 
of    the    Democratic    party.      Three    days 


BRYAN,    WILLIAM    JENNINGS 


latei",  at  Memphis,  an  organization  was 
perfected,  and  the  Silver  Democrats  went 
forth  openly  and  courageously,  jsroclaim- 
ing  their  belief,  and  declaring  that,  if  suc- 
cessful, they  would  crystallize  into  a  plat- 
form the  declaration  which  they  had  made. 
Then  began  the  conflict.  With  a  zeal  ap- 
proaching the  zeal  which  inspired  the 
crusaders  who  followed  Peter  the  Hermit, 
our  Silver  Democrats  went  forth  from  vic- 
tory unto  victory  until  they  are  now  as- 
sembled, not  to  discuss,  not  to  debate,  but 
to  enter  up  the  judgment  already  render- 
ed by  the  plain  people  of  this  country. 
In  this  contest  brother  has  been  arrayed 
against  brother,  father  against  son. 
The  warmest  ties  of  love,  acquaintance, 
and  association  have  been  disregarded ; 
old  leaders  have  been  cast  aside  wdien  they 
have  refused  to  give  expression  to  the 
sentiments  of  those  whom  they  would  lead, 
and  new  leaders  have  sprung  up  to  give 
direction  to  this  cause  of  truth.  Thus  has 
the  contest  been  Avaged,  and  we  have  as- 
sembled here  under  as  binding  and  solemn 
instructions  as  were  ever  imposed  upon 
representatives  of  the  people. 

We  do  not  come  as  individuals.  As  in- 
dividuals we  might  have  been  glad  to  com- 
pliment the  gentleman  from  New  York 
( Senator  Hill ) ,  but  we  know  that  the 
people  for  whom  we  speak  would  never 
be  willing  to  put  him  in  a  position  where 
he  could  thwart  the  will  of  the  Democratic 
party.  I  say  it  was  not  a  question  of 
persons ;  it  was  a  question  of  principles, 
and  it  is  not  with  gladness,  my  friends, 
that  we  find  ourselves  brought  into  con- 
flict with  those  who  are  now  arrayed  on 
the  other  side. 

The  gentleman  who  preceded  me  (ex- 
Governor  Russell)  spoke  of  the  State  of 
Massachusetts.  Let  me  assure  him  that 
not  one  present  in  all  this  convention  en- 
tertains the  least  hostility  to  the  people 
who  are  the  equals,  before  the  law,  of  the 
greatest  citizens  in  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts. When  you  (turning  to  the  gold 
delegates)  come  before  us  and  tell  us  that 
we  are  about  to  disturb  your  business  in- 
terests, Ave  reply  that  you  have  disturbed 
our  business  interests  by  your  course. 

We  say  to  you  that  you  have  made  the 
definition  of  a  business  too  limited  in  its 
application.  The  man  Avho  is  employed 
for  wages  is  as  much  a  business  man  as 


his  employer;  the  attorney  in  a  country 
town  is  as  much  a  business  man  as  the 
corporation  counsel  in  a  great  metropolis; 
the  merchant  at  the  cross-roads  store  is  as 
much  a  business  man  as  the  merchant  of 
New  York;  the  farmer  who  goes  forth  in 
the  morning  and  toils  all  day — who  begins 
in  the  spring  and  toils  all  summer — and 
who  by  the  application  of  brain  and  muscle 
to  the  natural  resources  of  the  country 
creates  wealth,  is  as  much  a  business  man 
as  the  man  who  goes  upon  the  board  of 
trade  and  bets  upon  the  price  of  grain; 
the  miners  who  go  down  1,000  feet  into 
the  earth,  or  climb  2,000  feet  upon  the 
cliffs,  and  bring  forth  from  the  hiding 
places  the  precious  metals  to  be  poured 
in  the  channels  of  trade,  are  as  much  busi- 
ness men  as  the  few  financial  magnates 
who,  in  a  back  room,  corner  the  money 
of  the  world.  We  come  to  speak  for 
this  broader  class  of  business  men. 

Ah,  my  friends,  we  say  not  one  word 
against  those  who  live  upon  the  Atlantic 
coast;  but  the  hardy  pioneers  who  have 
braved  all  the  danger  of  the  wilderness, 
who  have  made  the  desert  to  blossom  as 
the  rose — the  pioneers  away  out  there 
(pointing  to  the  West),  who  rear  their 
children  near  to  Nature's  heart,  where 
they  can  mingle  their  voices  with  the 
voices  of  the  birds — out  there  where  they 
have  erected  school-houses  for  the  edu- 
cation of  their  young,  churches  where 
they  praise  their  Creator,  and  cemeteries 
where  rest  the  ashes  of  their  dead — these 
people,  we  say,  are  as  deserving  of  the 
consideration  of  our  party  as  any  people 
in  this  country.  It  is  for  these  that  w^e 
speak.  We  do  not  come  as  aggressors. 
Our  Avar  is  not  a  Avar  of  conquest;  we  are 
fighting  in  the  defence  of  our  homes,  our 
families,  and  posterity.  We  have  petition- 
ed, and  our  petitions  haA^e  been  scorned; 
Ave  have  entreated,  and  our  entreaties  have 
been  disregarded;  we  have  begged,  and 
they  have  mocked  Avhen  our  calamity 
came.  We  beg  no  longer;  Ave  entreat  no 
more;  Ave  petition  no  more.  We  defy 
them. 

The  gentleman  from  Wisconsin  has  said 
that  he  fears  a  Robespierre.  My  friends, 
in  this  land  of  the  free  you  need  not  fear 
that  a  tyrant  Avill  spring  up  from  among 
the  people.  What  Ave  need  is  an  AndreAV 
Jackson     to     stand,    as     Jackson     stood. 


426 


BEYAN,    WILLIAM    JENNINGS 


against    the    encroachments    of    organized 
wealth. 

They  tell  us  that  this  platform  was 
made  to  catch  votes.  We  reply  to  them 
that  changing  conditions  make  new  issues; 
that  the  principles  upon  which  Democracy 
rests  are  as  everlasting  as  the  hills,  but 
that  they  must  be  applied  to  new  condi- 
tions as  they  rise.  Conditions  have  arisen, 
and  we  are  here  to  meet  those  conditions. 
They  tell  us  that  the  income  tax  ought 
not  to  be  brought  in  here ;  that  it  is  a  new 
idea.  They  criticise  us  for  our  criticism 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
My  friends,  we  have  not  criticised;  we 
have  simply  called  attention  to  what  you 
already  know.  If  you  want  criticisms, 
read  the  dissenting  opinions  of  the  court. 
There  you  will  find  criticisms.  They  say 
that  we  passed  an  unconstitutional  law; 
we  deny  it.  The  income-tax  law  was  not 
unconstitutional  when  it  passed;  it  was 
not  unconstitutional  when  it  went  before 
the  Supreme  'Court  for  the  first  time ;  it 
did  not  become  unconstitutional  until  one 
of  the  judges  changed  his  mind;  and  we 
cannot  be  expected  to  know  when  a  judge 
will  change  his  mind.  The  income  tax 
is  just.  It  simply  intends  to  put  the 
burdens  of  the  government  justly  upon  the 
backs  of  the  people.  I  am  in  favor  of 
an  income  tax.  When  I  find  a  man  who 
is  not  willing  to  bear  his  share  of  the 
burdens  of  the  government  which  protects 
him,  I  find  a  man  who  is  unworthy  to  en- 
joy the  blessings  of  a  government  like  ours. 
They  say  that  we  are  opposing  national 
bank  currency;  it  is  true.  If  you  will 
read  what  Thomas  Benton  said,  you  will 
fi_nd  he  said  that,  in  searching  history,  he 
could  find  but  one  parallel  to  Andrew 
Jackson;  that  was  Cicero,  who  destroyed 
the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  and  saved 
Eome.  Benton  said  that  Cicero  only  did 
for  Rome  what  Jackson  did  for  us  when 
he  destroyed  the  bank  conspiracy  and 
saved  America.  We  say  in  our  platform 
that  we  believe  that  the  right  to  coin  and 
issue  money  is  a  function  of  government. 
We  believe  it.  We  believe  that  it  is  a 
part  of  sovereignty,  and  can  no  more  with 
safety  be  delegated  to  private  individuals 
than  we  could  afford  to  delegate  to  private 
individuals  the  power  to  make  penal 
statutes  or  le\'y  taxes.  Mr.  Jefferson,  who 
was  once  regarded  as  good  Democratic  au- 

42 


thority,  seems  to  have  differed  in  opinion 
from  the  gentleman  who  has  addressed  us 
on  the  part  of  the  minority.  Those  who 
are  opposed  to  this  proposition  tell  us 
that  the  issue  of  paper  money  is  a  func- 
tion of  the  bank,  and  that  the  government 
ought  to  go  out  of  the  banking  business. 
I  stand  with  Jefferson  rather  than  with 
them,  and  tell  them,  as  he  did,  that  the 
issue  of  money  is  a  function  of  govern- 
ment, and  that  the  banks  ought  to  go  out 
of  the  governing  business. 

They  complain  about  the  plank  which 
declares  against  life  tenure  in  office.  They 
have  tried  to  strain  it  to  mean  that  which 
it  does  not  mean.  What  we  oppose  by 
that  plank  is  the  life  tenure  which  is 
being  built  up  in  Washington,  and  which 
excludes  from  participation  in  official  ben- 
efits the  humbler  members  of  society. 

Let  me  call  your  attention  to  two  or  three 
important  things.  The  gentleman  from  New 
York  says  that  he  will  propose  an  amend- 
ment to  the  platform  providing  that  the 
proposed  change  in  our  monetary  system 
shall  not  affect  contracts  already  made. 
Let  me  remind  you  that  there  is  no  in- 
tention of  affecting  these  contracts  which 
according  to  present  laws  are  made  pay- 
able in  gold;  but  if  he  means  to  say  that 
we  cannot  change  our  monetary  system 
without  protecting  those  who  have  loaned 
money  before  the  change  was  made,  I  de- 
sire to  ask  him  where,  in  law  or  in  morals, 
he  can  find  justification  for  not  protect- 
ing the  debtors  when  the  act  of  1873  Avas 
passed,  if  he  now  insists  that  we  must 
protect  the  creditors. 

He  says  he  will  also  propose  an  amend- 
ment which  will  proA'ide  for  the  suspen- 
sion of  free  coinage,  if  we  fail  to  maintain 
the  parity,  within  a  year.  We  reply  that 
when  we  advocate  a  policy  which  we  be- 
lieve will  be  successful,  we  are  not  com- 
pelled to  raise  a  doubt  as  to  our  own  sin- 
cerity by  suggesting  what  we  shall  do  if 
we  fail.  I  ask  him,  if  he  would  apply 
his  logic  to  us,  why  he  does  not  apply 
it  to  himself.  He  says  he  wants  this 
country  to  try  to  secure  an  international 
agreement.  Why  does  he  not  tell  us  what 
he  is  going  to  do  if  he  fails  to  secure  an 
international  agreement?  There  is  more 
reason  for  him  to  do  that  than  there 
is  for  us  to  provide  against  the  failure  to 
maintain  the  parity.  Our  opponents  have 
7 


ESYAH,    WILLIAM    JENNINGS 


tried  for  twenty  years  to  secure  an  inter- 
national agreement,  and  those  are  waiting 
for  it  most  patiently  who  do  not  want  it 
at  all. 

And  now,  my  friends,  let  me  come  to  the 
paramount  issue.  If  they  ask  us  why  it 
is  that  we  say  more  on  the  money  ques- 
tion than  we  say  upon  the  tariff  ques- 
tion, I  reply  that,  if  protection  has  slain 
its  thousands,  the  gold  standard  has  slain 
its  tens  of  thousands.  If  they  ask  us  why 
we  do  not  embody  iji  our  platform  all  the 
things  that  we  believe  in,  we  reply  that 
when  we  have  restored  the  money  of  the 
Constitution  all  other  necessary  reforms 
will  be  possible;  but  that  until  this  is 
done  there  is  no  other  reform  that  can  be 
accomplished. 

Why  is  it  that  within  three  months 
such  a  change  has  come  over  the  country? 
Three  months  ago,  when  it  was  confidently 
asserted  that  those  who  believe  in  the  gold 
standard  would  frame  our  platform  and 
nominate  our  candidates,  even  the  advo- 
cates of  the  gold  standard  did  not  think 
that  we  could  elect  a  President.  And 
they  had  good  reason  for  their  doubt,  be- 
cause there  is  scarcely  a  State  here  to-day 
asking  for  the  gold  standard  which  is 
not  in  the  absolute  control  of  the  Repub- 
lican party.  But  note  the  change.  Mr. 
McKinleywas  nominated  in  St.  Louis  upon 
a  platform  which  declared  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  gold  standard  until  it  can  be 
changed  into  bimetallism  by  international 
agreement.  Mr.  McKinley  was  the  most 
popular  man  among  the  Republicans,  and 
three  months  ago  everybody  in  the  Repub- 
lican party  prophesied  his  electron.  How 
is  it  to-day?  Why,  the  man  who  was  once 
pleased  to  think  that  he  looked  like  Na- 
poleon— that  man  shudders  to-day  when 
he  remembers  that  he  was  nominated  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
Not  only  that,  but  as  he  listens  he  can 
hear  with  ever-increasing  distinctness  the 
sounds  of  the  waves  as  they  beat  upon  the 
lonely  shores  of  St.  Helena. 

Why  this  change?  Ah,  my  friends,  is 
not  the  reason  for  the  change  evident  to 
any  one  who  will  look  at  the  matter?  No 
private  character,  however  pure,  no  per- 
sonal popularity,  however  great,  can  pro- 
tect from  the  avenging  wrath  of  an  indig- 
nant people  a  man  who  will  declare  that 
he  is  in  favor  of  fastening  the  gold  stand- 


ard upon  this  country,  or  who  is  willing 
to  surrender  the  right  of  self-government, 
and  jilace  the  legislative  control  of  our 
affairs  in  the  hands  of  foreign  potentates 
and  powers. 

We  go  forth  confident  that  we  shall 
win.  Why?  Because  upon  the  para- 
mount issue  of  this  campaign  there  is  not 
a  spot  of  ground  upon  which  the  enemy 
will  dare  to  challenge  battle.  If  they  tell 
us  that  the  gold  standard  is  a  good  thing, 
we  shall  point  to  their  platform  and  tell 
them  that  their  platform  pledges  the  party 
to  get  rid  of  the  gold  standard  and  sub- 
stitute bimetallism.  If  the  gold  standard 
is  a  good  thing,  why  try  to  get  rid  of  it? 
I  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  some 
of  the  very  people  who  are  in  this  con- 
vention to-day,  and  Avho  tell  us  that  we 
ought  to  declare  in  favor  of  international 
bimetallism — thereby  declaring  that  the 
gold  standard  is  wrong,  and  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  bimetallism  is  better — these  very 
people  four  months  ago  were  open  and 
avowed  advocates  of  the  gold  standard, 
and  were  then  telling  us  we  could  not  leg- 
islate two  metals  together,  even  with  the 
aid  of  all  the  world.  If  the  gold  standard 
is  a  good  thing,  we  ought  to  declare  in 
favor  of  its  retention,  and  not  in  favor 
of  abandoning  it:  and  if  the  gold  standard 
is  a  bad  thing,  why  should  we  wait  until 
other  nations  are  willing  to  help  us  to 
let  go?  Here  is  the  line  of  battle,  and 
we  care  not  upon  which  issue  they  force 
the  fight;  we  are  prepared  to  meet  them 
on  either  issue  or  on  both.  If  they  tell 
us  that  the  gold  standard  is  the  standard 
of  civilization,  we  reply  to  them  that  this, 
the  most  enlightened  of  all  nations  of  the 
earth,  has  never  declared  for  a  gold  stand- 
ard, and  that  both  the  great  parties  this 
year  are  declaring  against  it.  If  the  gold 
standard  is  the  standard  of  civilization, 
why,  my  friends,  should  we  not  have  it? 
If  they  come  to  meet  us  on  that  issue,  we 
can  present  the  history  of  our  nation. 
More  than  that;  we  can  tell  them  that 
they  will  search  the  pages  of  history  in 
vain  to  find  a  single  instance  where  the 
common  people  of  the  land  have  ever 
declared  themselves  in  favor  of  the  gold 
standard.  They  can  find  where  the  hold- 
ers of  fixed  investments  have  declared  for 
a  gold  standard,  but  not  where  the  masses 
have. 


428 


BRYAN— BRYANT 


Mr.  Carlisle  said  in  1878  that  this  was 
a  struggle  between  "  the  idle  holders  of 
idle  capital  "  and  "  the  struggling  masses, 
who  produce  the  wealth  and  pay  the  taxes 
of  the  country,"  and,  my  friends,  the  ques- 
tion we  are  to  decide  is:  Upon  which  side 
will  the  Democratic  party  fight;  upon  the 
side  of  "the  idle  holders  of  idle  capital"  or 
upon  the  side  of  "  the  struggling  masses  "  ? 
That  is  the  question  which  the  party  must 
answer  first,  and  then  it  must  be  answered 
by  each  individual  hereafter.  The  sym- 
pathies of  the  Democratic  party,  as  shown 
by  the  platform,  are  on  the  side  of  the 
struggling  masses  who  have  ever  been 
the  foundation  of  the  Democratic  party. 
There  are  two  ideas  of  government.  There 
are  those  who  believe  that,  if  you  will 
only  legislate  to  make  the  well-to-do 
prosperous,  their  prosperity  will  leak 
through  on  those  below.  The  Democratic 
idea,  however,  has  been  that  if  you  legis- 
late to  make  the  masses  prosperous,  their 
prosperity  will  find  its  way  through  every 
class  which  rests  upon  them. 

You  come  to  us  and  tell  us  that  the 
great  cities  are  in  favor  of  the  gold  stand- 
ard; we  reply  that  the  great  cities  rest 
upon  our  broad  and  fertile  prairies.  Burn 
down  your  cities  and  leave  our  farms,  and 
your  cities  will  spring  up  again  as  if  by 
magic;  but  destroy  our  farms,  and  the 
grass  will  grow  in  the  streets  of  every 
city  in  the  country. 

My  friends,  we  declare  that  this  nation 
is  able  to  legislate  for  its  own  people  on 
every  question,  without  waiting  for  the 
aid  or  consent  of  any  other  nation  on 
earth;  and  upon  that  issue  we  expect 
to  carry  every  State  in  the  Union.  I  shall 
not  slander  the  inhabitants  of  the  fair 
State  of  Massachusetts  nor  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  State  of  New  York  by  saying 
that,  when  they  are  confronted  with  the 
proposition,  they  will  declare  that  this 
nation  is  not  able  to  attend  to  its  own 
business.  It  is  the  issue  of  1776  over 
again.  Our  ancestors,  when  but  3,000.000 
in  number,  had  the  courage  to  declare 
their  political  independence  of  every  other 
nation;  shall  we,  their  descendants,  when 
we  have  grown  to  70.000,000,  declare  that 
we  are  less  independent  than  our  fore- 
fathers? No,  my  friends,  that  will  never 
be  the  verdict  of  our  people.  Therefore, 
we  care  not  upon  what  lines  the  battle 


is  fought.  If  they  say  bimetallism  is 
good,  but  that  we  cannot  have  it  until 
other  nations  help  us,  we  reply  that,  in- 
stead of  having  a  gold  standard  because 
England  has,  we  will  restore  bimetallism, 
and  then  let  England  have  bimetallism 
because  the  United  States  has  it.  If  they 
dare  to  come  out  in  the  open  field  and 
defend  the  gold  standard  as  a  good  thing, 
we  will  fight  them  to  the  uttermost.  Hav- 
ing behind  us  the  producing  masses  of 
this  nation  and  the  world,  supported  by 
the  commercial  interests,  the  laboring  in- 
terests, and  the  toilers  every^vhere,  we 
will  answer  their  demand  for  a  gold  stand- 
ard by  saying  to  them:  You  shall  not 
press  down  upon  the  brow  of  labor  this 
crown  of  thorns,  you  shall  not  crucify 
mankind  upon  a  cross  of  gold. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  poet;  born 
iji  Cummington,  Mass.,  Nov.  3,  1794.  He 
communicated  rhymes  to  the  county 
newspajier  before  he  was  ten  years  of  age. 
His  father  was  a  distinguished  physician 
and  man  of  letters,  and  took  great  pains 
in  the  instruction  of  his  son.  His  poem 
on  The  Embargo,  written  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  evinced  great  precocity  of  in- 
tellect. Young  Bryant  called  the  embargo 
act  a  "  terrapin  policy "- — the  policy  de- 
signed by  it  of  shutting  up  the  nation  in 
its  own  shell,  as  it  were,  like  the  terrapin 
with  its  head.  In  that  poem  he  violently 
assailed  President  Jefferson,  and  revealed 
the  intensity  of  the  opposition  to  him  and 
his  policy  in  New  England,  which  made 
even  boys  bitter  politicians.  Alluding  to 
Jefferson's  narrow  escape  from  capture  by 
Tarleton  in  1781,  his  zeal  for  the  French, 
and  his  scientific  researches,  young  Bry- 
ant wrote: 

"  And  thou,  the  scorn  of  every  patriot  name. 

Thy  counti'y's  ruin,  and  her  council's 
shame  ! 

Poor,  servile  thing  !  derision  of  the  brave  ! 

Who  erst  from  Tarleton  fled  to  Carter's 
cave  ; 

Thou,  who,  when  menaced  by  perfidious 
Gaul, 

Didst  prostrate  to  her  whisker'd  minion 
fall  : 

And  when  our  cash  his  empty  bags  sup- 
plied, 

Did  meanly  strive  the  foul  disgrace  to  hide. 

Go,  wretch,  resign  the  Presidential  chair. 

Disclose  thy  secret  measures,  foul  or  fair : 

Go,  search  with  curious  eye  for  horned 
frogs 

'Mid   the   wild   wastes   of    Louisiana   bogs, 


429 


BRYANT— BUCCANEERS 


Or,  where  Ohio  rolls  his  turbid  stream,  Times,  Philadelphia,  Feb.  22,  1878,  on  the 

Dig    for    Mige    bones,    thy    glory    and    thy    subject    of    Washington,    and    written    at 

®™^"  the   request  of   the   editor   of   that  paper. 

He  wrote  the  poem  Thanatopsis  when  he    At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged 

was  in  his  nineteenth  year.     In   1810  he    with  Sydney  Howard  Gay  in  the  prepara- 

entered    Williams    College,    but    did    not    tion  of  a  History  of  the  United  States.   He 

graduate.     He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in    had  also  just  completed,  with  the  assist- 

1815,  and  practised  some  time  in  western    ance  of  the  late  Evart  A.  Duykinck,  a  new 

Massachusetts.      His    first    collection    of    and  carefully  annotated  edition  of  Shake- 

poems   was    published    in    1821,    and    this    speare's    Works.     He    died    in    New   York 

volume  caused  his  immediate  recognition    City,  June  12,  1878. 

as  a  poet  of  great  merit.  In  1825  Mr.  Bryce,  James,  historian;  born  in  Bel- 
Bryant  became  an  associate  editor  of  the  fast,  Ireland,  May  10,  1838;  was  gradu- 
New  York  Revieio.  In  1826  he  became  ated  at  Oxford  University  in  1862;  prac- 
connected  with  the  New  York  Eveninfj  tised  law  in  London  till  1882;  and  was 
Post,   and   continued   its   editor   until   his    Pi'ofessor  of  Civil  Law  in  Oxford  in  1870- 

93.     He  was   first   elected   to   the   British 
^/■'^^~     -  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  in  1880.     He  has 

distinguished  himself  alike  in  politics  and 
historical  literature,  and  is  best  known  in 
the  United  States  for  his  work  on  The 
American  Commonioealth. 

Bryce,  Lloyd,  author ;  born  in  Flushing, 
Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  20,  1851;  was 
graduated  at  Oxford  University  and  stud- 
ied law  in  the  Columbia  Law  School,  New 
York;  was  a  Democratic  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1887-89.  In  the  latter  year  he 
received  a  large  interest  in  the  Worth 
American  Review,  which  he  edited  till 
1896. 

Buccaneers,  The,  were  daring  advent- 
urers, who  first  combined  for  the  spolia- 
tion of  the  Spaniards  in  the  West  Indies 
and  the  islands  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The 
first  of  these  were  mostly  French,  who  at- 
tempted to  introduce  themselves  into  the 
West  Indies  not  long  after  the  conquests 
rope  in  1834,  1845,  1849,  and  1858-59,  and  of  the  Spaniards  there,  and  Avere  called 
in  the  intervals  visited  much  of  his  own  flibustiers,  or  freebooters.  Their  depre- 
country  from  Maine  to  Florida.  On  the  dations  among  the  islands  were  extensive 
completion  of  his  seventieth  year,  in  and  alarming.  They  made  settlements  in 
1864,  his  birthday  was  celebrated  by  a  Santo  Domingo,  where  the  Spaniards  at- 
festival  at  the  Century  Club  by  promi-  tempted  to  expel  them.  Retaliation  fol- 
nent  literary  men.  His  translations  of  lowed.  In  1630  they  made  the  little  isl- 
Homer  into  English  blank  verse  were  com-  and  of  Tortugas,  west  of  the  Florida  Keys, 
mended  as  the  best  rendering  of  the  Epics  their  stronghold,  where,  in  armed  bands 
in  his  native  tongue  ever  made.  His  oc-  in  rowboats,  they  attacked  Spanish  ves- 
casional  speeches  and  more  formal  ora-  sels,  lying  in  wait  for  them  on  their  pas- 
tions  are  models  of  stately  style,  some-  sage  from  America  to  Europe.  The  richly 
times  enlivened  by  quiet  humor.  'In  prose  laden  treasure-ships  were  boarded  by 
composition  Mr.  Bryant  was  equally  happy  them,  pkmdered,  and  their  crews  cast  into 
as  in  poetry  in  the  choice  of  pure  and  ele-  the  sea.  They  extended  their  operations, 
gant  English  words,  with  great  delicacy  The  French  buccaneers  made  their  head- 
of  fancy  pervading  the  whole.  His  last  quarters  in  Santo  Domingo,  and  the  Eng- 
poem  was  published  in  the  Sunday-School    lish  in  Jamaica^,  during  the  long  war  be- 

430 


w^"-^"* 


•WILLIAM  CDLLEN  BRYANT. 


death.     Meanwhile  he   contributed   to  lit- 
erary publications.    He  made  visits  to  Eu- 


BUCHANAN 


tween  France  and  Spain  (1635-60)  and 
afterwards;  and  they  were  so  numerous 
and  bold  that  Spanish  commerce  soon  de- 
clined, and  Spanish  shijjs  dared  not  vent- 
ure to  America.  Finding  their  own  gains 
diminishing  from  want  of  richly  laden 
vessels  to  plunder,  they  ceased  pillaging 
vessels,  and  attacked  and  plundered  Span- 
ish towns  on  the  coast  of  Central  and 
South  America.  A  number  of  tliese  were 
seized,  and  immense  treasures  were  car- 
ried away  in  the  form  of  plunder  or  ran- 
som. At  Carthagena,  in  1697,  they  pro- 
cured $8,000,000.  Their  operations  were 
finally  broken  up  by  an  alliance  against 
them  of  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Spanish 
governments.  Exasperated  at  the  con- 
duct of  the  Spaniards  in  Florida,  the  Car- 
olinas  were  disposed  to  give  the  buccaneers 
assistance  in  plundering  them;  and  in 
1684-93  they  were  sheltered  in  the  harbor 
of  Charleston. 


Buchanan,  Franklin,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Sept.  17,  1800; 
entered  the  navy  in  1815;  became  lieu- 
tenant in  1825,  and  master-commander  in 
1841.  He  was  the  first  superintendent 
of  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  Sym- 
pathizing with  the  Confederate  movement, 
and  believing  his  State  would  secede,  he 
sent  in  his  resignation.  Finding  that 
Maryland  did  not  secede,  he  petitioned 
for  restoration,  but  was  refused,  when  he 
entered  the  Confederate  service,  and 
superintended  the  fitting-out  of  the  old 
Merrimac  (rechristened  the  Virginia)  .at 
Norfolk.  In  her  he  fought  the  Monitor 
and  was  severely  Avounded.  He  after- 
wards blew  up  his  vessel  to  save  her 
from  capture.  In  command  of  the  iron- 
clad Tennessee,  in  Mobile  Bay,  he  was  de- 
feated and  made  prisoner.  He  died  in 
Talbot  countj^  Md.,  May  11,  1874.  See 
Monitor  and  Merrimac. 


BUCHANAN,     JAMES 


Buchanan,  James,  fifteenth  President 
of  the  United  States,  from  1857  to 
1861;  Democrat;  born  near  Mercers- 
burg,  Pa.,  April  23,  1791;  was  graduated 
at  Dickinson  College,  Pa.,  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  years,  and  in  1814,  when  he  was 
only  twenty-three  years  old,  he  was  elect- 
ed to  a  seat  in  the  Pennsylvania  legislat- 
ure. He  had  studied  law,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  at  Lancaster  in  1812. 
His  father  was  a  native  of  Ireland,  and 
his  mother  was  Elizabeth  Spear,  daughter 
of  a  farmer.  Mr.  Buchanan's  career  as 
a  lawyer  was  so  successful  that,  at  the 
age  of  forty  years,  he  retired  from  the 
profession  with  a  handsome  fortune.  He 
was  a  Federalist  in  politics  at  first,  and 
as  such  entered  Congress  as  a  member  in 
1821,  where  he  held  a  seat  ten  successive 
years.  When  the  Federal  party  disap- 
peared he  took  sides  with  the  Democrats. 
He  supported  Jackson  for  the  Presidency 
in  1828,  when  the  present  Democratic 
party  was  organized.  In  1832-34,  Mr. 
Buchanan  was  United  States  minister  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  from  1834  to  1845  was 
a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
was  Secretary  of  State  in  the  cabinet  of 
President  Polk,  184.5-49,  where  he  arrayed 
himself    on    the    side    of    the    pro-slavery 

43 


men,  opposing  the  Wilmot  Proviso 
[q.  V.) ,  and  the  anti-slavery  movements 
generally.  In  1853  President  Pierce  sent 
him  as  United  States  minister  to  England, 
where  he  remained  until  1856,  during 
which  time  he  became  a  party  in  the  con- 
ference of  United  States  ministers  at  Os- 
tend,  and  was  a  signer  of  the  famous  man- 
ifesto, or  consular  letter  (see  Ostend 
Manifesto).  In  the  fall  of  1856  he  was 
elected  President  of  the  United  States,  re- 
ceiving 174  electoral  votes  to  129  given 
for  Fremont  (Republican)  and  Fillmore 
( American ) . 

A  chief  topic  of  President  Buchanan's 
inaugural  address  was  the  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  (not 
promulgated  until  two  days  afterwards) 
in  the  Dred  Scott  Case  (q.  v.),  and  its 
efteets.  He  spoke  of  that  decision,  which 
virtually  declared  the  institution  of  sla- 
very to  be  a  national  one,  and  that  the 
black  man  '"'  had  no  rights  which  the  white 
man  Avas  bound  to  respect,"  aod  said  it 
would  "  speedily  and  finally "  settle  the 
slavery  question.  Pie  announced  his  in- 
tention to  cheerfully  abide  by  that  deci- 
sion. He  declared  that  the  question  was 
wholly  a  judicial  one,  which  belonged  to 
the  Supreme  Court  to  settle;  and  that,  as 
1 


BUCHANAN,    JAMES 


by  its  decision  the  admission  or  rejection 
of  slavery  in  any  Territory  was  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  legal  votes  of  the  people 
in  such  Territory,  the  "  whole  territorial 
question  was  thus  settled  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  popular  sovereignty — a  principle 
as  ancient  as  free  government  itself " ; 
that  "  everything  of  a  practical  nature  " 
had  been  settled;  and  that  he  seriously 
hoped  the  long  agitation  of  the  subject  of 
slavery  was  "  approaching  its  end."  It 
was  then  only  the  "  beginning  of  the  end." 
That  decision  "  kindled  the  fire "  spoken 
of  by  the  Georgian  in  the  debate  on  the 
Missouri  Compromise  {q.  v.) ,  "  which 
only  seas  of  blood  could  extinguish."  The 
decision  settled  nothing  "  speedily  and 
finally  "  but  the  destruction  of  the  insti- 
tution it  was  expected  to  preserve.  See 
Cabinet,  President's. 

On  Dec.  27,  1860.  news  of  the  occupation 
of  Fort  Sumter  by  Maj.  Robert  Anderson 
iq.  V.)  reached  Washington.  The  cabinet 
assembled  at  noon.  They  had  a  stormy 
session.  Floyd  demanded  of  the  Presi- 
dent an  order  for  Anderson's  return  to 
Fort  Moultrie,  urging  that  the  Presi- 
dent, if  he  should  Avithhold  it,  would  "  vio- 
late the  solemn  pledges  of  the  govern- 
ment." The  President  was  inclined  to 
give  the  order,  but  the  warning  voices  of 
law  and  duty,  as  well  as  public  opinion, 
made  him  hesitate,  and  the  cabinet  ad- 
journed without  definite  action.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  President  was  painful.  He 
had  evidently  made  pledges  to  the  Con- 
federates, without  suspecting  their  dis- 
loyal schemes  when  he  made  them,  and 
had  filled  his  cabinet  with  disloyal  men, 
supposing  them  to  be  honest.  It  is  said 
that  at  that  time  he  was  in  continual 
fear  of  assassination.  On  the  morning 
after  the  cabinet  meeting  referred  to,  news 
came  of  the  seizure  of  Fort  Moultrie  and 
Castle  Pinckney.  The  President  breathed 
more  freely.  The  Confederates  had  com- 
mitted the  first  act  of  war,  and  he  felt 
relieved  from  his  pledges.  He  peremp- 
torih^  refused  to  order  the  withdrawal  of 
Anderson  from  Sumter,  and  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  Floyd  resigned  the  seals  of 
Secretary  of  War  and  fled  to  Richmond. 
In  his  letter  of  resignation  he  said,  re- 
specting the  secretaryship,  "  I  can  no  long- 
er hold  office,  under  my  convictions  of  pa- 
triotism, nor  with  honor,  subjected  as  I  am, 


to  a  violation  of  solemn  pledges."  Joseph 
Holt  (q.  v.) ,  of  Kentucky,  a  thoroughly 
loyal  man,  took  Floyd's  place,  and  a  load 
of  anxiety  was  lifted  from  the  minds  of 
the  loyal  people  of  the  republic.  The  dis- 
ruption of  Buchanan's  cabinet  went  on. 
Attorney-General  Black  had  taken  the 
place  of  General  Cass  as  Secretary  of  State, 
and  Edwin  M.  Stanton  (q.  v.)  filled  the 
office  of  Attorney  -  General.  Philip  F. 
Thomas,  of  Maryland,  had  succeeded  Cobb 
as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  but,  un- 
willing to  assist  the  government  in  en- 
forcing the  laws,  he  was  succeeded  by 
John  A.  Dix  [q.  v.),  a  stanch  patriot  of 
New  York.  The  ex-President  retired  to 
private  life  March  4,  1861,  and  took  up 
his  abode  at  Wlieatland,  near  Lancas- 
ter, Pa.,  where  he  died,  June  1,  1868.  Mr". 
Buchanan  was  an  able  lawyer,  a  good  de- 
bater, and  in  private  life,  from  his  boy- 
hood, his  moral  character  was  without  re- 
proach. He  lived  in  troublous  times,  and 
his  political  career,  towards  the  last,  seems 
to  have  been  shaped  more  by  persistent 
politicians  than  by  his  own  better  im- 
pulses  and   judgment. 

Prospects  of  Civil  War. — On  Jan.  8, 
1861,  President  Buchanan  sent  the  follow- 
ing message  to  the  Congress,  giving  his 
views  on  the  question  of  State's  rights 
and  the  prospects  of  a  civil  war: 


To    the   Senate    and    House    of   Represen- 
tatives: 

At  the  opening  of  your  present  session 
I  called  your  attention  to  the  dangers 
which  threatened  the  existence  of  the 
Union.  I  expressed  my  opinion  freely  con- 
cerning the  original  causes  ^f  those  dan- 
gers, and  recommended  such  measures  as 
1  believed  Avould  have  the  effect  of  tran- 
quillizing the  country  and  saving  it  from 
the  peril  in  which  it  had  been  needlessly 
and  most  unfortunately  involved.  Those 
opinions  and  recommendations  I  do  not 
propose  now  to  repeat.  My  own  convic- 
tions upon  the  whole  subject  remain  un- 
changed. 

Tlie  fact  that  a  great  calamity  was  im- 
pending over  the  nation  was  even  at  that 
time  acknowledged  by  every  intelligent 
citizen.  It  had  already  made  itself  felt 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land.  The  necessary  consequences  of  the 
alarm    thus    produced   were   most   deplor- 


432 


d 


~Cz 


z2y77ze^ 


't^ 


BXTCHANAN,    JAMES 


able.     The  imports  fell  off  with  a  rapidity  dependence   of   such   State.     This   left  me 

never  known  before  except  in  time  of  war,  no  alternative,  as  the  chief  executive  offi- 

in  the  history  of  our   foreign  commerce;  eer  under  the  Constitution  of  the  United, 

the  Treasury  was  unexpectedly  left  with-  States,  but  to  collect  the  public  revenues 

out   the   means   which   it   had   reasonably  and  to  protect  the  public  property  so  far 

counted  upon  to  meet  the  public  engage-  as  this  might  be  practicable  under  exist- 

ments;    trade    was    paralyzed;    manufact-  ing  laws.     This  is  still  my  purpose.     My 


ures  were  stopped;  the  best  public  securi- 
ties suddenly  sunk  in  the  market;  every 
species  of  property  depreciated  more  or 
less,  and  thousands  of  poor  men  who  de- 
pended upon  their  daily  labor  for  their 
daily  bread  were  turned  out  of  employ- 
ment. 


province  is  to  execute  and  not  to  make 
the  laws.  It  belongs  to  Congress  exclu- 
sively to  repeal,  to  modify,  or  to  enlarge 
their  provisions  to  meet  exigencies  as  they 
may  occur.  I  possess  no  dispensing 
power. 

I  certainly  had  no  right  to  make  aggres- 


I  deeply  regret  that  I  am  not  able  to  sive  war  upon  any  State,  and  I  am  per- 

give  you  any  information  upon  the  state  of  fectly  satisfied  that  the  Constitution  has 

the  Union  which  is  more  satisfactory  than  wisely    withheld    that    power    even    from 

what  I  was  then  obliged  to  communicate.  Congress.     But  the  right  and  the  duty  to 

On  the  contrary,  matters  are  still  woree  use    military    force     defensively    against 

at   present   than   they   then   were.     When  those  who  resist  the  federal  officers  in  the 

Congress  met,  a  strong  hope  pervaded  the  execution    of    their    legal    functions    and 

whole    public    mind    that    some    amicable  against  those  who  assail  the  property  of 

adjustment  of  the  subject  would  speedily  the   federal  government   is   clear   and  un- 

be    made    by    the    representatives    of    the  deniable. 

States  and  of  the  people  wiiich  might  re-  But  the  dangerous  and  hostile  attitude 
store  peace  between  the  conflicting  sections  of  the  States  towards  each  other  has  al- 
of  the  country.  That  hope  has  been  dimin-  ready  far  transcended  and  cast  in  the 
ished  by  every  hour  of  delay,  and  as  the  shade  the  ordinary  executive  duties  al- 
prospect  of  a  bloodless  settlement  fades  ready  provided  for  by  law,  and  has  as- 
away  the  public  distress  becomes  more  sumed  such  vast  and  alarming  propor- 
and  more  aggravated.  As  evidence  of  tions  as  to  place  the  subject  entirely 
this  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that  the  above  and  beyond  executive  control.  The 
Treasury  notes  authorized  by  the  act  fact  cannot  be  disguised  that  we  are  in 
of  Dec.  17  last  were  advertised  accord-  the  midst  of  a  great  revolution.  In  all 
ing  to  the  law,  and  that  no  responsible  its  various  bearings,  therefore,  I  commend 
bidder  offered  to  take  any  c.onsiderable  the  question  to  Congress  as  the  only 
sum  at  par  at  a  lower  rate  of  interest  than  human  tribunal  under  Providence  pos- 
12  jjer  cent.  From  these  facts  it  appears  sessing  the  power  to  meet  the  existing 
that  in  a  government  organized  like  ours  emergency.  To  them  exclusively  belongs 
domestic  strife,  or  even  a  w'ell-grounded  the  power  to  declare  war  or  to  authorize 
fear  of  civil  hostilities,  is  more  destructive  the  employment  of  military  force  in  all 
to  our  public  and  private  interests  than  cases  contemplated  by  the  Constitution, 
the  most  formidable  foreign  war.  and  they  alone  possess  the  power  to  re- 
in my  annual  message  I  expressed  the  move  grievances  which  might  lead  to 
conviction,  which  I  have  long  deliberately  M'ar  and  to  secure  peace  and  union  to 
held,  and  which  recent  reflection  has  only  this  distracted  country.  On  them,  and  on 
tended  to  deepen  and  confirm,  that  no  them  alone,  rests  the  responsibility. 
State  has  a  right  by  its  own  act  to  secede  The  Union  is  a  sacred  trust  left  by  our 
from  the  Union  or  throw  off  its  federal  Revolutionary  fathers  to  '  their  descend- 
obligations  at  pleasure.  I  also  declared  ants,  and  never  did  any  other  people  in- 
my  opinion  to  be  that,  even  if  that  right  herit  so  rich  a  legacy.  It  has  rendered 
existed  and  should  be  exercised  by  any  us  prosperous  in  peace  and  triumphant  in 
State  of  the  Confederacy,  the  executive  war.  The  national  flag  has  floated  in 
department  of  this  government  had  no  glory  over  every  sea.  Under  its  shadow 
authority  under  the  Constitution  to  recog-  American  citizens  have  found  protection 
nize  its  validity  by  acknowledging  the  in-  and  respect  in  all  lands  beneath  the  sun. 
I.— 2  E                                                       433 


BtTCHANAN,    JAMES 


If  we  descend  to  considerations  of  purely 
material  interest,  when  in  the  history  of 
all  time  has  a  confederacy  been  bound  to- 
gether by  such  strong  ties  of  mutual  in- 
terest? Each  portion  of  it  is  dependent 
on  all,  and  all  upon  each  portion,  for  pros- 
perity and  domestic  security.  Free  trade 
throughout  the  whole  supplies  the  wants 
of  one  portion  from  the  productions  of  an- 
other, and  scatters  wealth  everywhere. 
The  great  planting  and  farming  States 
require  the  aid  of  the  commercial  and 
navigating  States  to  send  their  23roduc- 
tions  to  domestic  and  foreign  markets, 
and  to  furnish  the  naval  power  to  render 
their  transportation  secure  against  all 
hostile   attacks. 

Should  the  Union  perish  in  the  midst 
of  the  present  excitement,  we  have  al- 
ready had  a  sad  foretaste  of  the  universal 
suffering  which  would  result  from  its  de- 
struction. The  calamity  would  be  severe 
in  every  portion  of  the  Union,  and  would 
be  quite  as  great,  to  say  the  least,  in  the 
Southern  as  in  the  Northern  States.  The 
greatest  aggravation  of  the  evil,  and  that 
which  would  place  us  in  the  most  un- 
favorable light  both  before  the  world  and 
posterity,  is,  as  I  am  firmly  convinced,  that 
the  secession  movement  has  been  chiefly 
based  upon  a  misapprehension  at  the 
South  of  the  sentiments  of  the  majority 
in  several  of  the  Northern  States.  Let  the 
question  be  transferred  from  political  as- 
semblies to  the  ballot-box,  and  the  people 
themselves  would  speedily  redress  the 
serious  grievances  which  the  South  have 
suffered.  But.  in  Heaven's  name,  let  the 
trial  be  made  before  we  plunge  into  armed 
conflict  upon  the  mere  assumption  that 
there  is  no  other  alternative.  Time  is  a 
great  conservative  jDower.  Let  us  pause 
at  this  momentous  point  and  afford  the 
people,  both  North  and  South,  an  oppor- 
tunity for  reflection.  Would  that  South 
Carolina  had  been  convinced  of  this  truth 
before  her  i^recipitate  action !  I  therefore 
appeal  through  you  to  the  people  of  the 
country  to  declare  in  their  might  that  the 
Union  must  and  shall  be  preserved  by 
all  constitutional  means.  I  most  ear- 
nestly recommend  that  you  devote  your- 
selves exclusively  to  the  question  how 
this  can  be  accomplished  in  peace.  All 
other  questions,  when  compared  to  this, 
sink  into   insignificance.     The  present  is 

4;; 


no  time  for  palliations.  Action,  prompt 
action,  is  required.  A  delay  in  Congress 
to  prescribe  or  to  recommend  a  distinct 
and  practical  proposition  fop  conciliation 
may  drive  us  to  a  point  from  which  it  will 
be  almost  impossible  to  recede. 

A  common  ground  on  which  conciliation 
and  harmony  can  be  produced  is  surely 
not  unattainable.  The  proposition  to 
compromise  by  letting  the  North  have  ex- 
clusive control  of  the  territory  above  a 
certain  line  and  to  give  Southern  institu- 
tions protection  below  that  line  ought 
to  receive  universal  approbation.  In  it- 
self, indeed,  it  may  not  be  entirely  satis- 
factory; but  when  the  alternative  is  be- 
tween a  reasonable  concession  on  both 
sides  and  a  destruction  of  the  Union  it 
is  an  imputation  upon  the  patriotism  of 
Congress  to  assert  that  its  members  will 
hesitate  for  a  moment. 

Even  now  the  danger  is  upon  us.  In 
several  of  the  States  which  have  not  yet 
seceded  the  forts,  arsenals,  and  magazines 
of  the  United  States  have  been  seized. 
Tljis  is  by  far  the  most  serious  step  which 
has  been  taken  since  the  commencement 
of  the  troubles.  This  public  property  has 
long  been  left  Avithout  garrisons  and 
troops  for  its  protection,  because  no  per- 
son doubted  its  security  under  the  flag 
of  the  country  in  any  State  of  the  Union. 
Besides,  our  small  army  has  scarcely  been 
sufficient  to  guard  our  remote  frontiers 
against  Indian  incursions.  The  seizure 
of  this  property,  from  all  appearances, 
has  been  purely  aggressive,  and  not  in 
resistance  to  any  attempt  to  coerce  a 
State  or  States  to  remain  in  the  Union. 
At  the  beginning  of  these  unhappy 
troubles  T  determined  that  no  act  of  mine 
should  increase  the  excitement  in  either 
section  of  the  country.  If  the  political 
conflict  were  to  end  in  a  civil  Avar,  it  Avas 
my  determined  purpose  not  to  commence  it 
nor  even  to  furnish  an  excuse  for  it  by 
any  act  of  this  government.  My  opinion 
remains  unchanged  that  justice  as  Avell 
as  sound  policy  requires  us  still  to  seek 
a  peaceful  solution  of  the  questions  at  is- 
sue between  the  North  and  the  South. 
Entertaining  this  conviction,  I  refrained 
cA'en  from  sending  reinforcements  to  Ma- 
jor Anderson,  AAdio  commanded  the  forts 
in  Charleston  Harbor,  until  an  absolute 
necessity  for  doing  so  should  make  itself 
4 


BUCHANAN— BUCKINGHAM 


apparent,   lest   it   might   unjustly   be   re-  ized  to  take  sinular  defensive  steps  when- 

garded  as  a  menace  of  military  coercion,  ever  you  have  tangible  evidence  of  a  de- 

and  thus  furnish,  if  not  a  provocation,  at  sign  to  proceed  to  a  hostile  act." 

least   a   pretext,   for   an   outbreak   on   the  It    is    said    that    serious    apprehensions 

part  of  South  Carolina.     No  necessity  for  are  to  some  extent  entertained    (in  which 

these  reinforcements  seemed  to  exist.   I  was  I   do   not   share)    that   the   peace   oi   this 

assured  by  distinguished  and  upright  gen-  district   may   be    distui-bed    before   March 

tlemen  of  South  Carolina  that  no  attack  4    next.     In    any    event,    it    will    be    my 

upon  Major  Anderson  was   intended,   but  duty  to  preserve   it,  and   this   duty  shall 

that,   on   the   contrary,   it  was  the   desire  be  performed. 

of   the    State   authorities   as   much   as   it  In  conckision,   it  may  be   permitted  to 

was    my    own    to    avoid    the    fatal    conse-  me  to  remark  that  I  have  often  warned  my 

quences   which   must   eventually   follow   a  countrymen  of  the  dangers  which  now  sur- 

military  collision.  round  us.     This  may  be  the  last  time  I 

And   here   I   deem   it   proper   to   submit  shall    refer    to    the    subject    officially.      I 

for    your    information    copies    of    a    com-  feel    that    my    duty   has    been    faithfully, 

munieation,  dated  Dec.  28,   1860,  address-  though  it  may  be  imperfectly,  performed, 

ed  to  me  by  R.  W.  Barnwell,  J.  H.  Adams,  and  whatever  the  result  may  be,  I  shall 

and  James  L.  Orr,  "  commissioners  "  from  carry  to  my  grave  the  consciousness  that 

South    Carolina,    with    the    accompanying  I  at  least  meant  well  for  my  country, 

documents,  and  copies  of  my  answer  there-  James  Buchanan. 

to,  dated  Dec.  .31.  Buchanan,  Robert  Christie,  military 

In  further  explanation  of  Major  An-  officer;  born  in  Maryland  about  1810; 
derson's  removal  from  Fort  Moultrie  to  was  gi-aduated  at  West  Point  in  1830; 
Fort  Sumter,  it  is  proper  to  state  that  served  in  the  Seminole  War  and  the  war 
after  my  answer  to  the  South  Carolina  with  Mexico;  and  was  made  a  lieutenant- 
"  commissioners  "  the  War  Department  re-  colonel  in  1861.  He  served  in  the  Army 
ceived  a  letter  from  that  gallant  officer,  of  the  Potomac  continually  during  the 
dated  on  Dec.  27,  1860,  the  day  after  this  Civil  War,  and  was  brevetted  major-gen- 
movement,  from  which  the  following  is  an  eral    United    States    Army    in    186.5.      He 


extract : 

"  I  will  add  as  my  opinion  that  many 


died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Nov.  29,  1878. 
Buckeye    State,    the   popular   name   of 


things   convinced  me  that  the  authorities    the  State  of  Ohio,  derived  from  the  buck- 
of    the    State    designed    to    proceed    to    a    eye,  or  horse-chestnut,  tree  which  abounds 


hostile  act." 

Evidently  referring  to  the  orders,  dated 
Dec.  11,  of  the  late  Secretary  of  War. 

"  Under  this  impression  I  could  not 
hesitate  that  it  was  my  solemn  duty  to 
move  my  command  from  a  fort  which  we 
could  not  probably  have  held  longer  than 
forty-eight  or  sixty  hours  to  this  one, 
where  my  power  of  resistance  is  increased 
to  a  very  great  degree." 

It  will  be  recollected  that  the  conclud- 
ing part  of  these  orders  was  in  the  fol- 
lowing terms: 

"  The  smallness  of  your  force  will  not 
permit  you,  perhaps,  to  occupy  more  than 
one  of  the  three  forts,  but  an  attack  on 
or  attempt  to  take  possession  of  either 
one  of  them  will  he  regarded  as  an  act  of 
hostility,  and  you  may  then  put  your 
command  into  either  of  them  which  you 
may  deem  most  proper  to  increase  its 
power  of  resistance.    You  are  also  author- 

435 


there. 

Buckingham,    William    Alfred,    the 
"  war    governor    of    Connecticut " ;     born 


WILLIAM  ALFRED  BUCKI.NGHAM. 


BUCKLAND— BUDGET 


in  Lebanon,  Conn.,  May  28,  1804;  en- 
gaged in  business  in  Norwich  in  1825, 
where  he  became  a  successful  merchant 
and  carpet  manufacturer;  and  his  gener- 
osity and  public  spirit  endeared  him  to 
the  people.  He  was  elected  governor  every 
year  from  1858  to  1866,  when  he  declined 
a  renomination.  His  patriotism,  energy, 
popularity,  and  extensive  influence  were 
of  inestimable  service  to  the  national  gov- 
ernment during  its  struggle  for  exist- 
ence; and  he  was  one  of  the  most  active 
of  the  "  war  governors  "  during  the  con- 
test. In  1869  he  was  chosen  to  represent 
Connecticut  in  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States.  A  patron  of  education  and  a  pro- 
moter of  religion  and  public  morals,  he 
gave  to  the  Theological  School  of  Yale 
College  $25,000  for  the  education  of  young 
men  for  the  Gospel  ministry.  He  died 
in  Norwich,  Conn.,  Feb.  3,  1875. 

Buckland,  Cyrus,  inventor;  born  in 
Springfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  10,  1799.  After 
aiding  in  constructing  the  machinery  for 
the  first  cotton  mills,  in  Chicopee  Falls, 
he  became  the  pattern-maker  of  the  United 
States  armory,  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in 
1828.  He  remained  there  for  twenty-eight 
years,  much  of  the  time  as  master-me- 
chanic. He  remodelled  old  weapons,  made 
new  ones,  and  designed  a  lathe  for  the 
manufacture  of  gun-stocks.  His  inven- 
tions also  included  machinery  and  tools 
for  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms,  for  ri- 
fling muskets,  etc.  Many  of  these  inven- 
tions were  adopted  by  foreign  cotmtries. 
When  ill-health  forced  him  to  resign  Con- 
gress voted  him  $10,000,  as  he  had  received 
no  compensation  for  his  inventions  while 
at  the  armory.  He  died  in  Springfleld, 
Feb.  26,  1891. 

Buckner,  Simon  Bolivar,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Kentucky  in  1823;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1844;  was  Assistant  Professor 
of  Ethics  there  for  two  years,  and  then 
engaged  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  in  which 
he  was  wounded,  and  brevetted  captain. 
After  that  war  he  was  again  a  tutor  at 
West  Point;  resigned  in  1855;  practised 
law  in  Kentucky;  and  became  one  of  the 
most  prominent  "  Knights  of  the  Gold- 
en Circle  "  {q.  v.)  in  that  State.  After 
the  Civil  War  began  he  became  command- 
er of  the  Kentucky  State  Guard,  and 
adjutant-general   of   the   State.     He   soon 


joined  the  Confederate  army,  and  surren- 
dered the  fort  and  garrison  of  Fort  Don- 
ELSON  {q.  V.)  in  February,  1862,  when  he 
was  sent  a  prisoner  to  Fort  Warren.  After 
his  release,  he  continued  in  the  Confeder- 
ate service  until  the  close  of  the  war. 
He  became  a  lieutenant-general  in  the 
army;  was  selected  by  General  Grant 
to  be  one  of  his  pall-bearers;  and  was 
elected   governor   of   Kentucky   irr  1887. 

Bucktails.  In  the  politics  of  the  State 
of  New  York  the  Tammany  Society 
(g.  V.)  held  a  conspicuous  place  as  early 
as  during  the  War  of  1812-15.  The  Repub- 
lican, or  Democratic,  party  had  been  di- 
vided into  two  great  factions,  known  as 
Madisonians  and  Clintonians,  James  Madi- 
son and  De  Witt  Clinton  being  rival  can- 
didates for  the  office  of  President  of 
the.  United  States.  Most  of  the  Federal- 
ists voted  for  Clinton.  The  Tammany 
Society  adhered  to  Madison.  In  the  elec- 
tion of  1816  a  portion  of  the  members 
of  the  Tammany  Society  wore  an  emblem 
in  their  caps — a  deer's  tail — and  they  were 
called  "  Bucktails."  This  soon  became  the 
title  of  the  Madisonians;  and  in  1816, 
when  Clinton  was  elected  governor  of  New 
York,  the  opposing  parties  in  the  State 
were  known  as  "  Bucktails  "  and  "  Clin- 
tonians." To  one  or  the  other  of  these 
parties  portions  of  the  disintegrated  Re- 
publican, or  Democratic,  party  became  at- 
tached. Afterwards  the  Bucktail  party 
was  styled  by  its  antagonists  the  Albany 
Regency  (g.  v.) . 

Buddington,  Sidney  Ozias.  See 
Hall.  Charles  Francis. 

Budget,  a  term  applied  to  the  English 
Chancellor  of  Exchequer's  annual  state- 
ment of  the  finances  of  the  country,  the 
documents  having  been  formerly  presented 
in  a  leather  bag.  In  the  United  States 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  has  made  an 
annual  report  to  Congress  of  receipts  and 
expenditures  of  the  government  since  1790. 
In  1789  the  House  of  Representatives  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  see  that  the  gov- 
ernment was  supplied  with  sufficient  reve- 
nues, and  to  devise  ways  and  means  for 
obtaining  it,  Avhence  the  name  of  "  Ways 
and  Means  Committee."  In  1865  the  du- 
ties of  this  committee  had  become  exces- 
sive, and  a  committee  of  appropriations 
was  appointed  to  share  the  work.  Esti- 
mates for  appropriations  are  prepared  by 


436 


BUELL— BUENA    VISTA 


the  heads  of  the  several  departments  and 
bureaus  of  the  jjublic  service  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  but  are  often  reduced 
by  the  House.  No  appropriations  can  be 
made  for  purposes  not  sanctioned  by  the 
Constitution.     See  Appropriations,   Con"- 

GEESSIOJv^AL. 

Buell,  Don  Carlos,  military  officer; 
born  near  Marietta,  0.,  March  23,  1818; 
was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841;  en- 
gaged in  the  war  with  Mexico,  in  which 
he  won  the  brevets  of  captain  and  major, 
and  was  severely  wounded;  became  lieu- 
tenant-colonel in  the  regular  army,  and 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  May, 
1861;  major-general  of  volunteers  in 
March,  1862;  and,  with  an  army,  arrived 
on  the  battle-field  of  SiiiLOii  {q.  v.)  in 
time  to  assist  in  the  defeat  of  the  Con- 
federates. In  command  of  the  District 
of  Ohio,  he  confronted  Bragg's  invasion  of 
Kentucky  and  drove  him  out  of  the  State. 
On  Oct.  24  he  transferred  his  command  to 
General  Rosecrans;  was  mustered  out  of 
the  volunteer  seiwice  May  23,  1864;  and 
resigned  his  commission  in  the  regular 
army  June  1,  1865,  when  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Green  River  Iron  Company, 
in  Kentucky.  He  died  near  Roekport, 
Ky.,  Nov.  19,  1898. 

Buena  Vista,  Battle  of.  General 
Taylor  received  such  instructions  from  the 
War  Department  that  he  declared  (Nov. 
13,  1846)  the  armistice  granted  at  Mon- 
terey was  at  an  end.  General  Worth 
marched,  with  900  men,  for  Saltillo,  the 
capital  of  Coahuila,  and  was  followed  the 
next  day  by  Taylor,  who  left  Gen.  W.  0. 
Butler,  with  some  troops,  to  hold  the  con- 
quered city  of  Monterey.  Saltillo  was 
taken  possession  of  on  Nov.  15.  After  sev- 
eral minor  movements,  and  having  been 
deprived  of  a  large  number  of  his  troops 
by  an  order  of  General  Scott  to  send  them 
to  reinforce  an  American  army  that  was 
to  attack  Vera  Cruz,  Taylor  was  forced 
to  act  on  the  defensive  with  about  5,000 
men.  Informed  that  General  Santa  Ana 
(who  had  entered  Mexico  from  his  exile 
in  Cuba,  and  had  been  elected  President  of 
Mexico  in  December)  was  gathering  an 
army  of  20,000  men  at  San  Luis  Potosi, 
Taylor  resolved  to  form  a  junction  with 
General  Wool  (who  had  entered  Mexico 
with  about  3,000  troops,  crossing  the  Rio 
Grande  at  Presidio),  and  fight  the  Mexi- 


cans. He  reached  Saltillo  with  his  little 
army  on  Feb.  2,  1847,  joining  Wool's  forces 
there,  and  encamped  at  Aqua  Nueva,  20 
miles  south  of  that  place,  on  the  San  Luis 
road.  On  hearing  of  the  approach  of  Santa 
Ana  with  his  host,  Taylor  ajid  Wool  fell 
back  to  Angostura,  a  narrow  defile  in  the 
mountains  facing  the  fine  estate  of  Buena 
Vista,  and  there  encamped,  in  battle  order, 
to  await  the  coming  of  their  foe.  Santa 
Ana  and  his  army  were  within  two  miles 
of  Taylor's  camp  on  the  morning  of  Feb. 
22,  when  the  Mexican  chief  sent  a  note 
to  Taylor  telling  him  he  was  surrounded 
by  20,000  men,  and  could  not,  in  all  prob- 
ability, avoid  being  cut  to  pieces;  but  as 
he  held  the  American  commander  in  spe- 
cial esteem,  and  wished  to  save  him  such 
a  catastrophe,  he  gave  him  this  notice, 
that  he  might  surrender  at  discretion.  He 
granted  Taylor  an  hour  to  make  a  deci- 
sion. It  was  soon  made;  for  the  com- 
mander immediately  declined  the  polite  in- 
vitation to  surrender,  and  both  armies 
prepared  to  fight.  The  Americans  waited 
for  the  Mexicans  to  take  the  initiative. 
There  was  slight  skirmishing  all  day,  and 
tliat  night  the  American  troops  bivouacked 
without  fire  and  slept  on  their  arms ;  the 
Mexicans,  in  the  mountains,  meanwhile 
trying  to  form  a  cordon  of  soldiers  around 
the  little  army  of  Taylor  and  Wool,  then 
less  than  5,000  in  number.  The  battle 
began  early  on  the  morning  of  the  23d, 
and  continued  all  day.  The  struggle  was 
terribly  severe;  the  slaughter  was  fear- 
ful ;  and  until  near  sunset  it  was  doubt- 
ful who  would  triumph.  Then  the  Mexi- 
can leader,  performing  the  pitiful  trick 
of  displaying  a  flag  of  truce  to  throw  Tay- 
lor off  his  guard,  made  a  despei'ate  as- 
sault on  the  American  centre,  where  that 
officer  was  in  command  in  person.  The 
batteries  of  Bragg,  Washington,  and  Sher- 
man resisted  the  assault,  and  before  long 
the  Mexican  line  began  to  Avaver.  Tay- 
lor, standing  near  one  of  the  batteries, 
seeing  this  sign  of  weakness,  said,  quietly, 
"  Give  'em  a  little  more  grape.  Captain 
Bragg  "  ( see  Bragg,  Braxton  ) .  It  was 
done,  and  just  at  twilight  the  Mexicans 
gave  way  and  fled  in  considerable  confu- 
sion. Night  closed  the  battle.  Expecting 
it  would  be  resumed  in  the  morning,  the 
Americans  again  slept  on  their  arms,  but 
when  the  day  dawned  no  enemy  was  to  be 


437 


BUFFALO 


seen.  Santa  Ana  had  fallen  back,  and  in 
a  few  days  his  utterly  dispirited  army 
was  almost  dissolved.  In  their  flight  the 
Mexicans  had  left  about  500  of  their  com- 
rades, dead  or  dying,  on  the  field.  With 
these  and  wounded  and  prisoners,  their 
loss  amounted  to  almost  2,000  men ;  that 
of  the  Americans,  in  killed,  Avounded,  and 
missing,  was  746.  Among  the  slain  was 
a  son  of  Henry  Clay.  On  the  day  of  the 
battle  Captain  Webster,  with  a  small  party 
of  Americans,  drove  General  Minon  and 
800  Mexicans  from  Saltillo.  Taylor  re- 
turned to  Wa'lnut  Springs,  where  he  re- 
mained several  months,  and  in  the  autumn 
of  1847  he  returned  home. 

Buffalo,  city,  port  of  entry  and  coun- 
ty' seat  of  Erie  county,  N.  Y. ;  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  Lake  Erie  and  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Erie  Canal;  has 
extensive  lake  commerce  with  all  western 
points,  large  live-stock  and  grain  trade, 
a.nd  important  manufactures;  population 
in  1890,  255,664;   in  1900,  352,387. 

General  Hiall,  with  his  regulars  and 
Indians,    recrossed    from     Lewiston     (see 


was  made  perfect  almost  to  Black  Rock. 
Riall  marched  up  from  Queenston  (Dec. 
28)  to  Chippewa,  Lieutenant-General 
Drummond  in  immediate  command.  By 
this  time  all  western  New  York  had  been 
alarmed.  McClure  had  appealed  to  the 
people  to  hasten  to  the  frontier.  Gen. 
Amos  Hall  called  out  the  militia  and  in- 
vited volunteers.  Hall  took  chief  com- 
mand of  troops  now  gathered  at  Black 
Eoek  and  Builalo,  2,000  strong.  From 
Drummond's  camp,  opposite  Black  Rock, 
Riall  crossed  the  river  (Dec.  30)  with 
about  1,000  white  men  and  Indians.  The 
night  was  dark.  They  drove  the  Ameri- 
cans fi'om  Black  Rock.  The  militia  were 
alarmed,  and  at  dawn  Hall  ascertained 
that  800  of  them  had  deserted.  Hall,  with 
the  rest  of  his  force,  proceeded  to  attack 
the  invaders.  He,  too,  had  a  force  of  Ind- 
ians; but  these,  with  more  of  the  militia, 
soon  gave  way,  and,  the  commander's  force 
broken,  he  was  in  great  jaeril.  Deserted 
by  a  large  portion  of  his  troops,  vastly 
outnumbered,  and  almost  surrounded.  Hall 
was   compelled  to  retreat  and  leave  Buf- 


W  i  i,.f 


■ni\i    PORT   OF    BUFFALO   IN    1813. 


^^''' mSLr-P"^''^ '-^-^i 


Niagara,  Fort),  when  his  forces  had  re-  falo  to  its  fate.  It  Avas  presently  in  pos- 
turned  from  the  desolation  of  the  New  session  of  the  British  and  their  Indian  al- 
York  frontier.  Full  license  had  been  lies,  who  proceeded  to  plunder,  destroy, 
given  to  his   Indians,   and   the   desolation    and  slaughter.     Only  four  buildings  were 

438 


BUFFALO    HILL— BUFORD 


A   VIEW   OF    BUFFALO'S    WATERFROJiT   TO-DAY. 


left  standing  in  the  village.  At  Black  dier-general  in  1889.  From  1881  till  1892 
Kock  only  a  single  building  escaped  the  he  was  in  charge  of  the  national  armory 
flames.    Four  vessels  which  had  done  good    at  Springfield,  Mass.  General  Buflington  is 


service  on  Lake  Erie — the  Ariel,  Little 
Belt,  Chippewa,  and  Trippe — were  burned; 
and  so  were  completed  the  measures  of  re- 
taliation for  the  burning  of  Newark.  Six 
villages,  many  isolated  country-houses, 
and  four  vessels  were  consumed,  and  the 
butchery  of  many  innocent  persons  attest- 


the  inventor  of  a  magazine  fire-arm,  car- 
riages for  light  and  heavy  ordnance,  and 
the  nitre  and  manganese  method  for  bluing 
iron  and  the  steel  surface  of  small-arms. 

Bufl&ngton  Island,  Battle  at.  On 
July  19,  1863,  six  regiments  of  Kentucky 
volunteers,    three    of    Michigan,    three    of 


ed    the   fierceness    of    the    revenge   of   the  Ohio,  one  of  Indiana,  and  one  of  Tennes- 


British.     See  Pan-American  Exhibition. 

Buffalo  Hill,  Battle  at.  On  Oct.  4, 
1861,  there  was  a  spirited  engagement  at 
Buffalo  Hill,  Ky.,  between  the  National 
and  Confederate  forces,  in  which  the  Na- 
tionals lost  twenty  killed,  and  the  Confed- 
erates fifty.  The  organizations  that  took 
part  in  this  engagement  are  not  recorded. 

Bufl&ngton,  Adelbert  Rinaldo,  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Wheeling,  Va.,  Nov. 
22,  1837;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1861,  and  com- 
missioned brevet  second  lieutenant  in  the 


see,  comprising  infantry  and  cavalry,  to- 
gether with  several  gimboats,  had  aii  en- 
gagement at  Buffington  Island,  known 
also  as  St.  George's  Creek,  0.,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  capture  of  the  Confederate 
raiders  under  John  H.  Morgan  (g.  v.). 

Buford,  Abraham,  military  officer; 
born  in  Virginia;  became  colonel  of  the 
11th  Virginia  Regiment,  May  16,  1778. 
In  May,  1780,  when  his  command,  hasten- 
ing to  the  relief  of  Lincoln  at  Charleston, 
heard  of  his  surrender,  they  returned 
towards    North    Carolina.     Buford's    com- 


ordnance  department;   and  was  appointed    mand  consisted  of  nearly  400  Continental 
chief  of  ordnance  with  the  rank  of  briga-    infantrv,   a   small   detachment   of   Colonel 

439 


BUFORD— BULL    KUN 


Washington's  cavalry,  and  two  field-pieces. 
He  had  reached  Camden  in  safety,  and 
was  retreating  leisurely  towards  Char- 
lotte, when  Colonel  Tarleton,  with  700 
rnen,  all  mounted,  sent  in  pursuit  by 
Cornwallis,  overtook  Buford  upon  the 
VVaxhaw  Creek.  Tarleton  had  mai-clied  100 
miles  in  fifty-four  hours.  With  only  his 
cavalry — the  remainder  were  mounted  in- 
fantry— he  almost  surrounded  Buford  be- 
fore that  officer  was  aware  of  danger,  and 
demanded  an  instant  surrender  upon  the 
terms  given  to  the  Americans  at  Charles- 
ton. These  Avere  too  humiliating,  and 
Buford  refused  compliance.  While  flags 
for  the  conference  were  passing  and  re- 
passing, Tarleton,  contrary  to  the  rules 
of  warfare,  was  making  preparations  for 
an  attack  in  case  of  refusal.  The  in- 
stant he  received  Buford's  reply,  his  cav- 
alry made  a  furious  charge  upon  the 
American  ranks  ( May  29 ) .  The  assailed 
troops  were  dismayed  by  an  attack  under 
such  circumstances,  and  all  was  confu- 
sion. Some  fired  upon  their  assailants, 
others  threw  down  their  arms  and  begged 
for  quarter.  None  was  given,  and  men 
without  arms  were  hewn  to  pieces  by 
the  sabres  of  Tarleton's  cavalry.  There 
"were  113  slain;  and  150  were  so  maimed 
as  to  be  unable  to  travel,  and  fifty-three 
were  made  prisoners  to  grace  the  trium- 
phal entry  of  the  conqueror  into  Camden. 
Only  five  of  the  British  were  killed  and 
fifteen  wounded.  All  of  Buford's  artil- 
lery, ammunition,  and  baggage  became 
spoil  for  the  enemy.  For  this  savage  feat 
Cornwallis  eulogized  Tarleton,  and  com- 
mended him  to  the  ministers  as  worthy 
of  special  favor.  Afterwards,  "  Tarleton's 
quarter "  became  a  proverbial  synonym 
for  cruelty.  Stedman,  one  of  Cornwallis's 
officers,  and  a  historian  of  the  war,  wrote, 
"  On  this  occasion  the  virtue  of  humanity 
was  totally  forgotten."  Colonel  Buford 
died  in  Scott  county,  Ky.,  June  29,  1833. 

Buford,  .John,  military  officer;  born  in 
Kentucky  in  1825:  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1848;  became  captain  in  1859: 
and  inspector-general,  with  the  rank  of 
major,  November,  1861.  He  commanded 
a  brigade  of  cavalry  under  General  Hook- 
er, and  was  so  severely  wounded  near  the 
Rappahannock  (August,  1862)  that  he 
was  reported  dead.  In  the  battle  of  An- 
tietam    he    was    on    General    McClellan's 


staff.  He  was  conspicuous  in  many  en- 
gagements while  in  command  of  the  re- 
serve cavalry  brigade,  and  he  began  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg  {q.  v.).  He  was 
chief  of  Burnside's  cavalry,  and  was  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
the  Cumberland  just  before  his  death  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  Dec.  16,  1863.— His 
half  -  brother,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  Bu- 
ford (born  in  Woodford  county,  Ky.,  Jan. 
13,  1807),  was  also  graduated  at  West 
Point,  and  entered  the  artillery.  He  was 
a  pupil  in  the  Law  School  of  Harvard 
University;  Professor  of  Natural  Phi- 
losophy at  West  Point;  but  retired  to 
civil  pursuits  in  1835.  Engaging  first  as 
colonel  in  the  Union  army  in  1861,  he 
served  well  during  the  continuance  of  the 
strife,  and  was  brevetted  major-general  of 
volunteers  in  March,  1865.  He  died 
March  2S,  1883. 

Buford,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  military 
officer;  born  in  Woodford  county,  Ky., 
Jan.  13,  1807;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  1827; 
and  served  for  several  years  on  surveying 
duty;  subsequently  resigning  and  entering 
civil  life.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out 
he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  27th 
Illinois  Volunteers;  served  through  the 
war;  was  brevetted  major-general  of  vol- 
unteers March  13,  1865.  He  died  March 
28,  1883. 

Bulacan,  a  Philippine  town  on  the 
island  of  Luzon,  a  few  miles  northwest  of 
Manila.  Its  population  is  mostly  native, 
and  the  town  is  chiefly  engaged  in  sugar- 
boiling,  although  there  are  several  other 
industrial  plants.  Bulacan  was  consider- 
ed a  place  of  considerable  strategic  im- 
portance by  the  Filipino  insurgents  after 
they  had  -been  driven  from  the  immediate 
suburbs  of  Manila,  and  because  of  this 
fact  Avas  the  scene  of  considerable  mili- 
tary activity  after  the  American  troops 
began  their  remarkable  chase  after  Agui- 
naldo.  Earl}^  in  1900  the  town  was  under 
complete  American  control,  and  a  mili- 
tary post  was  established  there. 

Bull  Run,  Battles  of.  The  gathering 
of  Confederate  troops  at  Manassas 
Junction  {q.  v.)  required  prompt  and  vig- 
orous movements  for  the  defence  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  Beauregard  was  there  with 
the  main  Confederate  army,  and  Gen.  J. 
E.    Johnston   was   at   Winchester,   in   the 


440 


BULL    RUN 


Shenandoah  Valley,  with  a  large  body  of  fiercely.  Hard  pressed,  Evans's  line  be- 
troops,  with  which  he  might  reinforce  the  gan  to  waver,  when  General  Bee  advanced 
former.  Gen.  Robert  Patterson  was  at  with  fresh  troops,  and  gave  it  strength. 
Martinsburg  ^yith  18,000  Nationals  to  keep  Then  the  National  line  began  to  tremble, 
Johnston  at  Winchester,  Gen.  Irvin  Mc-  when  Col.  Andrew  Porter  sent  a  battalion 
Dowell  was  in  command  of  the  Depart-  of  regulars  under  Major  Sykes  to  strength- 
ment  of  Virginia,  with  his  headquarters  en  it.  More  fiercely  the  battle  raged.  Gen- 
at  Arlington  House;  and,  at  about  eral  Hunter  was  severely  wounded.  Colo- 
the  middle  of  July,  1861,  he  was  ordered  nel  Slocum,  of  the  Rhode  Island  troops, 
to  move  against  the  Confederates.  With  was  killed,  when  Sprague,  the  youthful 
20,000  troops  he  marched  from  Arlington  governor  of  the  commonwealth,  took  com- 
Heights  (July  16),  for  the  purpose  of  mand  of  his  troops.  The  wearied  Na- 
flanking  the  Confederate  right  wing.  A  tionals,  who  had  been  on  their  feet  since 
part  of  his  troops  under  General  Tyler  midnight,  began  to  flag,  when  they  were 
had  a  severe  battle  with  them  at  Black-  reinforced  by  troops  under  Heintzelman, 
burn's  Ford  (July  18),  and  were  repulsed  Sherman,  and  Corcoran.  A  charge  made 
(see  Blackburn's  Ford,  Battle  of),  by  a  New  York  regiment,  under  Col. 
McDowell  found  he  could  not  flank  the  Henry  W.  Slocum  (g.  v.),  shattered  the 
Confederates,  so  he  proceeded  to  make  a  bending  Confederate  line,  and  the  troops 
direct  attack  upon  them,  not  doubting  fled  in  confusion  to  a  plateau  whereon 
Patterson  would  be  able  to  keep  Johnston  Gen.  T.  J.  Jackson  had  just  arrived  with 
in  the  valley.  On  the  morning  of  July  21,  reserves.  The  flight  was  checked,  and  or- 
McDowell's  forces  were  set  in  motion  in  der  was  brought  out  of  confusion, 
three  columns,  one  under  General  Tyler  Alarmed  by  this  show  of  unsuspected 
on  the  Warrenton  road,  to  make  a  feigned  strength  in  the  Nationals,  Johnston,  who 
attack,  and  the  other  two,  commanded  re-  had  arrived  and  taken  the  chief  command, 
spectively  by  Generals  Hunter  and  Heint-  looked  anxiously  towards  the  mountain 
zelman,  taking  a  wide  circuit  more  to  the  gaps  through  which  he  expected  more  of 
left,  to  cross  Bull  Run  at  different  points  his  troops  from  the  Shenandoah  Valley, 
and  make  a  real  attack  on  Beauregard's  Without  these  he  had  small  hopes  of  sue- 
left  wing,  which  was  to  be  menaced  by  Ty-  cess.  There  had  been  a  lull  in  the  con- 
ler.  The  Confederate  right  was  to  be  flict;  and  at  2  p.m.  it  was  announced 
threatened  by  troops  under  Colonels  Rich-  they  were  not  in  sight.  At  that  time  the 
ardson  and  Davies,  moving  from  Centre-  Confederates  had  10,000  soldiers  and 
ville.  These  movements  were  all  executed,  twenty-two  heavy  guns  in  battle  order 
but  with  so  much  delay  that  it  was  nearly  on  the  plateau.  The  Nationals  proceed- 
noon  before  the  battle  began.  ed  to  attempt  to  drive  them  from  this 
Meanwhile  -the  Confederates  had  made  vantage-ground.  To  accomplish  this,  five 
a  movement  unknown  to  McDowell.  The  brigades— Porter's,  Howard's,  Franklin's, 
Confederate  government,  just  seated  at  Wilcox's,  and  Sherman's — with  the  bat- 
Richmond,  hearing  of  the  movements  of  teries  of  Ricketts,  Griffin,  and  Arnold,  and 
the  Nationals,  immediately  ordered  John-  cavalry  under  Major  Palmer,  advanced  to 
ston  to  hasten  from  the  valley,  and  rein-  turn  the  Confederate  left,  while  Keyes's 
force  Beauregard.  This  was  done  at  noon  brigade  was  sent  to  annoy  them  on  their 
(July  20)  with  6,000  fresh  troops.  Hunt-  right.  General  Heintzelman  accompanied 
er's  column  crossed  Bull  Run  at  Sudley  McDowell  as  his  lieutenant  in  the  field, 
Church,  led  by  General  Burnside,  with  and  his  division  began  the  attack.  Rick- 
Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  and  Massa-  etts  and  Griffin  advanced  with  their  troops, 
chusetts  troops.  Soon  after  crossing,  it  and  planted  their  batteries  on  an  eleva- 
encountered  the  Confederates,  and  a  bat-  tion  that  commanded  the  whole  plateau, 
tie  ensued  in  open  fields.  The  batteries  with  the  immediate  support  of  Ellsworth's 
of  Griffin  and  Reynolds  were  brought  to  Fire  Zouaves,  commanded  by  Colonel  Farn- 
bear  by  the  Nationals.  Only  a  small  ham.  To  the  left  of  these  batteries.  New 
stream  in  a  little  vale  separated  the  com-  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Minnesota  troops 
batants.  The  Confederates  were  led  by  took  a  position.  As  the  artillery  and  the 
Colonel   Evans.     The   contest   raged  most  Zouaves  were  advancing,  they  Avere  sud- 

441 


BULL    RUN 


denly  attacked  on  the  flank  by  Alabam- 
ians  in  ambush,  and  then  by  Stuart's 
Black  Horse  Cavalry  in  the  rear,  and  the 
Zouaves  recoiled.  At  that  moment  Heint- 
zelman  ordered  up  a  Minnesota  regiment 
to  support  the  batteries,  when  the  Con- 
federates in  overwhelminsr  force  delivered 


Confederates  lost  over  2,000.  The  Nation- 
als lost  twenty-seven  cannon,  ten  of  which 
were  captured  on  the  field,  and  the  remain- 
der were  abandoned  in  the  flight  to  Centre- 
ville.  They  took  only  a  single  cannon  in 
safety  to  Centreville.  They  also  lost  many 
small-arms  and  a  large  quantity  of  muni- 


•-.  .^Sr^^^ii'^^ 


BATTLE    OF    BULL    RUN. 


a  fire  on  these  guns  that  disabled  them 
by  prostrating  the  men.  Both  sides  suf- 
fered dreadfully. 

When  Johnston  heard  of  the  slaughter, 
he  exclaimed,  "  Oh,  for  four  regiments ! " 
It  was  now  three  o'clock.  His  wish  was 
more  than  gratified.  Just  then  he  saw  a 
cloud  of  dust  in  the  direction  of  the 
Manassas  Gap  Railroad.  It  was  a  part  of 
his  troops,  4,000  strong,  from  the  valley, 
under  Gen.  E.  Kirby  Smith.  They  were 
immediately  ordered  into  action,  Avhen  the 
Confederates,  so  reinforced,  struck  the  ISTa- 
tionals  a  stunning  blow,  just  as  the  latter 
w-ere  about  to  grasp  the  palm  of  victory. 
It  was  so  unexpected,  lieavy,  and  overpow- 
ering that  in  fifteen  minutes  the  Nation- 
als were  swept  from  the  plateau.  As  reg- 
iment after  regiment  gave  way,  and  hur- 
ried towards  the  turnpike  in  confusion, 
panic  seized  others,  and  at  4  P.M.  the 
greater  portion  of  the  National  army  was 
flying  across  Bull  Run  towards  Centre- 
ville— leaving  behind  them  over  3,000  men, 
killed,  wounded,  or  made  prisoners.     The 


tions  of  war,  and  medicine  and  hospital 
supplies.  The  Nationals  were  pursued 
some  distance.  Had  the  Confederates 
pressed  on  after  the  panic-stricken  fugi- 
tives, the  coveted  prize  of  the  national 
capital,  with  all  its  treasures,  might  have 
been  won  by  them  within  twenty  -  four 
hours.  Johnston  had  escaped  from  Patter- 
son, reinforced  Beauregard  at  a  critical 
moment,  and  won  a  great  victory  through 
the  foi-getfulness  of  Lieutenant  -  General 
Scott,  who  had  given  Patterson  positive 
directions  not  to  move  until  he  should  re- 
ceive further  orders.  These  the  command- 
ing general  forgot  to  send!  Patterson 
knew  of  Johnston's  movement,  but  his  or- 
ders to  wait  were  imperative.  The  first 
he  heard  of  the  disaster  at  Bull  Run  was 
through  a  morning  paper  from  Philadel- 
phia, on  July  22. 

The  result  of  the  battle  was  published 
with  great  exaggeration  on  both  sides. 
It  produced  unbounded  joy  among  the 
Confederates  and  their  friends,  and  the 
loyal  people  were,  at  first,  greatly  depress- 


44^ 


BULL   RUN 


ed  by  it.  While  the  Confederates  were  States  is  worthless  as  a  military  organ- 
elated  beyond  measure,  by  the  evidence  ization,  ...  a  screaming  crowd " ;  and 
the  battle  seemed  to  give  of  their  superior  spoke  of  it  as  a  collection  of  "  New  York 
skill  and  courage,  and  thousands  flocked  rowdies  and  Boston  abolitionists  desolat- 
to  the  standard  of  revolt  from  all  parts  ing  the  villages  of  Virginia." 
of  the  Southei'n  States,  the  loyalists  were  The  depression  of  spirits  among  the 
stunned  by  the  great  disaster,  and  the  loyal  people  was,  however,  only  momen- 
75,000  men,  whose  three  months'  term  of  tary.  Within  a  few  days  they  were  buoy- 
service  was  about  to  expire,  were,  for  ant  with  faith  and  hope.  There  was  a 
the  moment,  made  eager  to  leave  the  field,  second  uprising  of  the  friends  of  free 
and  return  home.  The  President  of  the  institutions  more  marvellous  than  the 
Confederacy,  who  arrived  at  Manassas  just  first.  Volunteers  flocked  to  the  standard 
after  the  victory,  made  an  exultant  speech  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes  by  thousands, 
at  Richmond,  now  become  its  capital,  and  The  Confederates  were  amazed  by  the 
said  to  the  multitude,  when  referring  to  the  spectacle,  and  did  not  venture  near  the 
vanquished,  with  bitter  scorn,  "  Never  be  capital  in  force,  where  loyal  regiments 
haughty  to  the  humble " ;  and  predicted  "were  continually  arriving.  Five  days 
that  the  national  capital  would  soon  be  after  the  battle,  Secretary  Seward  wrote 
in  their  possession.  While  the  streets  to  Minister  Adams  in  London:  "Our  Army 
of  Richmond  were  populous  with  prison-  of  the  Potomac,  on  Sunday  last,  met  a  re- 
ers  from  the  vanquished  army,  and  eager  verse  equally  severe  and  unexpected.  For 
volunteers  were  pressing  forward  towards  a  day  or  two  the  panic  which  had  pro- 
the  camps  of  the  victors  at  Manassas,  the  duced  the  result  was  followed  by  a  panic 
streets  of  Washington  were  crowded  with  that  seemed  to  threaten  to  demoralize  the 
a  discomfited  and  disheartened  soldiery,  country.  But  that  evil  has  ceased  en- 
without  leaders  and  without  organiza-  tirely.  The  result  is  already  seen  in  a 
tion — the  personification  of  the  crushed  vigorous  reconstruction  upon  a  scale  of 
hopes  of  the  loyal  people.  Such  was  the  greater  magnitude  and  increased  cnthu- 
sad  picture  of  the  situation  of  the  re-  siasm."  The  Pennsylvania  reserves  were 
public,  much  exaggerated,  which  was  pre-  transferred  to  the  National  army  atWash- 
sented  to  Europe  in  August,  1861.  The  in-  ington.  The  government  and  people  were 
telligence  was  given  first  to  Europe  satisfied  that  a  long  and  desperate  strug- 
through  The  Times  of  London — the  accred-  gle  was  before  them,  and  they  put  forth 
ited  exponent  of  the  political  and  social  most  extraordinary  energies  to  meet  the 
opinions  of  the  ruling  class  in  England —  crisis.  On  the  contrary,  when,  the  shouts 
by  the  pen  of  Dr.  Russell,  its  war-corre-  of  victory  having  died  away,  and  the 
spondent  in  the  United  States.  He  did  not  smoke  of  battle  dissipated,  the  people  of 
see  the  battle,  and  his  account  was,  in  a  the  Confederacy  saw  their  victorious  army 
great  degree,  a  tale  of  the  imagination,  immovable  at  Manassas  and  indisposed 
It  excited  among  the  ruling  classes  a  de-  to  follow  up  their  triumph,  they  were 
rision  of  the  government  and  loyal  people  filled  with  apprehensions,  and  a  feeling 
of  the  United  States,  and  gratified  the  op-  akin  to  despondency  took  possession  of  the 
ponents  of  republicanism.  To  them  the  hearts  of  the  Southern  people. 
ruin  of  the  great  republic  of  the  west  The  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  (or 
seemed  to  be  a  fact  accomplished.  Eng-  Manassas)  was  fought  on  Aug.  29,  30, 
lish  statesmen  and  journalists  dogmatical-  1862,  the  fighting  on  the  first  day  being 
ly  asserted  it,  and  deplored  the  folly  and  sometimes  called  the  battle  of  Groveton 
wickedness  of  the  President  and  Congress  [q.  v.).  On  the  morning  after  the  battle 
in  "  waging  war  upon  sovereign  States,"  at  Groveton,  Pope's  army  was  greatly  re- 
and  attempting  to  hold  in  union,  by  force,  duced.  It  had  failed  to  prevent  the  unity 
a  people  who  "  had  the  right  and  the  de-  of  Lee's  army,  and  prudence  dictated  its 
sire  to  withdraw  from  a  hated  fellowship."  immediate  flight  across  Bull  Run,  and 
It  was  declared  that  "the  bubble  of.de-  even  to  the  defences  of  Washington.  But 
mocracy  had  burst."  The  London  Times  Pope  determined  to  resume  the  battle  the 
said  (Aug.  13),  "It  is  evident  that  the  next  morning.  He  had  received  no  rein- 
whole    volunteer    army    of    the    Northern  foreements  or  supplies  since  the  26th,  and 

443 


BULL    RUN— BUNKER   HitL 


had  no  positive  assurance  that  any  would 
be  sent.  He  confidently  expected  rations 
and  forage  from  McClellan  at  Alexandria 
(a  short  distance  away),  who  was  to  sup- 
ply them;  and  it  was  not  until  the  morn- 
ing of  the  30th  (August,  1862),  when  it  was 
too  late  to  retreat  and  perilous  to  stand 
still,  that  he  received  information  that 
rations  and  forage  would  be  sent  as  soon 
as  he  (Pope)  should  send  a  cavalry  escort 
for  the  train — a  thing  impossible.  He 
had  no  alternative  but  to  fight.  Both  com- 
manders had  made  dispositions  for  attack 
in  the  morning.  Lee's  movements  gave 
Pope  the  impression  that  the  Confederates 
were  retreating,  and  he  ordered  McDowell 
to  pursue  with  a  large  force,  Porter's 
forces  to  advance  and  attack  them,  and 
Heintzelman  and  Reno,  supported  by 
Ricketts's  division,  were  ordered  to  assail 
and  turn  the  Confederate  left.  This 
movement,  when  attempted,  revealed  a 
state  of  affairs  fearful  to  the  National 
army.  The  latter,  as  their  advance  moved 
forward,  were  opened  upon  by  a  fierce 
fire  of  cannon,  shot,  shell,  and  bullets, 
and  at  the  same  moment  a  large  number 
of  Lee's  troops  were  making  a  flank  move- 
ment that  might  imperil  the  whole  of 
Pope's  army.  A  very  severe  battle  soon 
occurred.  Porter's  corps,  which  had  re- 
coiled at  the  unexpected  blow,  was  rallied, 
and  performed  specially  good  service;  and 
Jackson's  advanced  line  was  steadily 
pushed  back  until  five  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon, when  Longstreet  turned  the  tide 
of  battle  by  pouring  a  destructive  artil- 
lery fire  upon  the  Nationals.  Line  after 
line  was  swept  away,  and  very  soon  the 
whole  left  was  put  to  flight.  Jackson  ad- 
vanced, and  Longstreet  pushed  his  heavy 
columns  against  Pope's  centre,  while  the 
Confederate  artillery  was  doing  fearful 
execution.  The  left  of  the  Nationals, 
though  pushed  back,  was  unbroken,  and 
held  the  Warrenton  pike,  by  which  alone 
Pope's  army  might  safely  retreat.  Pope 
had  now  no  alternative  but  to  fall  back 
towards  the  defences  at  Washington.  At 
eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  he  gave  orders 
to  that  eff"ect.  This  movement  was  made 
during  the  night,  across  Bull  Run,  to  the 
heights  of  Centreville,  the  brigades  of 
Meade  and  Seymour  covering  the  retreat. 
The  night  was  very  dark,  and  Lee  did  not 
pursue;    and   in   the   morning    (Aug.    31) 


Bull  Run  again  divided  the  two  great  ar- 
mies. So  ended  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run. 

Bulwer-Clayton  Treaty.  See  Clay- 
TON-BuLWER  Treaty. 

Bummers,  Sherman's,  a  derisive  name 
applied  in  the  South  to  the  army  under 
General  Sherman,  which  made  the  mem- 
orable march  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea. 
See  Sherman,  William  Tecumseh. 

Bimcom.be,  mere  talk,  or  speaking  for 
the  gratification  of  constituents.  It  is 
said  the  word  received  this  meaning  from 
a  remark  of  Felix  Walker,  representative 
to  Congress  from  North  Carolina,  1817- 
23.  While  making  a  speech  in  the  Mis- 
souri compromise  debates  with  little  rele- 
vancy, as  the  House  thought,  he  asserted 
it  did  not  matter,  as  he  was  "  making  a 
speech  for  Buncombe,"  one  of  the  counties 
he  represented. 

Bunker  Hill,  Battle  of.  By  rein- 
forcements from  England  and  Ireland, 
Ccneral  Gage's  army  in  Boston,  at  the 
close  of  May,  1775,  was  10,000  strong. 
With  the  reinforcements  came  Gens.  Will- 
iam Howe,  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  and  John 
Burgoyne,  three  officers  experienced  in  the 
military  tactics  of  Europe,  but  little  pre- 
pared for  service  in  America.  Thus 
strengthened.  Gage  issued  a  proclamation 
(June  12)  of  martial  law,  and  offering 
pardon  to  all  who  should  return  to  their 
allegiance,  except  Samuel  Adams  and  John 
Hancock.  At  that  time  the  New  England 
army  before  Boston  numbered  about  16,- 
000  men,  divided  into  thirty-six  regiments, 
of  which  Massachusetts  furnished  twenty- 
seven,  and  the  other  three  New  England 
colonies  three  each.  John  W^hitcomb,  a 
colonel  in  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
and  Joseph  Warren,  president  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Congress,  were  appointed  (June 
15)  major-generals  of  the  Massachusetts 
forces.  These  provincial  troops  completely 
blockaded  Boston  on  the  land  side,  and 
efl'ectively  held  the  British  troops  as 
prisoners  on  the  peninsula.  Gen.  Artemas 
Ward,  the  military  head  of  Massachusetts, 
was  regarded,  by  common  consent,  as  the 
commander-in-chief  of  this  New  England 
army.  The  Americans  had  thrown  up  only 
n  few  breastworks — a  small  redoubt  at 
Roxbury,  and  some  breastworks  at  the 
foot  of  Prospect  Hill,  in  Cambridge.  The 
right  wing  of  the  besieging  army,  under 


444 


VIEWING    THE    BATTLE    OF    BUNKER    HILL 


BUNKER     HILL 


Gen.  John  Thomas,  was  at  Roxbury,  con-  by  a  few  reinforcements  thrown  into 
si  sting  of  4,000  Massachusetts  troops,  Charlestown  at  the  southern  slope  of  the 
four  artillery  companies,  a  few  field-  hill.  On  the  left  a  fortification  against 
pieces,  and  some  heavy  cannon.  The  musket  -  balls,  composed  of  a  rail  -  fence 
Rhode  Island  forces  were  at  Jamaica  and  new  -  mown  hay,  was  hastily  con- 
Plain,  under  General  Greene,  with  a  regi-  structed,  almost  at  the  moment  of  at- 
ment   of    Connecticut    troops    under    Gen-  tack. 

eral  Spencer.  General  Ward  commanded  The  British  clearly  saw  their  impending 
the  left  wing  at  Cambridge.  The  Con-  danger,  and,  to  thwart  it,  picked  corps  of 
necticut  and  New  Hampshire  troops  were  their  army,  3,000  strong,  led  by  Generals 
in  the  vicinity.  Howe  and  Pigot,  embarked  in  boats  from 
It  was  made  known  to  the  committee  the  wharves  in  Boston,  and  landed  at  the 
of  safety  that  General  Gage  had  fixed  eastern  base  of  Breed's  Hill.  Meanwhile 
upon  the  night  of  the  ISth  of  June  to  the  troops  who  had  worked  all  night  aiid 
sally  out  and  take  possession  of  and  forti-  half  of  a  hot  June  day  in  throwing  up  in- 
fy  Bunker  Hill  (an  elevation  not  far  from  trenchments  on  Breed's  Hill  were  not  re- 
Charlestown)  :  also  Dorchester  Heights,  lieved  by  others,  as  they  should  have  been, 
south  of  Boston.  Both  of  these  points  Colonel  Prescott,  at  first,  did  not  believe 
would  command  the  town.  The  eager  the  British  would  attack  his  redoubt;  and 
provincials  determined  to  anticipate  this  when  he  saw  the  movement  in  the  town  he 
movement,  and  the  Massachusetts  com-  felt  assured  that  he  could  easily  repulse 
mittee  of  safety  ordered  Col.  William  any  assailants,  and  it  was  nine  o'clock 
Prescott  to  march,  on  the  evening  of  the  before  he  applied  to  General  Ward  for 
16th,  with  1,000  men,  including  a  com-  reinforcements.  Putnam  had  urged,  early 
pany  of  artillery,  with  two  field-pieces,  in  the  morning,  the  sending  of  troops, 
to  take  possession  of  and  fortify  Bunker  ^\'ard,  believing  Cambridge  to  be  the 
Hill.  This  force,  after  a  prayer  by  Presi-  point  of  attack,  Avould  not  consent  to 
dent  Langdon,  of  Harvard,  passed  over  sending  more  than  a  part  of  Stark's 
Charlestown  Neck;  but,  going  by  Bunker  New  Hampshire  regiment  at  first.  Final- 
Hill,  they  ascended  Breed's  Hill  (much  l.y,the  remainder  was  sent;  also, the  whole 
nearer  Boston),  where  they  had  a  better  of  Colonel  Reed's  regiment  on  Charles- 
command  of  the  town  and  the  shipping,  town  Neck  was  ordered  to  reinforce  Pres- 
They  had  been  joined  on  the  way  by  cott.  General  Putnam  was  on  the  field. 
Major  Brooks  and  General  Putnam,  and  by  but  without  troops  or  command.  The 
wagons  laden  with  intrenching  tools.  The  same  was  the  case  with  General  Warren, 
patriot  troops  worked  incessantly  all  night  who  hastened  to  the  scene  of  action  when 
under  the  skilful  engineer  Gridley,  and  at  the  conflict  began.  Stark's  regiment  took 
dawn  a  redoubt  about  8  rods  square,  a  position  on  the  left  of  the  unfinished 
flanked  on  the  right  by  a  breastwork  which  breastwork,  but  200  yards  in  the  rear, 
extended  northwardly  to  marshy  land,  and  under  imperfect  cover,  made  by  pull- 
met  the  bewildered  and  astonished  gaze  ing  up  a  rail-fence,  making  parallel  lines 
of  the  sentinels  on  the  British  shipping  with  the  rails,  and  filling  the  intervening 
in  the  Charles  River.  The  guns  of  spaces  with  new-mown  hay. 
their  vessels  were  immediately  brought  to  At  a  little  past  three  o'clock  in  the 
bear  upon  the  redoubt  on  Breed's  Hill,  afternoon  Howe's  great  guns  moved  tow- 
and  the  noise  of  the  cannonade  aroused  ards  the  redoubt  and  opened  fire  upon  the 
the  sleepers  in  Boston.  The  Americans  on  works.  They  were  followed  by  the  troops 
Breed's  Hill  continued  their  work  imtil  in  two  columns,  commanded  respectively  by 
eleven  o'clock  on  that  very  hot  June  morn-  Howe  and  Pigot.  The  guns  on  the  Brit- 
ing,  under  an  incessant  shower  of  shot  and  ish  ships,  and  a  battery  on  Copp's  Hill, 
shell,  with  a  scanty  supply  of  provisions,  in  Boston,  hurled  random  shots  in  abun- 
after  having  worked  all  night.  Putnam  dance  on  the  Americans  on  Breed's  Hill, 
had  removed  the  intrenching  tools  at  The  occupants  of  the  redoubt  kept  silent 
noon  to  Bunker  Hill  for  the  purpose  of  until  the  enemy  had  approached  very 
easting  up  intrenchments  there,  and  the  near,  when,  at  the  word  "Fire!"  1,500  of 
right  flank  of  Prescott  was  strengthened  the  concealed  patriots  suddenly  arose  and 

445 


BUNKER  HILL— BUNKER  HILL  MONUMENT 

poured  such  a  destructive  storm  of  bullets  floating   batteries    on    the    Charles    River 

upon  the  climbers  of  the  green  slope  that  but    received    very    little    hurt.     Of    the 

whole  platoons,  and  even  companies  were  3,000     British     troops    engaged     in     the 

prostrated.     Flags  fell  to  the  ground  like  fight,    1,054    were    killed    or    wounded— a 

tall   lilies   in   a   meadow.      The   assailants  proportionate   loss  which   few  battles   can 

fell    back    to    the   shore,    and    a    shout   of  show.      The    loss    of    the    provincials   was 

triumph  went  up  from  the  redoubt.   .  Some  450,    killec     and    wounded.      Among    the 


scattering  shots  had  come  from  the 
houses  at  Charlestown;  and  Gage, 
infuriated  by  the  repulse,  gave  orders 
to  send  combustibles  into  that  vil- 
lage and  set  it  on  fire.  It  was  done, 
and  soon  the  town  Avas  in  flames. 
This  conflagration  added 
new    horrors    to    the    scene. 


BUNKER   HILL  MONUMENT    AND  PLAN   OF   BATTLE. 


former  was  General 
Warren,  whose  loss 
was  irreparable.  He 
came  to  the  redoubt 
without  command,  and 
did  not  take  it  from 
Prescott.  He  fell,  as 
he  was  leaving  the  re- 
doubt, from  the  effects 
of   a   bullet-wound. 

The  result  of  the  bat- 
tle was  a  substantial 
victory  for  the  Ameri- 
cans. They  failed  only 
because  their  ammuni- 
tion failed.  It  tested 
the  ability  of  the  pro- 
vincial army  to  meet 
a  British  force  in  the 
field;  and  so  unsatis- 
factory was  the  battle 
to  the  British  minis- 
ti-y,  that  Gage  was  su- 
perseded in  command 
by  General  Howe.  The 
general  impression  at 
The  British  again  advanced,  and  were  the  time  was  that  the  battle  was  on  Bunk- 
again  driven  back  to  their  landing-jjlace.  er  Hill,  and  so  it  figures  in  history  as 
Then  General  Clinton  passed  over  from  the  "  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill."  It  was 
Boston  to  aid  Howe  and  Pigot,  and  the  fought  on  Breed's  Hill,  some  distance 
troops  were  led  to  the  assault  a  third  from  the  former.  The  battle  was  seen  by 
time.  The  powder  of  the  provincials,  thousands  who  were  on  the  neighboring  hills 
scanty  at  the  beginning,  now  failed.  Some  and  the  roofs  and  balconies  in  Boston.  The 
British  artillery  planted  pieces  near  the  battle  lasted  about  two  hours, 
breastwork  and  swept  it  from  end  to  end.  Bunker  Hill  Monument.  The  corner- 
while  grenadiers  assailed  the  redoubt  on  stone  of  this  monument  was  laid  on  the 
three  sides  at  once  and  carried  it  at  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle  (June 
point  of  the  bayonet.  Stark,  meanwhile,  17,  1825),  in  the  presence  of  a  vast  mul- 
had  kept  the  British  at  bay  at  the  rail-  titude  of  people.  Lafayette,  then  on  a 
fence  until  the  redoubt  was  carried,  after  visit  to  the  United  States,  was  present, 
which  all  of  the  surviving  provincials  fled  and  Daniel  Webster  delivered  an  oration, 
in  good  order  across  Charlestown  Neck,  The  monument  is  an  obelisk,  and  stands 
enfiladed  by  the  fire  from  the  vessels  and    in  the  centre  of  the  ground,  on  Breed's  Hill, 

included  in  the  old  breastwork.     Its  sides 

*  On  the  right  of  the  plan  of  the  battle    are   precisely   parallel    with   those   of   the 

is  seen  a  picture  of  the  granite  obelisk  erected    redoubt.     It    is    built    of    Quincy   granite. 

over  the  site  of  the  redoubt.     The  form  of  the    ^^^    .^   321    feet   in  height.     The   base   of 

redoubt  is  seen  m  the  diagram  A  in  the  map.  ,    t  i     •      or>   j^     j. 

The  entrance  to  it  was  at  a.  which  was  on    the  obelisk  is  30  feet  square,  and  at  the 
the  end  towards  Charlestown  ISJ^eclj.  spring  of  the  apex   15   feet.     By  a  flight 

446 


BURBECK— BURGOYNE 


of  295  stone  steps,  within  the  obelisk, 
its  top  may  be  reached.  A  chamber  at  the 
top  has  four  windows,  with  iron  shutters. 
The  monument  was  not  completed  until 
1843,  when,  on  June  17,  it  was  dedicated 
in  the  presence  of  President  Tyler  and 
his  cabinet  and  a  vast  multitude  of  cit- 
izens. The  city  of  Charlestown,  subse- 
quently annexed  to  Boston,  now  sur- 
rounds the  monument. 

Burbeck,  Henry,  military  officer;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  June  8.  1754;  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Revolutionary 
War;  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Brandy- 
wine,  Germantown,  Monmouth,  etc.,  re- 
ceiving the  brevet  of  brigadier-general  in 
1813.  He  died  in  New  London,  Conn., 
Oct.   2,    1848. 

Burchard,  Samuel  Dickinson,  clergy- 
man ;  born  in  Steuben,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  6, 
1812;  was  graduated  at  Centre  College, 
Danville,  Ky.,  in  1836;  became  a  temper- 
ance lecturer  and  later  a  Presbyterian 
minister  in  New  York.  In  1884,  near  the 
close  of  the  Presidential  campaign,  he  un- 
expectedly brought  himself  into  notoriety 
by  speaking  of  the  Democrats  at  the  close 
of  an  address  to  a  party  of  Republicans 
as  the  party  of  "  Rum,  Romanism,  and  Re- 
bellion." These  words  were  scarcely 
uttered  before  the  leaders  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  published  them  throughout 
the  country.  The  election  was  very  close, 
and  it  was  several  days  before  the  official 
count  of  New  York  State  was  received. 
That  State  went  Democratic  by  a  small 
majority.  The  remark  of  Dr.  Burchard 
was  said  to  have  influenced  many  thou- 
sands of  votes,  and  to  have  lost  the  elec- 
tion to  Mr.  Blaine.  He  died  in  Saratoga, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  25,  1891. 

Burden,  Henry,  inventor;  born  in 
Dumblane,  Scotland,  April  20,  1791 ;  lived 
on  a  farm,  and  early  in  life  evinced  his 
inventive  taste  by  designing  a  variety  of 
labor-saving  machinery.  In  1819  he  came 
to  the  United  States,  and  first  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  farming  implements. 
Afterwards  he  designed  machines  for  mak- 
ing horse  -  shoes  and  the  hook  -  headed 
spikes  used  on  railroads;  an  improved 
plough ;  an  axitomatie  machine  for  rolling 
iron  into  bars;  the  first  cultivator  made 
in  the  United  States;  and  a  machine 
which  received  a  rod  of  iron  and  turned 
out   horse-shoes    at    the    rate    of    sixtv    a 


minute.  He  died  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  19, 
1871. 

Burgesses,  House  of,  the  name  given 
to  the  collected  representatives  of  bor- 
oughs in  Virginia  when  re^Dresentative 
government  was  first  established  there  un- 
der tlie  administration  of  Governor  Yeard- 
ly.  That  body  was  elected  by  the  people, 
and  at  first  consisted  of  two  representa- 
tives from  seven  corporations.  These, 
with  the  governor  and  council,  formed  the 
General  Assembly  of  Virginia.  That  gen- 
eral form  of  government  was  maintained 
until  that  colony  became  an  independent 
State  in  1776.  That  first  House  of  Bur- 
gesses assembled  at  Jamestown  in  July, 
1619,  and  by  the  end  of  summer  four  more 
boroughs  were  established  and  represent- 
atives chosen.  The  character  of  the  per- 
sonnel of  that  popular  branch  of  the  Vir- 
ginia legislature  for  many  years  was 
sometimes  severely  criticised  by  contem- 
porary writers.  A  clergyman  who  lived 
there  wrote  that  the  popular  Assembly 
was  composed  largely  of  those  unruly  men 
whom  King  James  had  sent  over  from  the 
English  prisons  as  servants  for  the  plant- 
ers, and  were  not  only  vicious,  but  very  ig- 
norant. These  men  (Stith,  an  accurate 
historian,  observes)  disgraced  the  colony 
in  the  eyes  of  the  world.  Finally  better 
material  found  its  way  into  the  House  of 
Burgesses;  and  when  the  old  war  for  in- 
dependence was  kindling,  some  of  the 
brightest  and  purest  men  in  the  common- 
wealth composed  that  House,  and  were  the 
conservators  of  the  rights  of  man  in  Vir- 
ginia as  opposed  to  the  governor  and  his 
council. 

Burgoyne,  Sir  John,  military  officer; 
born  in  England,  Feb.  24,  1723;  was  liber- 
ally educated,  and  entered  the  army  at 
an  early  age.  While  a  subaltern  he  clan- 
destinely married  a  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Derby,  who  subsequently  aided  him  in 
acquiring  military  promotion  and  settled 
$1,500  a  year  upon  him.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  Portugal  in  1762.  The  year 
before,  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  and 
gained  his  seat  as  representative  of  an- 
other borough,  in  1768,  at  an  expense  of 
about  $50,000.  In  the  famous  Letters  of 
Junius  he  was  severely  handled.  Being 
ajjpointed  to  command  in  America,  he  ar- 
rived at  Boston  May  25,  1775;  and  to  Lord 
Stanley  he  wrote  a  letter,  giving  a  graphic 


447 


BUHGOYNE,    SIR    JOHlT 


account  of  the  battle  on  Bunker  (Breed's) 
Hill.  In  December,  1776,  he  returned  to 
England,   and   was   commissioned   lieuten- 


SIR  JOHN   BURGOTNE. 

ant-general.      Placed   in   command   of   the 
British  forces  in  Canada,  he  arrived  there 
early  in   1777,  and  in  June  he  began  an 
invasion  of  the  province  of  New 
York   by   way   of   Lake   Cham- 
plain  and  the  Hudson  Valley. 

He  left  St.  Johns  on  the 
Sorel  (June,  1777)  with  a 
brilliant  and  Avell  -  appointed 
army  of  8,000  men,  and  ascend- 
ed Lake  Champlain  in  boats. 
At  the  falls  of  the  Bouquet 
River,  near  the  Avestern  shore 
of  the  lake,  he  met  about  400 
Indians  in  council,  and  after 
a  feast  (June  21,  1777)  he 
made  a  stii-ring  speech  to  them. 
On  July  1  he  appeared  before 
Ticonderoga,  which  was  inade- 
quately garrisoned.  General 
St.  Clair,  in  command  there, 
was  compelled  to  evacuate  the 
post,  with  Movmt  Indepen- 
dence opposite  (July  5  and  6), 
and  fly  towards  Fort  Edward, 
on  the  upper  Hudson,  through 
a  portion  of  Vermont.  In  a 
battle  at  Hubbardton  (g.  v.) 
the  Americans  were  beaten  and 
dispersed  by  the  pursuing 
British  and  Germans.  St.  Clair 
had  sent  stores  in  boats  to  Skenesboro 
(afterwards   Whitehall),   at   the   head   of 


the  lake.  These  were  overtaken  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  pursuing  British.  Burgoyne 
pressed  forward  almost  unopposed,  for  the 
American  forces  were  very  weak.  The 
latter  retreated  first  to  Fort  Edward,  and 
then  gradually  down  the  Hudson  almost 
to  Albany.  The  British  advanced  but  slow- 
ly, for  the  Americans,  under  the  command 
of  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler,  harassed  them  at 
every  step.  An  expedition  sent  by  Bur- 
goyne to  capture  stores  and  cattle,  and 
procure  horses  in  this  region  and  at 
Bennington,  Vt.,  was  defeated  in  a 
battle  at  Hoosick,  N.  Y.  (Aug.  16),  by 
a  force  hastily  gathered  under  General 
Stark. 

Already  another  invading  force  of  Brit- 
ish regulars,  Canadians,  Tories,  and  Ind- 
ians, under  Colonel  St.  Leger,  which  Avas 
sent  by  Burgoyne,  by  way  of  Oswego,  to 
march  down  the  Mohawk  Valley  and  meet 
the  latter  at  Albany,  had  been  defeated  in 
a  battle  at  Oriskany  (Aug.  6).  Schuyler 
was  superseded  by  Gates  in  command  of 
the  northern  army.  Gates  formed  a  forti- 
fied camp  on  Bemis's  Heights  to  oppose  the 


BURGOYNE   ADDRESSING   THE   INDIANS. 


onward  march  of  Burgoyne  down  the  Hud- 
son Valley.     There  he  was  attacked   (Sept. 


448 


BUKGOYNE,    SIE    JOHN 


.1,  /i^  .ji,^  '^/^^■t 


■^:'JA\ 


VIEW    OF   THK    KXCAMP5IENT    OF     THE    COXVENTIOX   TROOPS. 


19)  by  the  British;  and,  after  a  severe 
battle,  the  latter  retired  to  their  camp 
on  the  heights  of  Saratoga  (afterwards 
Sehuylerville)  to  await  the  approach  of 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  from  New  York.  The 
latter  captured  forts  on  the  Hudson  High- 
lands, and  sent  marauding  expeditions  up 
the  river  that  burned  Kingston.  Again 
Burgoyne  advanced  to  attack  Gates.  He 
was  defeated  (Oct.  7),  and  again  retired 
to  his  camp.  Finding  it  impossible  to 
retreat,  go  forward,  or  remain  quiet,  he 
surrendered  his  whole  army,  Oct.  17,  1777. 
See  Bemis's  Heights. 

The  vanquished  troops  made  prisoners 
to  the  Americans  by  a  convention  for  the 
surrender  of  them,  made  by  Gates  and 
Burgoyne,  were  marched  through  New 
England  to  Cambridge,  near  Boston,  to  be 
embarked  for  Europe.  The  Congress  had 
ratified  the  agreement  of  Gates  that  they 
should  depart,  on  giving  their  parole  not 
to  serve  again  in  arms  against  the  Ameri- 
cans. Circumstances  soon  occurred  that 
convinced  Washington  that  Burgoyne  and 
his  troops  intended  to  violate  the  agree- 
ment at  the  first  opportunity,  and  it  was 
resolved  by  the  Congress  not  to  allow 
them  to  leave  the  country  until  the  Brit- 
ish government  should  ratify  the  terms 
of  the  capitulation.  Here  was  a  dilemma. 
That  government  would  not  recognize  the 
authority  of  the  Congress  as  a  lawful 
body;  so  the  troops  were  allowed  to  re- 
main in  idleness  in  America'  four  or  five 
years.     Burgoyne,   alone,   was   allowed   to 


go  home  on  his  parole.  The  British  min- 
istry charged  the  Congress  with  absolute 
perfidy;  the  latter  retorted,  and  justified 
their  acts  by  charging  the  ministry  with 
meditated  perfidy.  Owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  finding  an  adequate  supply  of  food  for 
the  captive  troops  in  New  England,  the 
Congress  finally  determined  to  send  them 
to  Virginia.  Commissioners  sent  over,  in 
the  spring  of  1778,  to  tender  a  scheme  of 
reconciliation,  offered  a  ratification  of  the 
convention,  signed  by  themselves ;  but  Con- 
gress would  recognize  no  authority  in- 
ferior to  the  British  ministry  for  such  an 
act.  Finally,  in  pursuance  of  a  resolution 
of  Congress  (Oct.  15,  1778),  the  whole  body 
of  the  captives  (4,000  in  number),  Eng- 
lish and  German,  after  the  officers  had 
signed  a^  parole  of  honor  respecting  their 
conduct  on  the  way,  took  up  their  line 
of  march,  early  in  November,  for  Char- 
lottesville, Va.,  under  the  command  of 
Major-General  Phillips.  Col.  Theodoric 
Bland  was  appointed  by  Washington  to 
superintend  the  march.  It  was  a  dreary 
winter's  journey  of  700  miles  through 
New  England,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia. 
The  routes  of  the  two  nationalities  were 
sometimes  distant  from  each  other,  and 
sometimes  the  same,  until  they  reached 
Valley  Forge,  when  they  went  in  the  same 
line  imtil  they  had  crossed  the  Potomac 
Pdver.  They  remained  in  Vii-ginia  until 
October,  1780,  when  the  danger  that  the 
captives   might   rise  upon   and   overpower 


I.— 2  F 


449 


BURGOYNE— BURKE 


their  guard  caused  the  British  to  be  re- 
moved to  Fort  Frederick,  in  Maryland, 
and  the  Germans  to  Winchester,  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley.  Deaths,  desertion, 
and  partial  exchanges  had  then  reduced 
their  number  to  about  2,100.  Afterwaa-ds 
they  were  removed  to  Lancaster,  Pa., 
and  some  to  East  Windsor,  Conn.  In 
the  course  of  1782  they  were  all  dis- 
persed, either  by  exchange  or  desertion. 
Many  of  the  Germans  remained  in 
America. 

The  disaster  to  Burgoyne's  army  pro- 
duced a  profound  sensation  in  England. 
This  was  intensified  by  indications  that 
France  was  disposed  to  acknowledge  the 
independence  of  the  colonies.  Efforts 
were  made  to  supply  the  place  of  the  lost 
troops  by  fresh  recruits.  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  undertook  to  raise  each  1,000 
men,  and  efforts  were  made  to  induce  Lon- 
don to  follow  the  example.  The  new  lord 
mayor  worked  zealously  for  that  purpose, 


but  failed,  and  the  ministry  had  to  be  con- 
tent with  a  subscription  of  $100,000 
raised  among  their  adherents.  Kor  did 
the  plan  succeed  in  the  English  counties. 
In  Scotland  it  was  more  successful;  Glas- 
gow and  Edinburgh  both  raised  a  regi- 
ment, and  several  more  were  enlisted  in 
the  Scotch  Highlands  by  the  great  land- 
holders of  that  region,  to  whom  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  officers  was  conceded.  The 
surrender  created  despondency  among  the 
English  Tories,  and  Lord  North,  the 
Prime  Minister,  was  alarmed. 

Burgoyne  returned  to  England,  on  his 
parole,  May,  1778.  Being  blamed,  he  so- 
licited in  vain  for  a  court-martial  to  try 
his  case,  but  he  ably  vindicated  himself 
on  the  Hoor  of  Parliament,  and  published 
(1780)  a  narrative  of  his  campaign  in 
America  for  the  same  purpose.  He  joined 
the  opposition,  and  an  ineffectual  attempt 
was  made  in  1779  to  exclude  him  from 
Parliament.  Then  he  resigned  all  his  ap- 
pointments; but  in  1782  he  was  restored  to 
his  rank  in  the  aimy,  and  appointed  privy 
councillor  and  commander-in-chief  in  Ire- 
land. He  retiied  fiom  public  life  in 
1784,  and  died  m  London,  Aug.  4,  1792. 
Buigoyne  acquiied  a  literary  reputation 
as  a  diamatist.  His  plays  and  poems 
^^ele  published  in  a  collection,  in  2  vol- 
umes, m  1808 

Burke,  Aed\nus,  jurist;  born  in  Gal- 
way,  Ii  eland,  June  16,  1743;  was  educated 
at  St.   Omeis  for  a  piiest;    emigrated  to 


VIEW   OF   THE   PLACE   WHERE   THE    BRITISH    LAID    DOWN  THEIR   ARMS. 

450 


BURKE 


South.  Carolina,  and  there  engaged,  with 
the  patriots  in  their  conflict  with  Great 
Britain.  He  was  a  lawyer,  and  in  1778 
was  made  a  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  South  Carolina.  He  served  two  years 
in  the  army;  was  in  Congress  (1789-91)  ; 
and  after  serving  in  the  State  legislature, 
he  became  chancellor  of  the  common- 
wealth.     He    died    in    Charleston,    S.    C, 


March  3,  1802.  Judge  Burke  was  a  thor- 
ough republican,  and  wrote  a  famous 
pamphlet  against  the  Cincinnati  So- 
ciety (q.  V.)  that  was  translated  into 
French  by  Mirabeau,  and  used  by  him  with 
much  elfect  during  the  French  Revolution. 
Burke  opposed  its  aristocratic  features. 
He  also  opposed  the  national  Constitu- 
tion, fearing  consolidated  power. 


BURKE,     EDMUND 

Burke,  Edmund,  statesman,-  born  in  on  the  following  proposals  which  he  had 
Dublin,  June   1,   1730;   was  one  of  fifteen    previously  introduced: 

children  of  Richard  Burke,  an  attor-  That  the  colonies  and  plantations  of 
ney,  and  was  descended  from  the  Nor-  Great  Britain  in  North  America,  consist- 
man  De  Burghs,  who  early  settled  in  ing  of  fourteen  separate  governments,  and 
Ireland;  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  containing  2,000,000  and  upward  of  free 
Dublin  (1748)  ;  studied  law,  and  in  1756 
published  his  famous  essay  onThe  Sublime 
and  Beautiful.  In  1758-59  he  and  Dods- 
ley  established  the  Annual  Register;  and 
in  1765  he  was  made  secretary  to  Pre- 
mier Rockingham.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1766.  There  he  took  an  active  and 
brilliant  part  in  debates  on  the  American 
question,  and  always  in  favor  of  the  Amer- 
icans, advocating  their  cause  with  rare 
eloquence.  In  1771  he  was  appointed 
agent  for  the  colony  of  New  York.  He 
lost  some  popularity  by  advocating  the 
claims  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  1780, 
and  opposing  the  policy  of  repressing  the 
trade  of  Ireland.  During  the  brief  ad- 
ministration of  the  Rockingham  ministry 
in  1782,  he  was  a  member  of  the  privy 
council  and  paymaster  of  the  forces.  Tak- 
ing a  prominent  part  in  the  affairs  in 
India,  he  began  the  prosecution  of  Gov. 
Warren  Hastings  early  in  1786.  His  la- 
bors in  behalf  of  India  in  that  protracted 
trial  were  immense,  though  the  convic- 
tion  of   Hastings   was   not   effected.     His 

great  work  entitled  Reflections  on  the  inhabitants,  have  not  had  the  liberty  and 
Revolution  in  France  appeared  in  1790.  privilege  of  electing  and  sending  any 
As  a  statesman  and  thinker  and  clear  knights  and  burgesses,  or  others,  to  rep- 
writer  he  had  few  superiors.  His  con-  resent  them  in  the  high  court  of  Parlia- 
versational  powers  were  remarkable,   and    ment. 

he    was    one    of    the    suspected    authors        That  the  said  colonies  and  plantations 

of    the    Letters    of    Junius.      He    died    in    have  been  made  liable  to,  and  bounden  by, 

Beaconsfield,  England,  July  9,  1797.  several    subsidies,    payments,    rates,    and 

taxes,  given  and  granted  by  Parliament; 

Conciliation  with  the  Colonies. — Burke's  though  the  said  colonies  and  plantations 
great  conciliatory  speech  in  the  British  have  not  their  knights  and  burgesses  in 
Parliament,  on  March  32^  1775,  was  based    the  said  high  court  of  Parliament,  of  their 

451 


EDMUND   BURKE. 


BURKE,    EDMUND 


own  election,  to  represent  the  condition  of 
their  country;  by  lack  whereof  they  have 
been  oftentimes  touched  and  -grieved  by 
subsidies  given,  granted,  and  assented  to, 
in  the  said  court,  in  a  manner  prejudicial 
to  the  commonwealth,  quietness,  rest,  and 
peace,  of  the  subjects  inhabiting  within 
the  same. 

That,  from  the  distance  of  the  said  colo- 
nies, and  from  other  circumstances,  no 
method  hath  hitherto  been  devised  for 
procuring  a  representation  in  Parliament 
for  the  said  colonies. 

That  each  of  the  said  colonies  hath 
within  itself  a  body,  chosen,  in  part  or  in 
the  whole,  by  the  freemen,  freeholders,  or 
other  free  inhabitants  thereof,  commonly 
called  the  general  assembly,  or  general 
court;  with  powers  legally  to  raise,  levy, 
and  assess,  according  to  the  several  usages 
of  such  colonies,  duties  and  taxes  towards 
defraying  all  sorts  of  public  services. 

That  the  said  general  assemblies,  gen- 
eral courts,  or  other  bodies,  legally  quali- 
fied as  aforesaid,  have  at  sundry  times 
freely  granted  several  large  subsidies  and 
public  aids  for  his  Majesty's  service,  ac- 
cording to  their  abilities,  when  required 
thereto  by  letter  from  one  of  his  Majesty's 
principal  secretaries  of  state;  and  that 
their  right  to  grant  the  same,  and  their 
cheerfulness  and  sufficiency  in  the  said 
grants,  have  been  at  sundry  times  ac- 
knowledged by  Parliament. 

That  it  hath  been  foimd  by  experience, 
that  the  manner  of  granting  the  said  sup- 
plies and  aids,  by  the  said  general  assem- 
blies, hath  been  more  agreeable  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  said  colonies,  and  more 
beneficial  and  conductive  to  the  public 
service,  than  the  mode  of  giving  and 
granting  aids  and  subsidies  in  Parlia- 
ment to  be  raised  and  paid  in  the  said 
colonies. 

That  it  may  be  proper  to  repeal  an  act, 
made  in  the  seventh  year  of  the  reign  of 
his  present  Majesty,  intituled,  An  act  for 
granting  certain  duties  in  the  British 
colonies  and  plantations  in  America;  for 
allowing  a  drawback  of  the  duties  of 
customs,  upon  the  exportation  from  this 
kingdom,  of  coffee  and  cocoa-nuts,  of  the 
produce  of  the  said  colonies  or  planta- 
tions; for  discontinuing  the  drawbacks 
payable  on  China  earthenware  exported  to 
America;    and    for   more    effectually    pre- 


venting the  clandestine  running  of  goods 
in  the  said  colonies  and  plantations. 

That  it  may  be  proper  to  repeal  an  act, 
made  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign 
of  his  present  Majesty,  intituled,  An  act 
to  discontinue,  in  such  manner,  and  for 
such  time,  as  are  therein  mentioned,  the 
landing  and  discharging,  lading  or  ship- 
ping of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,  at 
the  town,  and  within  the  harbour,  of  Bos- 
ton, in  the  province  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
in  North  America. 

That  it  may  be  proper  to  repeal  an  act, 
made  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign 
of  his  present  Majesty,  intituled.  An  act 
for  the  impartial  administration  of  jus- 
tice, in  cases  of  persons  questioned  for  any 
acts  done  by  them  in  the  execution  of  the 
law,  or  for  the  suppression  of  riots  and 
tumults,  in  the  province  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  in  New  England. 

That  it  is  proper  to  repeal  an  act,  made 
in  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  his 
present  Majesty,  intituled.  An  act  for  the 
better  regulating  the  government  of  the 
province  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  New 
England. 

That  it  is  proper  to  explain  and  amend 
an  act  made  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of 
.the  reign  of  King  Henry  VIIL,  intituled. 
An  act  for  the  trial  of  treasons  committed 
out  of  the  king's  dominions. 

That,  from  the  time  when  the  general 
assembly,  or  general  court,  of  any  colony 
or  plantation,  in  North  America,  shall 
have  ap23ointed,  by  act  of  assembly  duly 
confirmed,  a  settled  salary  to  the  offices  of 
the  chief -justice  and  judges  of  the  supe- 
rior courts,  it  may  be  proper  that  the 
said  chief-justice  and  other  judges  of  the 
superior  courts  of  such  colony  shall  hold 
his  and  their  office  and  offices  during  their 
good  behaviour;  and  shall  not  be  removed 
therefrom,  but  when  the  said  removal  shall 
be  adjudged  by  his  Majesty  in  coimcil, 
upon  a  hearing  on  complaint  from  the  gen- 
eral assembly,  or  on  a  complaint  from  the 
governor,  or  council,  or  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, severally,  of  the  colony  in 
which  the  said  chief-justice  and  other 
judges  have  exercised  the  said  office. 

That  it  may  be  proper  to  regulate  the 
courts  of  admiralty,  or  vice-admiralty,  au- 
thorized by  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  the 
fourth  of  George  III.,  in  such  a  manner, 
as  to  make  the  same  more  commodious  to 


452 


BTJKKE,   EDMUND 


those  who  sue,  or  are  sued,  in  the  said 
courts;  and  to  provide  for  the  more  de- 
cent maintenance  of  the  judges  of  the 
same. 

Burlce's  Speech  on  Conciliation.  —  I 
hope,  sir,  that,  notwithstanding  the  aus- 
terity of  the  chair,  your  good  -  nature 
will  incline  you  to  some  degree  of  indul- 
gence towards  human  frailty.  You  will 
not  think  it  unnatural,  that  those  who 
have  an  object  depending,  which  strongly 
engages  their  hopes  and  fears,  should  be 
somewhat  inclined  to  superstition.  As  I 
came  into  the  House  full  of  anxiety  about 
the  event  of  my  motion,  I  found,  to  my  in- 
finite surprise,  that  the  grand  penal  bill, ' 
by  which  we  had  passed  sentence  on  the 
trade  and  sustenance  of  America,  is  to  be 
returned  to  us  from  the  other  House.  I 
do  confess,  I  could  not  help  looking  on  this 
event  as  a  fortunate  omen.  I  look  upon 
it  as  a  sort  of  providential  favour;  by 
which  we  are  put  once  more  in  possession 
of  our  deliberative  capacity,  upon  a  busi- 
ness so  very  questionable  in  its  nature,  so 
very  uncertain  in  its  issue.  By  the  re- 
turn of  this  bill,  which  seemed  to  have 
taken  its  flight  forever,  we  are  at  this 
very  instant  nearly  as  free  to  choose  a  plan 
for  our  American  government  as  we  were 
on  the  first  day  of  the  session.  If,  sir, 
we  incline  to  the  side  of  conciliation,  we 
are  not  at  all  embarrassed  (unless  we 
please  to  make  ourselves  so)  by  any  in- 
congruous mixture  of  coercion  and  re- 
straint. We  are  therefore  called  upon,  as 
it  were  by  a  superior  warning  voice,  again 
to  attend  to  America;  to  attend  to  the 
whole  of  it  together;  and  to  review  the 
subject  with  an  unusual  degree  of  care  and 
calmness. 

Surely  it  is  an  awful  subject;  or  there 
is  none  so  on  this  side  of  the  grave.  When 
1  first  had  the  honour  of  a  seat  in  this 
House,  the  affairs  of  that  continent  press- 
ed themselves  upon  us,  as  the  most  im- 
portant and  most  delicate  object  of  parlia- 
mentary attention.  My  little  share  in 
this  great  deliberation  oppressed  me.  I 
found  myself  a  partaker  in  a  very  high 
trust ;  and  having  no  sort  of  reason  to  rely 
on  the  strength  of  my  natural  abilities 
for  the  proper  execution  of  that  trust,  I 
was  obliged  to  take  more  than  common 
pains  to  instruct  myself  in  everything 
which  relates  to  our  colonies.     I  was  not 

45 


less  under  the  necessity  of  forming  some 
fixed  ideas  concerning  the  general  policy 
of  the  British  Empire.  Something  of  this 
sort  seemed  to  be  indispensable;  in  order, 
a-midst  so  vast  a  fluctuation  of  passions 
and  opinions,  to  concentrate  my  thoughts; 
to  ballast  my  conduct;  to  preserve  me 
from  being  blown  about  by  every  wind  of 
fashionable  doctrine.  I  really  did  not 
think  it  safe,  or  manly,  to  have  fresh  prin- 
ciples to  seek  upon  every  fresh  mail  which 
should  arrive  from  America.  At  that 
period  I  had  the  for  time  to  find  myself  in 
perfect  concurrence  with  a  large  majority 
in  this  House.  Bowing  under  that  high 
authority,  and  penetrated  with  the  sharp- 
ness and  strength  of  that  early  impression, 
I  have  continued  ever  since,  without  the 
least  deviation,  in  my  original  sentiments. 
Whether  this  be  owing  to  an  obstinate 
perseverance  in  error,  or  to  a  religious 
adherence  to  what  appears  to  me  truth 
and  reason,  it  is  in  your  equity  to  judge. 

Sir,  Parliament  having  an  enlarged 
view  of  objects,  made,  during  this  in- 
terval, more  frequent  changes  in  their 
sentiments  and  their  conduct,  than  could 
be  justified  in  a  particular  person  upon 
the  contracted  scale  of  private  informa- 
tion. But  though  I  do  not  hazard  any- 
thing approaching  to  censure  on  the  mo- 
tives of  former  parliaments  to  all  those 
alterations,  one  fact  is  undoubted,  that 
under  them  the  state  of  America  has  been 
kept  in  continual  agitation.  Everything 
administered  as  remedy  to  the  public  com- 
plaint, if  it  did  not  produce,  was  at  least 
followed  by,  an  heightening  of  the  dis- 
temper; until,  by  a  variety  of  experiments, 
that  important  country  has  been  brought 
into  her  present  situation;  a  situation 
which  I  will  not  miscall,  which  I  dare 
not  name;  which  I  scarcely  know  how  to 
comprehend  in  the  terms  of  any  descrip- 
tion. 

In  this  posture,  sir,  things  stood  at  the 
beginning  of  the  session.  About  that  time, 
a  worthy  member  of  great  parliamentary 
experience,  who,  in  the  year  1766,  filled 
the  chair  of  the  American  committee, 
with  much  ability,  took  me  aside;  and, 
lamenting  the  present  aspect  of  our  poli- 
tics, told  me,  things  were  come  to  such  a 
pass,  that  our  former  methods  of  proceed- 
ing in  the  House  would  be  no  longer 
tolerated.  That  the  pubHc  tribunal  (never 
3 


fetTRKE,  EDMtflfD 

too  indulgent  to  a  long  and  unsuccessful  lamity  is  a  mighty  leveller;  and  there  are 
opposition)  would  now  scrutinize  our  con-  occasions  when  any,  even  the  slightest, 
duct  with  unusual  severity.  That  the  very  chance  of  doing  good,  must  be  laid  hold 
vicissitudes  and  shiftings  of  ministerial  on,  even  by  the  most  inconsiderable  person, 
measures,  instead  of  convicting  their  To  restore  order  and  repose  to  an  em- 
authors  of  inconstancy  and  want  of  sys-  pire  so  great  and  so  distracted  as  ours, 
tem,  would  be  taken  as  an  occasion  of  is,  merely  in  the  attempt,  an  undertak- 
charging  us  with  a  predetermined  discon-  ing  that  would  ennoble  the  flights  of  the 
tent,  which  nothing  could  satisfy;  whilst  highest  genius,  and  obtain  pardon  for 
we  accused  every  measure  of  vigour  as  the  efforts  of  the  meanest  understanding, 
cruel,  and  every  proposal  of  lenity  as  Struggling  a  good  while  with  these 
weak  and  irresolute.  The  public,  he  said,  thouglits,  by  degrees  I  felt  myself  more 
would  not  have  patience  to  see  us  firm.  I  derived,  at  length,  some  confi- 
play  the  game  out  with  our  adversaries;  dence  from  what  in  other  circumstances 
we  must  produce  our  hand.  It  would  be  usually  produces  timidity.  I  grew  less 
expected  that  those  who  for  many  years  anxious,  even  from  the  idea  of  my  own  in- 
had  been  active  in  such  affairs  should  significance.  For,  judging  of  what  you 
show  that  they  had  formed  some  clear  are  by  what  you  ought  to  be,  I  persuaded 
and  decided  idea  of  the  principles  of  myself  that  you  would  not  reject  a  reason- 
colony  government;  and  were  capable  of  able  proposition  because  it  had  nothing 
drawing  out  something  like  a  platform  but  its  reason  to  recommend  it.  On  the 
of  the  ground  which  might  be  laid  for  other  hand,  being  totally  destitute  of  all 
future  and  permanent  tranquillity.  shadow   of   influence,   natural   or   adventi- 

I  felt  the  truth  of  what  my  honourable  tious,  I  was  very  sure  that,  if  my  propo- 

friend  represented ;    but  I   felt   my  situa-  sition  were  futile  or  dangerous,  if  it  were 

tion  too.    His  application  might  have  been  weakly    conceived,    or    improperly    timed, 

made  with  far  greater  propriety  to  many  there  was  nothing  exterior  to  it,  of  power 

other    gentlemen.      No    man    was    indeed  to  awe,  dazzle,  or  delude  you.     You  will 

ever   better   disposed,   or   worse   qualified,  see  it  just  as  it  is:   and  you  will  treat  it 

for    such    an    undertaking,    than    myself,  just  as  it  deserves. 

Though  I  gave  so  far  in  to  his  opinion.  The    proposition    is    peace.      Not    peace 

that    I    immediately   threw   my    thoughts  through   the   medium   of   war;    not   peace 

into  a  sort  of  parliamentary  form,  I  was  to  be  hunted  through  the  labyrinth  of  in- 

by    no    means    equally    ready    to    produce  trieate  and  endless  negotiations;  not  peace 

them.     It  generally  argues  some  degree  of  to  arise  out  of  universal  discord,  foment- 

natural  impotence  of  mind,  or  some  want  ed  from  principle,  in  all  parts  of  the  em- 

of  knowledge  of  the  world, to  hazard  plans  pire;  not  peace  to  depend  on  the  judicial 

of  government  except  from  a  seat  of  au-  determination  of  perplexing  questions,  or 

thority.     Propositions  are  made,  not  only  the    precise   marking   the    shado^vy   boun- 

ineffectually,   but   somewhat  disreputably,  daries   of   a   complex   government.      It   is 

when  the  minds  of  men  are  not  properly  simply  peace,  sought  in  its  natural  course, 

disposed  for  their  reception ;   and  for  my  and  in  its  ordinary  haunts.     It  is   peace 

part,  I  am  not  ambitioiis  of  ridicule;  not  sought   in    the   spirit   of   peace,    and   laid 

absolutely  a  candidate  for  disgrace.  in    principles    purely   pacific.      I    propose. 

Besides,  sir,  to  speak  the  plain  truth,  by  removing  the  ground  of  the  difference, 
I  have  in  general  no  very  exalted  opinion  and  by  restoring  the  former  unsuspecting 
of  the  virtue  of  paper  government;  nor  of  confidence  of  the  colonies  in  the  mother- 
any  politics  in  which  the  plan  is  to  be  country,  to  give  permanent  satisfaction  to 
wholly  separated  from  the  execution.  But  your  people;  and  (far  from  a  scheme  of 
when  I  saw  that  anger  and  violence  pre-  ruling  by  discord)  to  reconcile  them  to 
vailed  every  day  more  and  more,  and  that  each  other  in  the  same  act,  and  by  the 
things  were  hastening  towards  an  incur-  bond  of  the  very  same  interest  which 
able  alienation  of  our  colonies.  I  confess  reconciles  them  to  British  government. 


my  caution  gave  way.  I  felt  this,  as 
one  of  those  few  moments  in  which  de- 
corum yields  to  a  higher  duty.    Public  ca- 


My  idea  is  nothing  more.  Refined  policy 
ever  has  been  the  parent  of  confusion, 
and  ever  Avill  be  so,  as  long  as  the  world 


454 


BURKE,   EDMUND 


endures.  Plain  good  intention,  which  is 
as  easily  discovered  at  the  first  view  as 
fraud  is  surely  detected  at  last,  is,  let 
me  say,  of  no  mean  force  in  the  govern- 
ment of  mankind.  Genuine  simplicity 
of  heart  is  an  healing  and  cementing  prin- 
ciple. My  plan,  therefore,  being  formed 
upon  the  most  simple  grounds  imaginable, 
may  disappoint  some  people  when  they 
hear  it.  It  has  nothing  to  recommend  it 
to  the  pruriency  of  curious  ears.  There 
is  nothing  at  all  new  and  captivating  in  it. 
It  has  nothing  of  the  splendour  of  the  proj- 
ect which  has  been  lately  laid  upon  your 
table  by  the  noble  lord  in  the  blue  riband. 
It  does  not  propose  to  fill  your  lobby  with 
squabbling  colony  agents,  who  will  require 
the  interposition  of  your  mace,  at  every 
instant,  to  keep  the  peace  among  them. 
It  does  not  institute  a  magnificent  auc- 
tion of  finance,  where  captivated  provinces 
come  to  general  ransom  by  bidding  against 
each  other,  until  you  knock  down  the 
hammer,  and  determine  a  proportion  of 
payments  beyond  all  the  powers  of  alge- 
bra to  equalize  and  settle. 

The  plan  which  I  shall  presume  to  sug- 
gest derives,  however,  one  great  advan- 
tage from  the  proposition  and  registry  of 
that  noble  lord's  project.  The  idea  of  con- 
ciliation is  admissible.  First,  the  House, 
in  accepting  the  resolution  moved  by  the 
noble  lord,  has  admitted,  notwithstand- 
ing the  menacing  front  of  our  address, 
notwithstanding  our  heavy  bills  of  pains 
and  penalties,  that  we  do  not  think  our- 
selves precluded  from  all  ideas  of  free 
grace  and  bounty. 

The  House  has  gone  further ;  it  has  de- 
clared conciliation  admissible,  previous  to 
any  submission  on  the  part  of  America. 
It  has  even  shot  a  good  deal  beyond  that 
mark,  and  has  admitted  that  the  com- 
plaints of  our  former  mode  of  exerting 
the  right  of  taxation  were  not  wholly 
unfounded.  That  right  thus  exerted  is  al- 
lowed to  have  had  something  reprehensi- 
ble in  it;  something  unwise,  or  something 
grievous;  since,  in  the  midst  of  our  heat 
and  resentment,  we,  of  ourselves,  have 
proposed  a  capital  alteration;  and,  in  or- 
der to  get  rid  of  what  seemed  so  very 
exceptionable,  have  instituted  a  mode  that 
is  altogether  new;  one  that  is,  indeed, 
wholly  alien  from  all  the  ancient  methods 
and  forms  of  Parliament. 


The  principle  of  this  proceeding  is  large 
enough  for  my  purpose.  The  means  pro- 
posed by  the  noble  lord  for  carrying  his 
ideas  into  execution,  I  think,  indeed,  are 
very  indifl'erently  suited  to  the  end;  and 
this  I  shall  endeavour  to  show  you  before 
I  sit  down.  But,  for  the  present,  I  take 
my  ground  on  the  admitted  principle.  I 
mean  to  give  peace.  Peace  implies  recon- 
ciliation; and,  where  there  has  been  a 
material  dispute,  reconciliation  does  in  a 
manner  alwaj's  imply  concession  on  the 
one  part  or  on  the  other.  In  this  state 
of  things  I  make  no  difficulty  in  affirm- 
ing that  the  proposal  ought  to  originate 
from  us.  Great  and  acknowledged  force 
is  not  impaired  either  in  effect  or  in  opin- 
ion by  an  unwillingness  to  exert  itself. 
The  superior  power  may  offer  peace  with 
honour  and  with  safety.  Such  an  offer 
from  such  a  power  will  be  attributed  to 
magnanimity.  But  the  concessions  of 
the  weak  are  the  concessions  of  fear. 
When  such  a  one  is  disarmed,  he  is  wholly 
at  the  mercy  of  his  superior;  and  he  loses 
forever  that  time  and  those  chances, 
which,  as  they  happen  to  all  men,  are  the 
strength  and  resources  of  all  inferior 
power. 

The  capital  leading  questions  on  which 
you  must  this  day  decide  are  these  two: 
First,  whether  you  ought  to  concede;  and, 
secondly,  what  your  concession  ought  to 
be.  On  the  first  of  these  questions  we  have 
gained  (as  I  have  just  taken  the  liberty 
of  observing  to  you)  some  ground.  But 
I  am  sensible  that  a  good  deal  more  is  still 
to  be  done.  Indeed,  sir,  to  enable  us  to 
determine  both  on  the  one  and  the  other 
of  these  great  questions  with  a  firm  and 
precise  judgment,  I  think  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  consider  distinctly  the  true  nature 
and  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
object  which  we  have  before  us.  Because 
after  all  our  struggle,  whether  we  will  or 
not,  we  must  govern  America  according 
to  that  nature,  '  and  to  those  circum- 
stances; and  not  according  to  our  own 
imaginations ;  nor  according  to  abstract 
ideas  of  right;  by  no  means  according  to 
mere  general  theories  of  government,  the 
resort  to  which  it  appears  to  me,  in  our 
present  situation,  no  better  than  arrant 
trifling.  I  shall  therefore  endeavour,  with 
your  leave,  to  lay  before  you  some  of  the 
most  material  of  these   circumstances   in 


455 


BURKE,   EDMUND 


as  full  and  as  clear  a  manner  as  I  am 
able   to   state   them. 

The  first  thing  that  we  have  to  con- 
sider with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the 
object  is — the  number  of  people  in  the  col- 
onies. I  have  taken  for  some  years  a 
good  deal  of  pains  on  that  point.  I  can 
by  no  calculation  justify  myself  in  plac- 
ing the  number  below  2,000,000  of  inhabi- 
tants of  our  own  European  blood  and  col- 
our; besides  at  least  500,000  others,  who 
form  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the 
strength  and  opulence  of  the  whole. 
This,  sir,  is,  I  believe,  about  the  true 
number.  There  is  no  occasion  to  exag- 
gerate, where  plain  truth  is  of  so  much 
weight  and  importance.  But  whether  I 
put  the  present  number  too  high  or  too 
low  is  a  matter  of  little  moment.  Such 
is  the  strength  with  which  population 
shoots  in  that  part  of  the  world  that, 
state  the  numbers  as  high  as  we  will, 
whilst  the  dispute  continues,  the  exaggera- 
tion ends.  Whilst  we  are  discussing  any 
given  magnitude,  they  are  grown  to  it. 
Whilst  we  spend  our  time  in  deliberating 
on  the  mode  of  governing  2,000,000,  we 
shall  find  we  have  millions  more  to  man- 
age. Your  children  do  not  grow  faster 
from  infancy  to  manhood  than  they  spread 
from  families  to  communities,  and  from 
villages  to  nations. 

I  put  this  consideration  of  the  present 
and  the  growing  numbers  in  the  front 
of  our  deliberation ;  because,  sir,  this 
consideration  will  make  it  evident  to  a 
blunter  discernment  than  yours  that  no 
partial,  narrow,  contracted,  pinched,  occa- 
sional system  will  be  at  all  suitable  to 
such  an  object.  It  will  show  you  that  it 
is  not  to  be  considered  as  one  of  those 
minima  (trifles)  which  are  out  of  the 
eye  and  consideration  of  the  law;  not  a 
paltry  excrescence  of  the  state,  not  a 
mean  dependent,  who  may  be  neglected 
with  little  damage  and  provoked  with 
little  danger.  It  will  prove  that  some 
degree  of  care  and  caution  is  required 
in  the  handling  such  an  object;  it  will 
show  that  you  ought  not,  in  reason,  to 
trifle  with  so  large  a  mass  of  the  inter- 
ests and  feelings  of  the  human  race.  You 
could  at  no  time  do  so  without  guilt:  and 
be  assured  you  will  not  be  able  to  do  it 
long  with  impunity. 

But  the  population  of  this  country,  the 


great  and  growing  population,  though  a 
very  important  consideration,  will  not  lose 
much  of  its  weight  if  not  combined  with 
other  circumstances.  The  commerce  of 
your  colonies  is  out  of  all  proportion  be- 
yond the  numbers  of  the  people.  This 
ground  of  their  commerce,  indeed,  has 
been  trod  some  days  ago,  and  with  great 
ability,  by  a  distinguished  person,  at 
your  bar.  This  gentleman,  after  thirty- 
five  yeais — it  is  so  long  since  he  first 
appeared  at  the  same  place  to  plead  for 
the  commerce  of  Great  Britain — has  come 
again  before  you  to  plead  the  same  cause, 
without  any  other  effect  of  time  than 
that  to  the  fire  of  imagination  and  extent 
of  erudition,  which  even  then  marked 
him  as  one  of  the  first  literary  characters 
of  his  age,  he  has  added  a  consummate 
knowledge  in  the  commercial  interest  of 
his  country,  formed  by  a  long  course  of 
enlightened  and  discriminating  experi- 
ence. 

Sir,  I  should  be  inexcusable  in  coming 
after  such  a  person  with  any  detail  if  a 
great  part  of  the  members  who  now  fill 
the  House  had  not  the  misfortune  to  be 
absent  when  he  appeared  at  your  bar. 
Besides,  sir,  I  propose  to  take  the  matter 
at  periods  of  time  somewhat  different 
from  his.  There  is,  if  I  mistake  not,  a 
point  of  view,  from  whence,  if  you  would 
look  at  this  subject,  it  is  impossible  that 
it  should  not  make  an  impression  upon 
you. 

I  have  in  my  hand  two  accounts:  one 
a  comparative  state  of  the  export  trade  of 
England  to  its  colonies,  as  it  stood  in  the 
year  1704,  and  as  it  stood  in  the  year 
1772;  the  other  a  state  of  the  export 
trade  of  this  country  to  its  colonies  alone, 
as  it  stood  in  1772,  compared  with  the 
whole  trade  of  England  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  (the  colonies  included)  in  the  year 
1704.  They  are  from  good  vouchers;  the 
latter  period  from  the  accounts  on  your 
table,  the  earlier  from  an  original  manu- 
script of  Davenant,  who  first  established 
the  inspector-general's  office,  which  ,has 
been  ever  since  his  time  so  abundant  a 
source  of  parliamentary  information. 

The  export  trade  to  the  colonies  con- 
sists of  three  great  branches.  The  Afri- 
can, which,  terminating  almost  wholly  in 
the  colonies,  must  be  put  to  the  account 
of  their  commerce;  the  W^est  Indian;  and 


456 


BURKE,   EDMUND 


the    North    American.     All    these    are    so  ed.    But,  it  will  be  said,  is  not  this  Amer- 

interwoven  that  the  attempt  to  separate  ican    trade    an    unnatural    protuberance, 

them  would  tear  to  pieces  the  contexture  that  has  drawn  the  juices  from  the  rest 

of  the  whole;  and  if  not  entirely  destroy,  of  the  body?     The  reverse.     It  is  the  very 

would  very  much  depreciate  the  value  of  food  that  has  nourished  every  other  part 

all  the  parts.     I  therefore  consider  these  into  its  present  magnitude.     Our  general 

three  denominations  to  be,  what  in  effect  trade    has    been   greatly    augmented,    and 

they  are,  one  trade.  augmented  more  or  less   in  almost  every 

The  trade  to  the  colonies,  taken  on  the  part  to  which  it  ever  extended;   but  with 


export  side,  at  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury— that  is,  in  the  year  1704 — stood 
thus : 

Exports  to   North  America  and  the 

West   Indies    £483,265 

To  Africa / .        86,665 


£569,930 


In  the  year  1772,  which  I  take  as  a 
middle  year  between  the  highest  and  low- 
est of  those  lately  laid  on  your  table, 
the  account  was  as  follows : 

To  North  America   and    the  West 

Indies    £4,791,734 

To    Africa    866,398 

To  which  if  you  add  the  export 
trade  from  Scotland,  which  had 
in  1704  no  existence 364,000 

£6,022,132 


this  material  difference,  that  of  the  £6,- 
000,000  which  in  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury constituted  the  whole  mass  of  our 
export  commerce,  the  colony  trade  was 
but  one-twelfth  part;  it  is  now  (as  a  part 
of  £16,000,000)  considerably  more  than  a 
third  of  the  whole.  This  is  the  relative 
proportion  of  the  importance  of  the  col- 
onies at  these  two  periods:  and  all  rea- 
soning concerning  our  mode  of  treating 
them  must  have  this  proportion  as  its 
basis,  or  it  is  a  reasoning  weak,  rotten, 
and  sophistical. 

Mr.  Speaker,  I  cannot  prevail  on  my- 
self to  hurry  over  this  great  considera- 
tion. It  is  good  for  us  to  be  here.  We 
stand  where  we  have  an  immense  view  of 
what  is,  and  what  is  past.  Clouds,  in- 
deed, and  darkness  rest  upon  the  future. 
Let  us,  however,  before  we  descend  from 
this  noble  eminence,  reflect  that  this 
growth  of  our  national  prosperity  has 
happened  within  the  short  period  of  the 
life  of  man.  It  has  happened  within 
sixty-eight  years.  There  are  those  alive 
whose  memory  might  touch  the  two  ex- 
tremities. For  instance,  my  Lord  Bath- 
urst  might  remember  all  the  stages  of 
the  progress.  He  was  in  1704  of  an  age 
at  least  to  be  made  to  comprehend  such 
things.  He  was  then  old  enough  acta 
fiarentum  jam  legere,  et  quae  sit  potuit 
cognoscere  virtus  (to  study  the  doings  of 
his  forefathers,  and  to  learn  the  meaning 
of  virtue).  Suppose,  sir,  that  the  angel 
of  this  auspicious  youth — foreseeing  the 
many  virtues,  which  made  him  one  of  the 
most  amiable,  as  he  is  one  of  the  most 
fortunate,  men  of  his  age — had  opened  to 
him  in  vision,  that  when,  in  the  fourth 
The  trade  with  America  alone  is  now  generation,  the  tliird  prince  of  the  House 
within  less  than  £500,000  of  being  equal  of  Brunswick  had  sat  twelve  years  on  the 
to  what  this  great  commercial  nation,  throne  of  that  nation,  which  (by  the 
England,  carried  on  at  the  beginning  of  happy  issue  of  moderate  and  healing  coun- 
this  century  with  the  whole  world!  If  scls)  was  to  be  made  Great  Britain,  he 
I  had  taken  the  largest  year  of  those  on  should  see  his  son.  Lord  Chancellor  of 
your  table,   it  would  rather  have  exceed-    England,  turn  back  the  current  of  heredi- 

457 


From  five  hundred  and  odd  thousand, 
it  has  grown  to  six  millions.  It  has  in- 
creased no  less  than  twelvefold.  This  is 
the  state  of  the  colony  trade,  as  compared 
with  itself  at  these  two  periods,  within 
this  century  —  and  this  is  matter  for 
meditation.  But  this  is  not  all.  Examine 
my  second  account.  See  how  the  export 
trade  to  the  colonies  alone  in  1772  stood 
in  the  other  point  of  view,  that  is,  as 
compared  to  the  whole  trade  of  England 
in  1704: 

The  whole  export  trade  of  Eng- 
land, including  that  to  the  colo- 
nies,   in    1704 £6,509,000 

Export   to    the   colonies   alone,    in 

1772    6,024,000 

Difference     £    485,000 


BTJRKE,    EDMUND 


tary  dignity  to  its  fountain,  and  raise  him 
to  a  higher  rank  of  peerage,  whilst  he  en- 
riched the  family  with  a  new  one.  If 
amidst  these  bright  and  happy  scenes  of 
domestic  honour  and  prosperity,  that  an- 
gel should  have  drawn  up  the  curtain,  and 
unfolded  the  rising  glories  of  his  country, 
and  whilst  he  was  gazing  with  admiration 
on  the  then  commercial  grandeur  of  Eng- 
land, the  genius  should  point  out  to  him 
a  little  speck,  scarce  visible  in  the  mass 
cf  the  national  interest,  a  small  seminal 
principle,  rather  than  a  formed  body,  and 
should  tell  him :  "  Young  man,  there  is 
America,  which  at  this  day  serves  for 
little  more  than  to  amuse  you  with  stories 
of  savage  men,  and  uncouth  manners;  yet 
shall,  before  you  taste  of  death,  show  it- 
self equal  to  the  whole  of  that  commerce 
which  now  attracts  the  envy  of  the  world. 
Whatever  England  has  been  growing  to 
by  a  progressive  increase  of  imjjrovement, 
brought  in  by  varieties  of  people,  by  suc- 
cession of  civilizing  conquests  and  civil- 
izing settlements  in  a  series  of  1,700  years, 
you  shall  see  as  much  added  to  her  by 
America  in  the  course  of  a  single  life!" 
If  this  state  of  his  country  had  been  fore- 
told to  him,  would  it  not  require  all  the 
sanguine  credulity  of  youth,  and  all  the 
fervid  glow  of  enthusiasm,  to  make  him 
believe  it?  Fortunate  man,  he  has  lived 
to  see  it!  Fortunate,  indeed,  if  he  lives 
to  see  nothing  that  shall  vary  the  prospect 
and  cloud  the  setting  of  his  day! 

Excuse  me,  sir,  if,  turning  from  such 
thoughts,  I  resume  this  comparative  view 
once  more.  You  have  seen  it  on  a  large 
scale;  look  at  it  on  a  small  one.  I  will 
point  out  to  your  attention  a  particular 
instance  of  it  in  the  single  province  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  the  year  1704,  that 
province  called  for  £11,459  in  value  of 
your  commodities,  native  and  foreign. 
This  was  the  whole.  What  did  it  demand  in 
1772?  Why,  nearly  fifty  times  as  much; 
for  in  that  year  the  export  to  Pennsyl- 
vania was  £507,909,  nearly  equal  to  the 
export  to  all  the  colonies  together  in  the 
first  period. 

I  choose,  sir,  to  enter  into  these  minute 
and  particular  details;  because  general- 
ities, which  in  all  other  cases  are  apt 
to  heighten  and  raise  the  subject,  have 
here  a  tendency  to  sink  it.  When  we  speak 
of  the  commerce  with  our  colonies,  fiction 


lags  after  truth,  invention  is  untruthful, 
and  imagination  cold  and  barren. 

So  far,  sir,  as  to  the  importance  of  the 
object  in  view  of  its  commerce,  as  con- 
cerned in  the  exports  from  England.  If 
I  were  to  detail  the  imports,  I  could  show 
how  many  enjoyments  they  procure,  which 
relieve  the  burthen  of  life;  how  many 
materials  which  invigorate  the  springs  of 
national  industry,  and  extend  and  animate 
every  part  of  our  foreign  and  domestic 
commerce.  This  would  be  a  curious  sub- 
ject, indeed — but  I  must  prescribe  bounds 
to  myself  in  a  matter  so  vast  and  various. 

I  f)ass  therefore  to  the  colonies  in  an- 
other point  of  view — their  agriculture. 
This  they  have  prosecuted  with  such  a 
spirit  that,  besides  feeding  plentifully 
their  own  growing  multitude,  tlieir  an- 
nual export  of  grain,  comprehending  rice, 
has  some  years  ago  exceeded  £1,000,000  in 
value.  Of  their  last  harvest,  I  am  per- 
suaded they  will  export  much  more.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  century  some  of  these 
colonies  imported  corn  from  the  mother- 
country.  For  some  time  past,  the  Old 
World  has  been  fed  from  the  New.  The 
scarcity  which  you  have  felt  would  have 
been  a  desolating  famine  if  this  child  of 
your  old  age,  with  a  true  filial  piety,  with 
a  Roman  charity,  had  not  put  the  full 
breast  of  its  youthful  exuberance  to  the 
mouth  of  its  exhausted  parent. 

As  to  the  wealth  which  the  colonies 
have  drawn  from  the  sea  by  their  fisheries, 
you  had  all  that  matter  fully  opened  at 
your  bar.  You  surely  thought  these  ac- 
quisitions of  value,  for  they  seemed  even 
to  excite  your  envy;  and  yet  the  spirit 
by  which  that  enterprising  employment 
has  been  exercised  ought  rather,  in  my 
opinion,  to  have  raised  your  esteem  and 
admiration.  And  pray,  sir,  what  in  the 
world  is  equal  to  it?  Pass  by  the  other 
parts,  and  look  at  the  manner  in  which 
the  people  of  New  England  have  of  late 
carried  on  the  whale  fishery.  Whilst  we 
follow  them  among  the  tumbling  mount- 
ains of  ice,  and  behold  them  penetrating 
into  the  deepest  frozen  recesses  of  Hud- 
son's Bay  and  Davis's  Straits,  whilst  we 
are  looking  for  them  beneath  the  arctic 
circle,  we  hear  that  they  have  pierced 
into  the  opposite  region  of  polar  cold, 
that  they  are  at  the  antipodes,  and  en- 
under    the    frozen    serpent    of    the 


458 


south.     Falkland.  Island,  which  seemed  too  an   odious,    but   a    feeble   instrument,    for 

remote    and   romantic    an    object   for    the  preserving   a   people   so   numerous,   so   ac- 

grasp  of  national  ambition,  is  but  a  stage  tive,   so   growing,   so   spirited   as   this,   in 

and  resting-place  in  the  progress  of  their  a    profitable    and    subordinate    connection 

victorious  industry.     Nor  is  the  equinoc-  with  us. 

tial  heat  more  discouraging  to  them  than  First,  sir,  permit  me  to  observe  that  the 
the  accumulated  winter  of  both  the  poles,  use  of  force  alone  is  but  temporary.  It 
We  know  that  whilst  some  of  them  draw  may  subdue  for  a  moment;  but  it  does 
the  line  and  strike  the  harpoon  on  the  not  remove  the  necessity  of  subduing 
coast  of  Africa,  others  run  the  longitude,  again ;  and  a  nation  is  not  governed  which 
and  pursue  their  gigantic  game  along  the  is  perpetually  to  be  conquered, 
coast  of  Brazil.  ISTo  sea  but  what  is  vexed  My  next  objection  is  its  uncertainty, 
by  their  fisheries.  No  climate  that  is  not  Terror  is  not  always  the  effect  of  force; 
witness  to  their  toils.  Neither  the  perse-  and  an  armament  is  not  a  victory.  If 
verance  of  Holland,  nor  the  activity  of  you  do  not  succeed,  you  are  Avithout  re- 
France,  nor  the  dexterous  and  firm  sa-  source;  for,  conciliation  failing,  force  re- 
gacity  of  English  enterprise  ever  carried  mains ;  but,  force  failing,  no  further  hope 
this  most  perilous  mode  of  hardy  Indus-  of  reconciliation  is  left.  Power  and  au- 
try  to  the  extent  to  which  it  has  been  thority  are  sometimes  bought  by  kind- 
pushed  by  this  recent  people;  a  people  ness;  but  they  can  never  be  begged  as 
who  are  still,  as  it  were,  but  in  the  gris-  alms  by  an  impoverished  and  defeated  vio- 
tle,   and  not  yet  hardened  into   the  bone  lence. 

of  manhood.  When  I  contemplate  these  A  further  objection  to  force  is  that  you 
things,  when  I  know  that  the  colonies  impair  the  object  by  your  very  endeav- 
in  general  owe  little  or  nothing  to  any  ours  to  preserve  it.  The  thing  you  fought 
care  of  ours,  and  that  they  are  not  for  is  not  the  thing  which  you  recover, 
squeezed  into  this  happy  form  by  the  con-  but  depreciated,  sunk,  wasted,  and  con- 
straints of  watchful  and  suspicious  gov-  sumed  in  the  contest.  Nothing  less  will 
ernment,  but  that,  through  a  wise  and  content  me  than  ivhole  America.  I  do  not 
salutary  neglect,  a  generous  nature  has  clioose  to  consume  its  strength  along  with 
been  sulTered  to  take  her  own  way  to  per-  our  own;  because  in  all  parts  it  is  the 
fection;  when  I  reflect  upon  these  effects,  British  strength  that  I  consume.  I  do  not 
when  I  see  how  profitable  they  have  been  choose  to  be  caught  by  a  foreign  enemy 
to  us,  I  feel  all  the  pride  of  power  sink,  at  the  end  of  this  exhausting  cpnfiict; 
and  all  presumption  in  the  wisdom  of  hu-  and  still  less  in  the  midst  of  it.  I  may 
man  contrivances  melt  and  die  away  with-  escape;  but  I  can  make  no  insurance 
in  me.  My  rigour  relents.  I  pardon  some-  against  such  an  event.  Let  me  add  that 
thing  to  the  spirit  of  liberty.  I  do  not  choose  wholly  to  break  the  Amer- 
I  am  sensible,  sir,  that  all  which  I  have  ican  spirit;  because  it  is  the  spirit  that 
asserted  in  my  detail  is  admitted  in  the  has  made  the  country, 
gross;  but  that  quite  a  different  conclu-  Lastly,  we  have  no  sort  of  experience  in 
sion  is  drawn  from  it.  America,  gentle-  favour  of  force  as  an  instrument  in  the 
men  say,  is  a  noble  object.  It  is  an  object  rule  of  our  colonies.  Their  growth  and 
well  worth  fighting  for.  Certainly  it  is,  their  utility  has  been  owing  to  methods 
if  fighting  a  people  be  the  best  way  of  altogether  difl'erent.  Our  ancient  indul- 
gaining  them.  Gentlemen  in  this  respect  gence  has  been  said  to  be  pursued  to  a 
will  be  led  to  their  choice  of  means  by  fault.  It  may  be  so.  But  we  know,  if 
their  complexions  and  their  habits.  Those  feeling  is  evidence,  that  our  fault  was 
who  understand  the  military  art  will,  of  more  tolerable  than  our  attempt  to  mend 
course,  have  some  predilection  for  it.  it;  and  our  sin  far  more  salutary  than  our 
Those  who  wield  the  thunder  of  the  state  penitence. 

may  have  some  confidence  in  the  efficacy  These,  sir,  are  my  reasons  for  not  en- 

of  arms.     But  I  confess,  possibly  for  want  tertaining   that   high   opinion    of    untried 

of   this   knowledge,   my   opinion   is   much  force,  by  which  many  gentlemen,  for  whose 

more   in   favour   of   prudent   management  sentiments    in    other    particulars    I    have 

than   of   force;    considering  force  not   as  great  respect,  seem  to  be  so  greatly  capti- 

459 


BURKE,   EDMUND 


vated.  But  there  is  still  behind  a  third 
consideration  concerning  this  object,  which 
serves  to  determine  my  opinion  on  the  sort 
of  policy  which  ought  to  be  pursued  in 
the  management  of  America,  even  more 
than  its  population  and  its  commerce. 
I  mean  its  temper  and  character. 

In  this  character  of  the  Americans,  a 
love  of  freedom  is  the  predominating  feat- 
ure which  marks  and  distinguishes  the 
whole;  and  as  an  ardent  is  always  a  jeal- 
ous affection,  your  colonies  become  sus- 
picious, restive,  and  untractable,  when- 
ever they  see  the  least  attempt  to  wrest 
from  them  by  force,  or  shuffle  from  them 
by  chicane,  what  they  think  the  only  ad- 
vantage worth  living  for.  This  fierce 
spirit  of  liberty  is  stronger  in  the  Eng- 
lish colonies  probably  than  in  any  other 
people  of  the  earth;  and  this  from  a  great 
variety  of  powerful  causes;  which,  to 
understand  the  true  temper  of  their  minds 
and  the  direction  which  this  spirit  takes, 
it  will  not  be  amiss  to  lay  open  somewhat 
more  largely. 

First,  the  people  of  the  colonies  are 
descendants  of  Englishmen.  England, 
sir,  is  a  nation,  which  still,  I  hope,  re- 
spects, and  formerly  adored  her  freedom. 
The  colonists  emigrated  from  you  when 
this  part  of  your  character  was  most  pre- 
dominant; and  they  took  their  bias  and 
direction  the  moment  they  parted  from 
your  hands.  They  are,  therefore,  not  only 
devoted  to  liberty,  but  to  liberty  according 
to  English  ideas,  and  on  English  principles. 
Abstract  liberty,  like  other  mere  abstrac- 
tions, is  not  to  be  found.  Liberty  inheres 
in  some  sensible  object;  and  every  nation 
has  formed  to  itself  some  favourite  point, 
which  by  way  of  eminence  becomes  the 
criterion  of  their  happiness.  It  happened, 
you  know,  sir,  that  the  great  contests 
for  freedom  in  this  country  were  from  the 
earliest  times  chiefly  upon  the  question 
of  taxing.  Most  of  the  contests  in  the  an- 
cient commonwealths  turned  primarily  on 
the  right  of  election  of  magistrates  or  on 
the  balance  among  the  several  orders  of 
the  state.  The  question  of  money  was  not 
with  them  so  immediate.  But  in  Eng- 
land it  was  otherwise.  On  this  point  of 
taxes  the  ablest  pens  and  most  eloquent 
tongues  have  been  exercised;  the  greatest 
spirits  have  acted  and  suffered.  In  order 
to  give  the  fullest  satisfaction  concerning 


the  importance  of  this  point,  it  was  not 
only  necessary  for  those  who  in  argu- 
ment defended  the  excellence  of  the  Eng- 
lish constitution  to  insist  on  this  privi- 
lege of  granting  money  as  a  dry  point 
of  fact,  and  to  prove  that  the  right  had 
been  acknowledged  in  ancient  parchments, 
and  blind  usages,  to  reside  in  a  certain 
body  called  a  House  of  Commons.  They 
went  much  farther;  they  attempted  to 
prove,  and  they  succeeded,  that  in  theory 
it  ought  to  be  so,  from  the  particular  nat- 
ure of  a  House  of  Commons,  as  an  imme- 
diate representative  of  the  people;  whether 
the  old  records  had  delivered  this  oracle 
or  not.  They  took  infinite  pains  to  in- 
culcate, as  a  fundamental  principle,  that 
in  all  monarchies  the  people  must,  in  ef- 
fect, themselves,  mediately  or  immediately, 
possess  the  power  of  granting  their  own 
money,  or  no  shadow  of  liberty  could  sub- 
sist. The  colonies  draw  from  you,  as  with 
their  life-blood,  these  ideas  and  principles. 
Their  love  of  liberty,  as  with  you,  fixed 
and  attached  on  this  specific  point  of  tax- 
ing. Liberty  might  be  safe,  or  might  be 
endangered,  in  twenty  other  particulars, 
without  their  being  much  pleased  or  alarm- 
ed. Here  they  felt  its  pulse;  and  as  they 
found  that  beat,  they  thought  themselves 
sick  or  sound.  I  do  not  say  whether  they 
were  right  or  wrong  in  applying  your 
general  arguments  to  their  own  case.  It 
is  not  easy,  indeed,  to  make  a  monopoly 
of  theorems  an  corollaries.  The  fact  is 
that  they  did  thus  apply  those  general 
arguments ;  and  your  mode  of  governing 
them,  whether  through  lenity  or  indolence, 
through  wisdom  or  mistake,  confirmed 
them  in  the  imagination  that  they,  as 
well  as  you,  had  an  interest  in  these  com- 
mon principles. 

They  were  further  confirmed  in  this 
pleasing  error  by  the  form  of  their  pro- 
vincial legislative  assemblies.  Their  gov- 
ernments are  popular  in  a  high  degree; 
some  are  merely  popular;  in  all,  the  popu- 
lar representative  is  the  most  weighty; 
and  this  share  of  the  people  in  their  ordi- 
nary government  never  fails  to  inspire 
them  with  lofty  sentiments,  and  with  a 
strong  aversion  from  whatever  tends  to 
deprive  them  of  their  chief  importance. 

If  anything  were  wanting  to  this  neces- 
sary operation  of  the  form  of  government, 
religion  would  have  given  it  a  complete 


460 


BURKE,   EDMUND 


effect.  Religion,  always  a  principle  of 
energy,  in  this  new  people  is  no  way  worn 
out  or  impaired;  and  their  mode  of  pro- 
fessing it  is  also  one  main  cause  of  their 
free  spirit.  The  people  are  Protestants; 
and  of  that  kind  which  is  the  most  ad- 
verse to  all  implicit  submission  of  mind 
and  opinion.  This  is  a  persuasion  not 
only  favourable  to  liberty,  but  built  upon 
it.  I  do  not  think,  sir,  that  the  reason  of 
this  averseness  in  the  dissenting  churches 
from  all  that  looks  like  absolute  govern- 
raent  is  so  much  to  be  sought  in  their 
religious  tenets  as  in  their  history.  Every 
one  knows  that  the  Roman  Catholic  relig- 
ion is  at  least  coeval  with  most  of  the 
governments  where  it  prevails,  that  it  has 
generally  gone  hand  in  hand  with  them, 
and  received  great  favour  and  every  kind 
of  support  from  authority.  The  Church 
of  England,  too,  was  formed  from  her 
cradle  under  the  nursing  care  of  regular 
government.  But  the  dissenting  interests 
have  sprung  up  in  direct  opposition  to  all 
the  ordinary  powers  of  the  world,  and 
could  justify  that  opposition  only  on  a 
strong  claim  to  natural  liberty.  Their 
very  existence  depended  on  the  powerful 
and  unremitted  assertion  of  that  claim. 
All  Protestantism,  even  the  most  cold  and 
passive,  is  a  sort  of  dissent.  But  the  re- 
ligion most  prevalent  in  our  northern 
colonies  is  a  refinement  on  the  principle  of 
resistance ;  it  is  the  dissidence  of  dissent, 
and  the  Protestantism  of  the  Protestant 
religion.  This  religion,  under  a  variety 
of  denominations  agreeing  in  nothing  but 
in  the  communion  of  the  spirit  of  liberty, 
is  predominant  in  most  of  the  northern 
provinces,  where  the  Church  of  England, 
notwithstanding  its  legal  rights,  is  in 
reality  no  more  than  a  sort  of  private 
sect,  not  composing  most  probably  the 
tenth  of  the  people.  The  colonists  left 
England  when  this  spirit  was  high,  and 
in  the  emigrants  was  the  highest  of  all ; 
and  even  that  stream  of  foreigners,  which 
has  been  constantly  flowing  into  these 
colonies,  has,  for  the  greatest  part,  been 
composed  of  dissenters  from  the  establish- 
ments of  their  several  countries,  and  have 
brought  with  them  a  temper  and  character 
far  from  alien  to  that  of  the  people  with 
whom  they  mixed. 

Sir,    I    can    perceive    by    their    manner 
that   some  gentlemen  object  to  the  lati- 


461 


tude  of  this  description;  because  in  the 
southern  colonies  the  Church  of  England 
forms  a  large  body,  and  has  a  regular  es- 
tablishment. It  is  certainly  true.  There 
is,  however,  a  circumstance  attending 
these  colonies,  which,  in  my  opinion,  fully 
counterbalances  this  difl'erence,  and  makes 
the  spirit  of  liberty  still  more  high  and 
haughty  than  in  those  to  the  northward. 
It  is  that  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas 
they  have  a  vast  number  of  slaves.  Where 
this  is  the  case  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
those  who  are  free  are  by  far  the  most 
proud  and  jealous  of  their  freedom.  Free- 
dom is  to  them  not  only  an  enjoyment, 
but  a  kind  of  rank  and  privilege.  Not 
seeing  there,  that  freedom,  as  in  countries 
where  it  is  a  common  blessing,  and  as 
broad  and  general  as  the  air,  may  be 
united  with  much  abject  toil,  with  great 
misery,  with  all  the  exterior  of  servitude, 
liberty  looks  amongst  them  like  some- 
thing that  is  more  noble  and  liberal.  I 
do  not  mean,  sir,  to  commend  the  superior 
morality  of  this  sentiment,  which  has  at 
least  as  much  pride  as  virtue  in  it;  but 
I  cannot  alter  the  nature  of  man.  The 
fact  is  so;  and  these  people  of  the  south- 
ern colonies  are  much  more  strongly,  and 
with  a  higher  and  more  stubborn  spirit, 
attached  to  liberty,  than  those  to  the 
northward.  Such  were  all  the  ancient 
commonwealths ;  such  were  our  Gothic  an- 
cestors ;  such  in  our  days  were  the  Poles ; 
and  such  will  be  all  masters  of  slaves,  who 
are  not  slaves  themselves.  In  such  a  peo- 
ple, the  haughtiness  of  domination  com- 
bines with  the  spirit  of  freedom,  fortifies 
it,  and  renders  it  invincible. 

Permit  me,  sir,  to  add  another  circum- 
stance in  our  colonies,  which  contributes 
no  mean  part  towards  the  growth  and 
effect  of  this  untractable  spirit.  I  mean 
their  education.  In  no  country  perhaps 
in  the  world  is  the  law  so  general  a  study. 
The  profession  itself  is  numerous  and  pow- 
erful ;  and  in  most  provinces  it  takes  the 
lead.  The  greater  number  of  the  deputies 
sent  to  the  colonies  were  lawyers.  But  all 
who  read  —  and  most  do  read  —  endeav- 
our to  obtain  some  smattering  in  that 
science.  I  have  been  told  by  an  emi- 
nent bookseller,  that  in  no  branch  of 
his  business,  after  tracts  of  popular  de- 
votion, were  so  many  books  as  those  on 
the  law  exported  to  the  plantations.     The 


BURKE,    EDMUND 

colonists    have   now   fallen    into    the   way  of  raging  passions   and  furious  elements, 

of     printing    them     for     their     own     use.  and  says,  "  So  far  shalt  thou  go,  and  no 

I    hear    that    they    have    sold    nearly    as  farther."     Who  are  you,  that  should  fret 

many    of    Blackstone's    Commentaries    in  and  rage,  and  bite  the  chains  of  nature? 

America    as    in    England.     General    Gage  Nothing  worse  happens  to  you  than  does 

marks  out  this  disposition  very  particu-  to  all  nations  who  have  extensive  empire; 

larly  in  a  letter  on  your  table.     He  states  and  it  happens  in  all  the  forms  into  which 

that    all    the    jDcople    in    his    government  empire   can  be   thrown.     In   large  bodies, 

are   lawyers,   or   smatterers   in   law;    and  the  circulation  of  power  must  be  less  vig- 

that   in   Boston   they   have   been   enabled,  orous    at    the    extremities.      Nature    has 

by    successful    chicane,    wholly    to    evade  said  it.     The  Turk  cannot  govern  Egypt, 

many  parts  of  one  of  your  capital  penal  and  Arabia,  and  Curdistan,  as  he  governs 

constitutions.     The    smartness    of    debate  Thrace;    nor   has   he   the   same   dominion 

will    say    that    this    knowledge    ought   to  in   Crimea   and   Algiers   which   he  has   at 

teach  them  more  clearly  the  rights  of  leg-  Brusa   and   Smyrna.     Despotism   itself   is 

islature,    their    obligations    to    obedience,  obliged  to  truck  and  huckster.     The  Sul- 

and  the  penalties  of  rebellion.     All  tliis  is  tan   gets   such   obedience   as   he    can.     He 

mighty  well.     But  my  honoured  and  learn-  governs   with   a   loose   rein   that   he   may 

ed   friend   on   the   floor,   who   condescends  govern  at  all;  and  the  whole  of  the  force 

to  mark   what   I   say   for   animadversion,  and  vigour  of  his  authority  in  his  centre 

will  disdain  that  ground.     He  has  heard,  is   derived   from   a   prudent  relaxation   in 

as  well  as  I,  that  when  great  honours  and  all  his  borders.     Spain,  in  her  provinces, 

great   emoluments   do   not   win   over   this  is,  perhaps,  not  so  well  obeyed  as  you  are 

knowledge  to  the  service  of  the  state,  it  is  in  yours.     She  complies  too;  she  submits; 

a  formidable  adversary  to  government.  If  she  watches  times.     This  is  the  immuta- 

the   spirit  be   not   tamed   and   broken   by  ble  condition,  the  eternal  law,  of  extensive 

these  happy  methods,  it  is  stubborn  and  and  detached  empire. 

litigious.     Aheunt  studia  in  mores    (Pur-  Then,     sir,      from     these     six     capital 

suits     influence     character).     This     study  sources:    of   descent;    of   form   of   govern- 

renders  men  acute,  inquisitive,  dexterous,  ment;    of   religion   in  the   northern   prov- 

prompt  in  attack,   ready  in   defence,   full  inces;    of    manners    in    the    southern;    of 

of  resources.     In  other  countries,  the  peo-  education;  of  the  remoteness  of  situation 

pie,  more  simple,  and  of  a  less  mercurial  from  the  first  mover  of  government — from 

cast,  judge  of  an  ill  principle  in  govern-  all  these  causes  a  fierce  spirit  of  liberty 

ment   only  by  an   actual   grievance;    here  has   grown   up.     It   has   grown   with   the 

they  anticipate  the  evil,  and  judge  of  the  growth  of  the  people  in  your  colonies,  and 

pressure  of  the  grievance  by  the  badness  increased     with     the     increase     of     their 

of  the  principle.     They  augur  misgovern-  wealth;   a  spirit  that,  unhappily  meeting 

ment   at    a   distance;    and    snuflf   the   ap-  with    an    exercise    of    power    in    England, 

proach  of  tyranny  in  every  tainted  breeze,  which,  however  lawful,  is  not  reconcilable 

The  last  cause  of  this  disobedient  spirit  to   any  ideas   of   liberty,   much   less   with 

in    the    colonies    is    hardly   less    powerful  theirs,  has  kindled  the  flame  that  is  ready 

than  the  rest,  as  it  is  not  merely  moral,  to  consume  us. 

but  laid  deep  in  the  natural  constitution  I  do  not  mean  to  commend  either  the 

of  things.     Three  thousand  miles  of  ocean  spirit  in  this  excess,  or  the  moral  causes 

lie   between  you   and   them.     No   contriv-  which  produce  it.    Perhaps  a  more  smooth 

ance  can  prevent  the  effect  of  this  distance  and   accommodating   spirit   of   freedom  in 

in  weakening  government.     Seas  roll,  and  them    would    be    more    acceptable    to    us. 

months  pass,  between  the  order   and  the  Perhaps  ideas  of  liberty  might  be  desired, 

execution;   and  the  want  of  a  speedy  ex-  more  reconcilable  Avith   an   arbitrary  and 

planation  of  a  single  point  is  enough  to  boundless   authority.      Perhaps   we   might 

defeat    a    whole    system.     You    have,    in-  wish   the   colonists   to   be   persuaded   that 

deed,  winged  ministers  of  vengeance,  who  their  liberty  is  more  secure  when  laid  in 

carry  your  bolts  in  their  pounces  to  the  trust  for  them  by  us   (as  their  guardians 

remotest  verge  of  the   sea.     But  there   a  during  a  perpetual   minority)    than  with 

power  steps  in,  that  limits  the  arrogance  any  part  of  it  in  their  own  hands.     The 

462 


BirilKE,   EDMIJNI) 


question  is,  not  whether  their  spirit  de- 
serves praise  or  blame,  but — what,  in 
the  name  of  God,  shall  we  do  with  it? 
You  have  before  you  the  object,  such  as  it 
is,  with  all  its  glories,  with  all  its  imper- 
fections, on  its  head.  You  see  the  magni- 
tude; the  importance;  the  temper;  the 
habits;  the  disorders.  By  all  these  con- 
siderations we  are  strongly  urged  to  de- 
termine something  concerning  it.  We 
are  called  upon  to  fix  some  rule  and  line 
for  our  future  conduct,  which  may  give 
a  little  stability  to  our  politics,  and  pre- 
vent the  return  of  such  unhappy  deliber- 
ations as  the  present.  Every  such  return 
will  bring  the  matter  before  us  in  a  still 
more  untractable  form.  For,  what  aston- 
ishing and  incredible  things  have  we  not 
seen  already!  What  monsters  have  not 
been  generated  from  this  imnatural  con- 
tention! Whilst  every  principle  of  au- 
thority and  resistance  has  been  pushed, 
upon  both  sides,  as  far  as  it  would  go, 
there  is  nothing  so  solid  and  certain,  either 
in  reasoning  or  in  practice,  that  has  not 
been  shaken.  Until  very  lately,  all  au- 
thority in  America  seemed  to  be  nothing 
but  an  emanation  from  yours.  Even  the 
popular  part  of  the  colony  constitution 
derived  all  its  activity,  and  its  first  vital 
movement,  from  the  pleasure  of  the  crown. 
We  thought,  sir,  that  the  utmost  which 
the  discontented  colonists  could  do  was 
to  disturb  authority;  we  never  dreamt 
they  could  of  themselves  supply  it,  know- 
ing in  general  what  an  operose  business 
it  is  to  establish  a  government  absolutely 
new.  But  having,  for  our  purposes  in  this 
contention,  resolved  that  none  but  an 
obedient  assembly  should  sit,  the  humours 
of  the  people  there,  finding  all  passage 
through  the  legal  channels  stopped,  with 
great  violence  broke  out  another  way. 
Some  provinces  have  tried  their  experi- 
ment, as  we  have  tried  ours;  and  theirs 
have  succeeded.  They  have  formed  a  gov- 
ernment sufficient  for  its  purposes,  with- 
out the  bustle  of  a  revolution,  or  the 
troublesome  formality  of  an  election.  Evi- 
dent necessity,  and  tacit  consent,  have 
done  the  business  in  an  instant.  So  well 
they  have  done  it,  that  Lord  Dunmore 
(the  account  is  among  the  fragments  on 
your  table)  tells  you,  that  the  new 
institution  is  infinitely  better  obeyed  than 
the   ancient   government   ever   was   in   its 


most  fortunate  periods.  Obedience  is  what 
makes  government,  and  not  the  names  by 
which  it  is  called;  not  the  name  of  govern- 
or, as  formerly,  or  committee,  as  at  pres- 
ent. This  new  government  has  originated 
directly  from  the  people;  and  was  not 
transmitted  through  any  of  the  ordinary 
media  of  a  positive  constitution.  It  was 
not  a  manufacture  ready  formed,  but 
transmitted  to  them  in  that  condition 
from  England.  The  evil  arising  from 
hence  is  this:  that  the  colonists  having 
once  found  the  possibility  of  enjoying  the 
advantages  of  order  in  the  midst  of  a 
struggle  for  liberty,  such  struggles  will 
not  henceforward  seem  so  terrible  to  the 
settled  and  sober  part  of  mankind  as  they 
had  appeared  before  the  trial. 

Pursuing  the  same  plan  of  punishing  by 
the  denial  of  the  exercise  of  government 
to  still  greater  lengths,  we  wholly  abro- 
gated the  ancient  government  of  Massa- 
chusetts. We  were  confident  that  the  first 
feeling,  if  not  the  very  prospect  of  anar- 
chy, would  instantly  enforce  a  complete 
submission.  The  experiment  was  tried. 
A  new,  strange,  unexpected  face  of  things 
appeared.  Anarchy  is  found  tolerable.  A 
vast  province  has  now  subsisted,  and  siib- 
sisted  in  a  considerable  degree  of  health 
and  vigour,  for  near  a  twelvemonth,  with- 
out governor,  without  public  council,  with- 
out judges,  without  executive  magistrates. 
How  long  it  will  continue  in  this  state,  or 
what  may  rise  out  of  this  unheard-of 
situation,  how  can  the  wisest  of  us  con- 
jecture? Our  late  experience  has  taught 
us  that  many  of  those  fundamental  prin- 
ciples, formerly  believed  infallible,  are 
either  not  of  the  importance  they  were 
imagined  to  be,  or  that  we  have  not  at 
all  adverted  to  some  other  far  more  im- 
portant and  far  more  powerful  prin- 
ciples, which  entirely  overrule  those  we 
had  considered  as  omnipotent.  I  am  much 
against  any  further  experiments,  which 
tend  to  put  to  the  proof  any  more  of  these 
allowed  opinions,  which  contribute  so 
much  to  the  public  tranquillity.  In  effect, 
we  suffer  as  much  at  home  by  this  loosen- 
ing of  all  ties,  and  this  concussion  of  all 
established  opinions,  as  we  do  abroad. 
For,  in  order  to  prove  that  the  Americans 
have  no  right  to  their  liberties,  we  are 
every  day  endeavouring  to  subvert  the 
maxims   which   preserve  the  whole   spirit 


463 


BUaKE,  EDMtTND 

of  our  own.     To  prove  that  the  Americans  only  withheld  its  grants,  but  annihilated 

ought  not  to  be  free,  we  are  obliged  to  de-  its    soil.     If    this    be    the    case,    then    the 

predate  the  value  of  freedom  itself ;   and  only  efi'ect  of  this   avarice  of  desolation, 

we  never  seem  to  gain  a  paltry  advantage  this  hoarding  of  a  royal  wilderness,  would 

over    them    in    debate,    without   attacking  be   to   raise   the   value   of   the   possession 

some  of  those  principles,  or  deriding  some  in  the  hands  of  the  great  private  monop- 

of  those  feelings,  for  which  our  ancestors  olists,  without  any  adequate  check  to  the 

have  shed  their  blood.  growing  and  alarming  mischief  of  popu- 

But,  sir,  in  wishing  to  put  an   end  to  lation. 

pernicious  experiments,  I  do  not  mean  to  But  if  you  stopped  your  grants,  what 

preclude  the  fullest  inquiry.     Far  from  it.  would   be   the    consequences?     The   people 

Far  from  deciding  on  a  sudden  or  partial  would  occupy  without  grants.     They  have 

view,    I    would    patiently    go    round    and  already  so  occupied  in  many  places.     You 

round  the  subject,  and  survey  it  minutely  cannot  station  garrisons  in  every  part  of 

in   every   possible   aspect.      Sir,   if   I   were  these    deserts.     If    you    drive    the    people 

capable  of  engaging  you  to  an  equal   at-  from  one  place,  they  will  carry  on  their 

tention,    I    would    state    that,    as    far    as  annual    tillage,    and    remove    with    their 

I    am    capable    of    discerning,    there    are  flocks  and  herds  to  another.     Many  of  the 

but  three  ways  of  proceeding  relative  to  people  in  the  back  settlements  are  already 

this  stubborn  spirit  which  prevails  in  our  little    attached    to    particular    situations, 

colonies,    and    disturbs    your    government.  Already  they  have  topped  the  Appalachian 

These  are — To  change  that  spirit,   as  in-  Mountains.     From  thence  they  behold  be- 

convenient,   by  removing  the   causes.      To  fore    them    an    immense    plain,    one    vast, 

prosecute    it    as    criminal.      Or,    to    com-  rich,  level  meadow;  a  square  of  500  miles, 

ply   with   it   as   necessary.      I   would   not  Over  this  they  would   wander   without   a 

be  guilty  of  an  imperfect  enumeration;   I  possibility     of     restraint;      they     would 

can  think  of  but  these  three.    Another  has  change  their  manners  with  the  habits  of 

indeed  been  stated,  that  of  giving  up  the  their   life;    would   soon   forget   a   govern- 

colonies;  but  it  met  so  slight  a  reception,  ment     by     which     they     were     diso\\Tied; 

that    I    do    not    think    myself    obliged    to  would  become  hordes  of  English  Tartars; 

dwell  a  great  while  upon  it.    It  is  nothing  and  pouring  down  upon  your  unfortified 

but  a  little  sally  of  anger,  like  the   fro-  frontiers  a  fierce  and  irresistible  cavalry, 

wardness  of  peevish   children,  who,  when  become    masters    of    your    governors    and 

they  cannot  get  all  they  would  have,  are  your     counsellors,     your     collectors     and 

resolved   to   take   nothing.  comptrollers,    and   of   all   the   slaves   that 

The  first  of  these  plans,  to  change  the  adhere  to  them.  Such  would,  and,  in  no 
spirit  as  inconvenient,  by  removing  the  long  time,  must  be,  the  effect  of  attempt- 
causes,  I  think,  is  the  most  like  a  syste-  ing  to  forbid  as  a  crime,  and  to  suppress 
matic  proceeding.  It  is  radical  in  its  as  an  evil,  the  command  and  blessing  of 
principle;  but  it  is  attended  Avith  great  Providence,  "Increase  and  multiply." 
difficulties,  some  of  them  little  short,  as  I  Such  would  be  the  happy  result  of  an 
conceive,  of  impossibilities.  This  will  ap-  endeavour  to  keep  as  a  lair  of  wild  beasts 
pear  by  examining  into  the  plans  which  that  earth  which  God,  by  an  express  char- 
have  been  proposed.  ter,    has    given    to    the    children    of    men. 

As  the  growing  population  in  the  col-  Far  different,  and  surely  much  wiser,  has 

onies  is  evidently  one  cause  of  their   re-  been    our    policy    hitherto.      Hitherto    we 

sistance,    it    was    last    session    mentioned  have  invited  our  people,  by  every  kind  of 

in   both  ■  Houses   by   men   of   weight,    and  bounty,  to  fixed  establishments.     We  have 

received  not  without  applause,  that  in  or-  invited   the    husbandman   to   look   to   au- 

der  to  check  this  evil  it  would  be  proper  thority  for  his  title.     We  have  taught  him 

for  the  crown  to  make  no  further  grants  piously  to  believe  in  the  mysterious  virtue 

of   land.     But   to   this    scheme   there    are  of  wax  and  parchment.     We  have  thrown 

two   objections.     The   first,   that   there   is  each  tract  of  land,  as  it  was  peopled,  into 

already  so  much  unsettled  land  in  private  districts,    that    the    ruling    power    should 

hands  as  to  afford  room  for  an  immense  never  be  wholly  out  of   sight.     We  have 

future  population,  although  the  crown  not  settled   all  we  could;    and  we  have  care- 

464 


BUBKE,    EDMUND 


fully  attended  every  settlement  with  gov- 
ernment. 

Adhering,  sir,  as  I  do,  to  this  policy, 
as  well  as  for  the  reasons  I  have  just 
given,  I  think  this  new  project  of  hedging 
in  population  to  be  neither  prudent  nor 
practicable.      To   impoverish   the   colonies 


er  to  change  their  republican  religion,  as 
their  free  descent;  or  to  substitute  the 
Eoman  Catholic,  as  a  penalty,  or  the 
Church  of  England,  as  an  improvement. 
The  mode  of  inquisition  and  dragooning 
is  going  out  of  fashion  in  the  Old  World ; 
and   I   should   not   confide   much   to   their 


in   general,    and   in   particular    to    arrest    efficacy  in  the  New.     The  education  of  the 

Americans  is  also  on  the  same  unalter- 
able bottom  with  their  religion.  You 
cannot  persuade  them  to  burn  their  books 
of  curious  science;  to  banish  their  lawyers 
from  their  courts  of  law;  or  to  quench  the 
light   of   their   assemblies   by   refusing   to 


the  noble  course  of  their  marine  enter- 
prises, would  be  a  more  easy  task.  I 
freely  confess  it.  We  have  shown  a  dis- 
position to  a  system  of  this  kind;  a  dis- 
position even  to  continue  the  restraint  af- 
ter  the   offence;    looking  on  ourselves   as 


rivals  to  our  colonies,  and  persuaded  that  choose  those  persons  who  are  best  read  in 

of    course    we    must    gain    all    that    they  their  privileges.     It  would  be  no  less  im- 

shall    lose.     Much   mischief   we   may   cer-  'practicable  to  think  of  wholly  annihilat- 

tainly  do.     The   power   inadequate  to   all  ing  the  popular  assemblies,  in  which  these 

other  things  is  often  more  than  sufficient  lawyers  sit.     The  array,  by  which  we  must 

for  this.     I  do  not  look  on  the  direct  and  govern  in  their  place,  would  be  far  more 

immediate  power  of  the  colonies  to  resist  chargeable  to  us;   not  quite  so  effectual; 

our  violence  as  very  formidable.     In  this,  and  perhaps,  in  the  end,  full  as  difficult  to 

however,  I  may  be  mistaken.     But  when  I  be  kept  in  obedience. 


consider  that  we  have  colonies  for  no  pur- 
pose but  to  be  serviceable  to  us,  it  seems 
to  my  poor  understanding  a  little  pre- 
posterous to  make  them  unserviceable  in 
order  to  keep  them  obedient.  It  is,  in 
truth,  nothing  more  than  the  old  and,  as 
I  thought,  exploded  problem  of  tyranny, 
which  proposes  to  beggar  its  subjects  into 
submission.  But  remember,  when  you 
have  completed  your  system  of  impover- 
ishment, that  nature  still  proceeds  in  her 
ordinary  course;  that  discontent  will  in- 
crease with  misery;  and  that  there  are 
critical  moments  in  the  fortune  of  all 
states,  when  they  who  are  too  weak  to 
contribute  to  your  prosperity,  may  be 
strong    enough    to    complete    your    ruin. 


With  regard  to  the  high  aristocratic 
spirit  of  Virginia  and  the  southern  col- 
onies, it  has  been  proposed,  I  know,  to 
reduce  it,  by  declaring  a  general  enfran- 
chisement of  their  slaves.  This  project 
has  had  its  advocates  and  panegyrists; 
yet  I  never  could  argue  myself  into  any 
opinion  of  it.  Slaves  are  often  much  at- 
tached to  their  masters.  A  general  wild 
ofl'er  of  liberty  would  not  always  be  ac- 
cepted. History  furnishes  few  instances 
of  it.  It  is  sometimes  as  hard  to  persuade 
slaves  to  be  free,  as  it  is  to  compel  free- 
men to  be  slaves,  and  in  this  auspicious 
scheme,  we  should  have  both  these  pleas- 
ing tasks  on  our  hands  at  once.  But  when 
we  talk  of  enfranchisement,  do  we  not  per- 


Spoliatis  arma  supersunt  (The  plundered  ceive  that  the  American  master  may  en- 
ne'er  want  arms).  franchise  too;  and  arm  servile  hands  in 
The  temper  and  character  which  pre-  defence  of  freedom?  A  measure  to  which 
vail  in  our  colonies  are,  I  am  afraid,  other  people  have  had  recourse  more  than 
unalterable  by  any  human  art.  We  can-  once,  and  not  without  success,  in  a  des- 
not,  I  fear,  falsify  the  pedigree  of  this  perate  situation  of  their  affairs, 
fierce  people,  and  persuade  them  that  they  Slaves  as  these  unfortunate  black  peo- 


are  not  sprung  from  a  nation  in  whose 
veins  the  blood  of  freedom  circulates. 
The  language  in  which  they  would  hear 
you  tell  them  this  tale  would  detect  the 
imposition ;  your  speech  would  betray  you. 


pie  are,  and  dull  as  all  men  are  from 
slavery,  must  they  not  a  little  suspect  the 
offer  of  freedom  from  that  very  nation 
which  has  sold  them  to  their  present  mas- 
ters?   from    that    nation,    one    of    whose 


An  Englishman  is  the  unfittest  person  on    causes   of   quarrel   with   those  masters   is 

earth  to  argue   another  Englishman  into    their  refusal  to  deal  any  more  in  that  in- 

slavery.  human  traffic?     An  offer  of  freedom  from 

I  think  it  is  nearly  as  little  in  our  pow-    England  would  come  rather  oddly,  shipped 

1.-2  G  465 


BURKE,   EDMUND 


to  them  in  an  African  vessel,  which  is  re- 
fused an  entry  into  the  ports  of  Virginia 
or  Carolina,  with  a  cargo  of  300  Anglo 
negroes.  It  would  be  curious  to  see  the 
Guinea  captain  attempting  at  the  same 
instant  to  publish  his  proclamation  of 
liberty,  and  to  advertise  his  sale  of  slaves. 

But  let  us  suppose  all  these  moral  diffi- 
culties got  over.  The  ocean  remains. 
You  cannot  pump  this  dry;  and  as  long 
as  it  continues  in  its  present  bed,  so  long 
all  the  causes  which  weaken  authority 
by  distance  will  continue.  "  Ye  gods,  an- 
nihilate but  space  and  time,  and  make 
two  lovers  happy!"  was  a  pious  and  pas- 
sionate prayer;  but  just  as  reasonable,  as 
many  of  the  serious  wishes  of  very  grave 
and  solemn  politicians. 

If,  then,  sir,  it  seems  almost  desperate 
to  think  of  any  alternative  course,  for 
changing  the  moral  causes  (and  not  quite 
easy  to  remove  the  natural)  which  pro- 
duce prejudices  irreconcilable  to  the  late 
exercise  of  our  authority;  but  that  the 
sjDirit  infallibly  will  continue ;  and,  con- 
tinuing, will  produce  such  eflfects  as  now 
embarrass  us,  the  second  mode  under  con- 
sideration is,  to  prosecute  that  spirit  in 
its  overt  acts,  as  criminal. 

At  th?s  proposition  I  must  pause  a 
moment.  The  thing  seems  a  great  deal 
too  big  for  my  ideas  of  jurisprudence.  It 
would  seem  to  my  way  of  conceiving  such 
matters,  that  there  is  a  very  wide  differ- 
ence in  reason  and  policy,  between  the 
mode  of  proceeding  on  the  irregular  con- 
duct of  scattered  individuals,  or  even  of 
bands  of  men,  who  disturb  order  within 
the  state,  and  the  civil  dissensions  which 
may,  from  time  to  time,  on  great  ques- 
tions, agitate  the  several  communities 
which  compose  a  great  empire.  It  looks 
to  me  to  be  narrow  and  pedantic,  to  apply 
the  ordinary  ideas  of  criminal  justice  to 
this  great  public  contest.  I  do  not  know 
the  method  of  drawing  up  an  indictment 
against  a  whole  people.  I  cannot  insult 
and  ridicule  the  feelings  of  millions  of 
my  fellow-creatures,  as  Sir  Edward  Coke 
insulted  one  excellent  individual  (Sir 
Walter  Raleigh)  at  the  bar.  I  hope  I 
am  not  ripe  to  pass  sentence  on  the  grav- 
est public  bodies,  intrusted  with  magis- 
tracies of  great  authority  and  dignity, 
and  charged  with  the  safety  of  their  fel- 
low-citizens, upon  the  very  same  title  that 


I  am.  I  really  think,  that  for  wise  men 
this  is  not  judicious;  for  sober  men,  not 
decent;  for  minds  tinctured  with  human- 
ity, not  mild  and  merciful. 

Perhaps,  sir,  I  am  mistaken  in  my  ideas 
of  an  empire,  as  distinguished  from  a 
single  state  or  kingdom.  But  my  idea 
of  it  is  this:  that  an  empire  is  the  ag- 
gregate of  many  states  under  one  com- 
mon head,  whether  this  head  be  a  mon- 
arch, or  a  presiding  republic.  It  does,  in 
such  constitutions,  frequently  happen 
(and  nothing  but  the  dismal,  cold,  dead 
uniformity  of  servitude  can  prevent  its 
happening)  that  the  subordinate  parts 
have  many  local  privileges  and  immunities. 
Between  these  23rivileges  and  the  supreme 
common  authority  the  line  may  be  ex- 
tremely nice.  Of  course,  disputes,  often, 
too,  very  bitter  disputes,  and  much  ill 
blood,  will  arise.  But  though  every  privi- 
lege is  an  exemption  (in  the  case)  from 
the  ordinary  exercise  of  the  supreme  au- 
thority, it  is  no  denial  of  it.  The  claim 
of  a  privilege  seems  rather,'  ex  vi  termini 
(by  the  meaning  of  the  term),  to  imply  a 
superior  power.  For  to  talk  of  the  privi- 
leges of  a  state,  or  of  a  person,  Avho  has 
no  superior,  is  hardly  any  better  than 
speaking  nonsense.  Now,  in  such  unfort- 
unate quarrels  among  the  component 
parts  of  a  great  political  union  of  com- 
munities, I  can  scarcely  conceive  anything 
more  completely  imprudent,  than  for  the 
head  of  the  empire  to  insist,  that,  if  any 
privilege  is  pleaded  against  his  will,  or 
his  acts,  his  whole  authority  is  denied; 
instantly  to  proclaim  rebellion,  to  beat 
to  arms,  and  to  put  the  offending  prov- 
inces under  the  ban.  Will  not  this,  sir, 
very  soon  teach  the  provinces  to  make  no 
distinctions  on  their  part?  Will  it  not 
teach  them  that  the  government,  against 
which  a  claim  of  liberty  is  tantamount  to 
high  treason,  is  a  government  to  which 
submission  is  equivalent  to  slavery?  It 
may  not  always  be  quite  convenient  to 
impress  dependent  communities  with  such 
an  idea. 

We  are,  indeed,  in  all  disputes  with 
the  colonies,  by  the  necessity  of  things, 
the  judge.  It  is  true,  sir.  But  I  confess, 
that  the  character  of  judge  in  my  ovni 
cause  is  a  thing  that  frightens  me.  In- 
stead of  filling  me  with  pride,  I  am  ex- 
ceedingly humbled  by  it.     I   cannot  pro- 


466 


BTJRKE,   EDMUND 


ceed  with  a  stern,  assured,  judicial  con- 
fidence, until  I  find  myself  in  something 
more  like  a  judicial  character.  I  must 
have  these  hesitations  as  long  as  I  am 
compelled  to  recollect,  that,  in  my  little 
reading  upon  such  contests  as  these,  the 
sense  of  mankind  has,  at  least,  as  often 
decided  against  the  superior  as  the  subor- 
dinate power.  Sir,  let  me  add  too,  that  the 
opinion  of  my  having  some  abstract  right 
in  my  favour,  would  not  put  me  much 
at  my  ease  in  passing  sentence;  unless  I 
could  be  sure,  that  there  were  no  rights 
which,  in  their  exercise  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, were  not  the  most  odious  of 
all  wrongs,  and  the  most  vexatious  of 
all  injustice.  Sir,  these  considerations 
have  great  weight  with  me,  when  I  find 
things  so  circumstanced,  that  I  see  the 
same  party,  at  once  a  civil  litigant  against 
me  in  point  of  right,  and  a  culprit  before 
me;  while  I  sit  as  a  criminal  judge,  on 
acts  of  his  whose  moral  quality  is  to  be 
decided  upon  the  merits  of  that  very  liti- 
gation. Men  are  every  now  and  then  put, 
by  the  complexity  of  human  aff"airs,  into 
strange  situations:  but  justice  is  the 
same,  let  the  judge  be  in  what  situation 
he  will. 

There  is,  sir,  also  a  circumstance  which 
convinces  me  that  this  mode  of  criminal 
proceeding  is  not  (at  least  in  the  present 
stage  of  our  contest)  altogether  expedi- 
ent; which  is  nothing  less  than  the  con- 
duct of  those  very  persons  who  have  seem- 
ed to  adopt  that  mode,  by  lately  declar- 
ing a  rebellion  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  as 
they  had  formerly  addressed  to  have  trai- 
tors brought  hither,  under  an  act  of  Henry 
VIII.,  for  trial.  For  though  rebellion 
is  declared,  it  is  not  proceeded  against 
as  such;  nor  have  any  steps  been  taken 
towards  the  apprehension  or  conviction  of 
any  individual  offender,  either  on  our  late 
or  our  former  address;  but  modes  of  pub- 
lic coercion  have  been  adopted,  and  such 
as  have  much  more  resemblance  to  a  sort 
of  qualified  hostility  towards  an  inde- 
pendent power  than  the  punishment  of 
rebellious  subjects.  All  this  seems  rather 
inconsistent ;  but  it  shows  how  difficult  it 
is  to  apply  these  judicial  ideas  to  our  pres- 
ent case. 

In  this  situation  let  us  seriously  and 
coolly  ponder.  What  is  it  we  have  got  by 
all  our   menaces,   which  have  been  many 

46 


and  ferocious?  What  advantage  have  we 
derived  from  the  penal  laws  we  have 
passed,  and  which,  for  the  time,  have  been 
severe  and  numerous?  What  advances 
have  Ave  made  towards  our  object,  by  the 
sending  of  a  force,  which,  by  land  and  sea, 
is  no  contemptible  strength?  Has  the  dis- 
order abated?  Nothing  less.  When  I  see 
things  in  this  situation,  after  such  con- 
fident hopes,  bold  promises,  and  active 
exertions,  I  cannot,  for  my  life,  avoid  a 
suspicion  that  the  plan  itself  is  not  cor- 
rectly right. 

If,  then,  the  removal  of  the  causes  of 
this  spirit  of  American  liberty  be,  for  the 
greater  part,  or  rather  entirely,  imprac- 
ticable; if  the  ideas  of  criminal  process 
be  inapplicable,  are  in  the  highest  degree 
inexpedient,  what  way  yet  remains?  No 
way  is  open,  but  the  third  and  last,  to 
comply  with  the  American  spirit  as  nec- 
essary; or,  if  you  please,  to  submit  to 
it  as  a  necessary  evil. 

If  we  adopt  this  mode;  if  we  mean  to 
conciliate  and  concede,  let  us  see  of  what 
nature  the  concession  ought  to  be;  to  as- 
certain the  nature  of  our  concession  we 
must  look  at  their  complaint.  The  colo- 
nies complain  that  they  have  not  the  char- 
acteristic mark  and  seal  of  British  free- 
dom. They  complain  that  they  are  taxed 
in  a-  Parliament  in  which  they  are  not  rep- 
resented. If  you  mean  to  satisfy  them  all, 
you  must  satisfy  them  with  regard  to 
this  complaint.  If  you  mean  to  please 
any  people,  you  must  give  them  the  boon 
which  they  ask;  not  what  you  may  think 
better  for  them,  but  of  a  kind  totally  dif- 
ferent. Such  an  act  may  be  a  wise  regu- 
lation, but  it  is  no  concession:  whereas 
our  present  theme  is  the  mode  of  giving 
satisfaction. 

Sir,  I  think  you  must  perceive  that  I 
am  resolved  this  day  to  have  nothing  at 
all  to  do  with  the  question  of  the  right 
of  taxation.  Some  gentlemen  startle,  but 
it  is  true;  I  put  it  totally  out  of  the 
question.  It  is  less  than  nothing  in  my 
consideration.  I  do  not,  indeed,  wonder, 
nor  will  you,  sir,  that  gentlemen  of  pro- 
found learning  are  fond  of  displaying  it 
on  this  profound  subject.  But  my  consid- 
eration is  narrow,  confined,  and  Avholly 
limited  to  the  policy  of  the  question.  I 
do  not  examine,  whether  the  giving  away 
a  man's  money  be  a  power  excepted  and 


BURKE,   EDMUND 

reserved  out  of  the  general  trust  of  gov-  principles  of  freedom.  I  am  not  determin- 
ernment;  and  how  far  all  mankind,  in  all  ing  a  point  of  law;  I  am  restoring  tran- 
forms  of  polity,  are  entitled  to  an  exer-  quillity;  and  the  general  character  and 
cise  of  that  light  by  the  charter  of  nat-  situation  of  a  people  must  determine  what 
ure.  Or  whether,  on  the  contrary,  a  right  sort  of  government  is  fitted  for  them, 
of  taxation  is  necessarily  involved  in  the  That  point  nothing  else  can  or  ought  to 
general    principle   of    legislation,    and    in-    determine. 

separable  from  the  ordinary  supreme  pow-  My  idea,  therefore,  without  considering 
er.  These  are  deep  questions,  where  great  whether  we  yield  as  matter  of  right,  or 
names  militate  against  each  other;  where  grant  as  matter  of  favour,  is  to  admit  the 
reason  is  perplexed;  and  an  appeal  to  au-  people  of  our  colonies  into  an  interest  in 
thorities  only  thickens  the  confusion.  For  the  constitution;  and,  by  recording  that 
high  and  reverend  authorities  lift  up  their  admission  in  the  journals  of  Parliament, 
heads  on  both  sides ;  and  there  is  no  sure  to  give  them  as  strong  an  assurance  as  the 
footing  in  the  middle.  This  point  is  nature  of  the  thing  will  admit,  that  we 
the  great  Serhonian  hog,  heticixt  Damiata  mean  forever  to  adhere  to  that  solemn 
and  Mount  Casius  old,  where  armies  whole  declaration  of  systematic  indulgence. 
have  sunk.  I  do  not  intend  to  be  over-  Some  years  ago,  the  repeal  of  a  revenue 
Avhelmed  in  that  bog,  though  in  such  re-  act,  upon  its  understood  principle,  might 
spectable  company.  The  question  with  me  have  served  to  show,  that  we  intended 
is  not  whether  you  have  a  right  to  ren-  an  unconditional  abatement  of  the  exer- 
der  your  people  miserable,  but  whether  it  cise  of  a  taxing  power.  Such  a  measure 
is  not  your  interest  to  make  them  happy,  was  then  sufficient  to  remove  all  sus- 
It  is  not  what  a  lawyer  tells  me  I  may  picion,  and  to  give  perfect  content.  But 
do,  but  what  humanity,  reason,  and  jus-  unfortunate  events,  since  that  time,  may 
tice  tells  me  I  ought  to  do.  Is  a  politic  make  something  further  necessary;  and 
act  the  worse  for  being  a  generous  one?  not  more  necessary  for  the  satisfaction 
Is  no  concession  proper  but  that  which  of  the  colonies,  than  for  the  dignity  and 
is  made  from  your  want  of  right  to  keep  consistency  of  our  own  future  proceedings, 
what  you  grant?  Or  does  it  lessen  the  I  have  taken  a  very  incorrect  measure 
grace  or  dignity  of  relaxing  in  the  ex-  of  the  disposition  of  the  House,  if  this 
ercise  of  an  odious  claim,  because  you  proposal  in  itself  would  be  received  with 
have  your  evidence-room  full  of  titles,  and  dislike.  I  think,  sir,  we  have  few  Amer- 
your  magazines  stuffed  with  arms  to  en-  ican  financiers.  But  our  misfortune  is, 
force  them?  What  signify  all  those  titles,  we  are  too  acute;  we  are  too  exquisite 
and  all  those  arms?  Of  what  avail  are  in  our  conjectures  of  the  future,  for  men 
they  when  the  reason  of  the  thing  tells  oppressed  with  such  great  and  present 
me  that  the  assertion  of  my  title  is  the  evils.  The  more  moderate  among  the 
loss  of  my  suit;  and  that  I  could  do  noth-  opposers  of  parliamentary  concession 
ing  but  wound  myself  by  the  use  of  my  freely  confess,  that  they  hope  no  good 
own  weapons?  from   taxation;    but   they   apprehend   the 

Such  is  steadfastly  my  opinion  of  the  colonists  have  further  views;  and  if  this 
absolute  necessity  of  keeping  up  the  con-  point  were  conceded,  they  Avould  instantly 
cord  of  this  empire  by  the  unity  of  spirit,  attack  the  trade  laws.  These  gentlemen 
though  in  a  diversity  of  operations,  that,  are  convinced,  that  this  was  the  intention 
if  I  were  sure  the  colonists  had,  at  their  from  the  beginning;  and  the  quarrel  of 
leaving  this  country,  sealed  a  regular  the  Americans  with  taxation  was  no  more 
compact  of  servitude;  that  they  had  sol-  than  a  cloak  and  cover  to  this  design, 
emnly  abjured  all  the  rights  of  citizens;  Such  has  been  the  language  even  of  a 
that  they  had  made  a  vow  to  renounce  all  gentleman  of  real  moderation,  and  of  a 
ideas  of  liberty  for  them  and  their  pos-  natural  temper  well  adjusted  to  fair  and 
terity  to  all  generations;  yet  I  should  equal  government.  I  am,  however,  sir, 
hold  myself  obliged  to  conform  to  the  not  a  little  surprised  at  this  kind  of  dis- 
temper I  found  universally  prevalent  in  course,  whenever  I  hear  it;  and  I  am  the 
my  own  day,  and  to  govern  2,000,000  more  surprised,  on  account  of  the  argu- 
of    men,    impatient    of    servitude,    on    the    ments  which  I  constantly  find  in  company 

468 


BURKE.   EDMUND 


with  it,  and  which  are  often  urged  from 
the  same  mouths,  and  on  the  same  day. 

For  instance,  when  we  allege,  that  it  is 
against  reason  to  tax  a  people  under  so 
many  restraints  in  trade  as  the  Amer- 
icans, the  noble  lord  in  the  blue  riband 
shall  tell  you,  that  the  restraints  on  trade 
are  futile  and  useless;  of  no  advantage  to 
us,  and  of  no  burthen  to  those  on  whom 
they  are  imposed;  that  the  trade  to  Amer- 
ica is  not  secured  by  the  acts  of  naviga- 
tion, but  by  the  natural  and  irresistible 
advantage  of  a  commercial  preference. 

Such  is  the  merit  of  the  trade  laws  in 
this  posture  of  the  debate.  But  when 
sti'ong  internal  circumstances  are  urged 
against  the  taxes ;  when  the  scheme  is 
dissected;  when  experience  and  the  nature 
of  things  are  brought  to  prove,  and  do 
pi'ove,  the  utter  impossibility  of  obtain- 
ing an  effective  revenue  from  the  colonies ; 
when  these  things  are  pressed,  or  rather 
press  themselves,  so  as  to  drive  the  advo- 
cates of  colony  taxes  to  a  clear  admission 
of  the  futility  of  the  scheme;  then,  sir, 
the  sleeping  trade  laws  revive  from  their 
trance;  and  this  useless  taxation  is  to  be 
kept  sacred,  not  for  its  own  sake,  but  as 
a  counter-guard  and  security  of  the  laws 
of  trade. 

Then,  sir,  you  keep  up  revenue  laws 
which  are  mischievous,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve trade  laws  that  are  useless.  Such 
is  the  wisdom  of  our  plan  in  both  its  mem- 
bers. They  are  separately  given  up  as 
of  no  value;  and  yet  is  always  to  be  de- 
fended for  the  sake  of  the  other.  But  I 
cannot  agree  with  the  noble  lord,  nor  with 
the  pamphlet  from  whence  he  seems  to 
have  borrowed  these  ideas,  concerning  the 
inutility  of  the  trade  laws.  For,  without 
idolizing  them,  I  am  sure  they  are  still, 
in  many  ways,  of  great  use  to  us:  and  in 
former  times  they  have  been  of  the  great- 
est. They  do  confine,  and  they  do  great- 
ly narrow,  the  market  for  the  Americans. 
But  my  perfect  conviction  of  this  does  not 
help  me  in  the  least  to  discern  how  the 
revenue  laws  form  any  security  whatso- 
ever to  the  commercial  regulations;  or  that 
these  commercial  regulations  are  the  true 
ground  of  the  quarrel;  or  that  the  giving 
way,  in  any  one  instance  of  authority,  is 
to  lose  all  that  may  remain  unconceded. 

One  fact  is  clear  and  indisputable.  The 
public  and  avowed  origin  of  this  quarrel 

4 


was  on  taxation.  This  quarrel  has  indeed 
brought  on  new  disputes  on  new  ques- 
tions ;  but  certainly  the  least  bitter,  and 
the  fewest  of  all,  on  the  trade  laws.  To 
judge  which  of  the  two  be  the  real,  radi- 
cal cause  of  quarrel,  we  have  to  see 
whether  the  commercial  dispute  did,  in 
order  of  time,  precede  the  dispute  on  tax- 
ation. There  is  not  a  shade  of  evidence 
for  it.  Next,  to  enable  us  to  judge  whether 
at  this  moment  a  dislike  to  the  trade  laws 
be  the  real  cause  of  quarrel,  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  put  the  taxes  out  of 
the  question  by  a  repeal.  See  how  the 
Americans  act  in  this  position,  and  then 
you  will  be  able  to  discern  correctly  what 
is  the  true  object  of  the  controversy,  or 
whether  any  controversy  at  all  will  re- 
main. Unless  you  consent  to  remove  this 
cause  of  difference,  it  is  impossible,  with 
decency,  to  assert  that  the  dispute  is  not 
upon  what  it  is  avowed  to  be.  And  I 
would,  sir,  recommend  to  your  serious  con- 
sideration, whether  it  be  prudent  to  form 
a  rule  for  punishing  people,  not  on  their 
own  acts,  but  on  your  conjectures?  Sure- 
ly it  is  preposterous  at  the  very  best.  It 
is  not  justifying  your  anger,  by  their 
misconduct;  but  it  is  converting  your 
will  into  their  delinquency. 

But  the  colonies  will  go  further.  Alas! 
alas!  when  will  this  speculating  against 
fact  and  reason  end?  What  will  quiet 
these  panic  fears  which  we  entertain  of 
the  hostile  effect  of  a  conciliatory  con- 
duct? Is  it  true,  that  no  case  can  exist, 
in  which  it  is  proper  for  the  sovereign 
to  accede  to  the  desires  of  his  discontent- 
ed subjects?  Is  there  anything  peculiar 
in  this  case,  to  make  a  rule  for  itself? 
Is  all  authority  of  covirse  lost,  when  it 
is  pushed  to  the  extreme?  Is  it  a  cer- 
tain maxim,  that  the  fewer  causes  of  dis- 
satisfaction are  left  by  government,  the 
more  the  subject  will  be  inclined  to  re- 
sist and  rebel? 

All  these  objections  being  in  fact  no 
more  than  suspicions,  conjectures,  divina- 
tions, formed  in  defiance  of  fact  and  ex- 
perience; they  did  not,  sir,  discourage  me 
from  entertaining  the  idea  of  a  concilia- 
tory concession,  founded  on  the  principles 
which  I  have  just  stated. 

In  forming  a  plan  for  this  purpose,  I 
endeavoured  to  put  myself  in  that  frame 
of  mind  which  was  the  most  natural,  and 
0!) 


BURKE,    EDMUND 


the  most  reasonable ;  and  which  was  cer- 
tainly the  most  probable  means  of  secur- 
ing me  from  all  error.  I  set  out  with  a 
perfect  distrust  of  my  own  abilities;  a 
total  renunciation  of  every  speculation  of 
my  own;  and  with  a  profound  reverence 
for  the  wisdom  of  our  ancestors,  who  have 
left  us  the  inheritance  of  so  happy  a  con- 
stitution, and  so  flourishing  an  empire, 
and,  what  is  a  thousand  times  more  valu- 
able, the  treasury  of  the  maxims  and  prin- 
ciples which  formed  the  one,  and  obtain- 
ed the  other. 

During  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Spain 
of  the  Austrian  family,  whenever  they 
were  at  a  loss  in  the  Spanish  councils, 
it  was  common  for  their  statesmen  to  say 
that  they  ought  to  consult  the  genius 
of  Philip  II.  The  genius  of  Philip 
II.  might  mislead  them;  and  the  issue 
of  their  affairs  showed  that  they  had 
not  chosen  the  most  perfect  standard. 
But,  sir,  I  am  sure  that  I  shall  not  be 
misled,  when,  in  a  case  of  constitutional 
difficulty,  I  consult  the  genius  of  the  Eng- 
lish constitution.  Consulting  at  that  ora- 
cle (it  was  with  all  due  humility  and 
piety)  I  found  four  capital  examples  in 
a  similar  case  before  me ;  those  of  Ireland, 
Wales,  Chester,  and  Durham. 

Ireland,  before  the  English  conquest, 
though  never  governed  by  a  despotic  pow- 
er, had  no  parliament.  How  far  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  itself  was  at  that  time 
modelled  according  to  the  present  form,  is 
disputed  among  antiquarians.  But  we  have 
all  the  reason  in  the  Avorld  to  be  assured 
that  a  form  of  parliament,  such  as  Eng- 
land then  enjoyed,  she  instantly  commu- 
nicated to  Ireland ;  and  we  are  equally 
sure  that  almost  every  successive  improve- 
ment in  constitutional  liberty,  as  fast  as 
it  was  made  here,  was  transmitted  thither. 
The  feudal  baronage,  and  the  feudal 
knighthood,  the  roots  of  our  primitive 
constitution,  were  early  transplanted  into 
that  soil ;  and  grew  and  flourished  there. 
Magna  Charta,  if  it  did  not  give  us  orig- 
inally the  House  of  Commons,  gave  us  at 
least  a  House  of  Commons  of  weight  and 
consequence.  But  your  ancestors  did  not 
churlishly  sit  down  to  the  feast  of  Magna 
Charta.  Ireland  was  made  immediately  a 
partaker.  This  benefit  of  English  laws  and 
liberties,  I  confess,  Avas  not  at  first  extend- 
ed to  all  Ireland.     Mark  the  consequence. 

47 


English  authority  and  English  liberties 
had  exactly  the  same  boundaries.  Your 
standard  could  never  be  advanced  an  inch 
before  your  privileges.  vSir  John  Davis 
shows  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  refusal  of  a 
general  communication  of  these  rights  was 
the  true  cause  why  Ireland  was  500 
years  in  subduing;  and  after  the  vain 
projects  of  a  military  government,  attempt- 
ed in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  it  was 
soon  discovered,  that  nothing  could  make 
that  country  English,  in  civility  and  allegi- 
ance, but  your  laws  and  your  forms  of  leg- 
islature. It  is  not  English  arms,  but  the 
English  constitution,  that  conquered  Ire- 
land. From  that  time  Ireland  had  ever 
had  a  general  parliament,  as  she  had  be- 
fore a  partial  parliament.  You  changed 
the  people;  you  altered  the  religion;  but 
you  never  touched  the  form  of  the  vital 
substance  of  free  government  in  that  king- 
dom. You  deposed  kings;  you  restored 
them;  you  altered  the  succession  to  theirs, 
as  well  as  to  your  own  crown;  but  you 
never  altered  their  constitution;  the  prin- 
ciple of  which  was  respected  by  usurpa- 
tion ;  restored  with  the  restoration  of  mon- 
archy and  established,  I  trust,  forever, 
by  the  glorious  Revolution.  This  has 
made  Ireland  the  great  and  flourishing 
kingdom  that  it  is;  and  from  a  disgrace 
and  a  burthen  intolerable  to  this  nation, 
has  rendered  her  a  principal  part  of  our 
strength  and  ornament.  This  country 
cannot  be  said  to  have  ever  formally  taxed 
her.  The  irregular  things  done  in  the 
confusion  of  mighty  troubles,  and  on  the 
hinge  of  great  revolutions,  even  if  all 
were  done  that  is  said  to  have  been  done, 
form  an  example.  If  they  have  any  ef- 
fect in  argument,  they  make  an  exception 
to  prove  the  rule.  None  of  your  own 
liberties  could  stand  a  moment  if  the 
casual  deviations  from  them,  at  such 
times,  were  suffered  to  be  used  as  proofs 
of  their  nullity.  By  the  lucrative  amount 
of  such  casual  breaches  in  the  constitu- 
tion, judge  what  the  stated  and  fixed  rule 
of  supply  has  been  in  that  kingdom.  Your 
Irish  pensioners  would  starve  if  they  had 
no  otlier  fund  to  live  on  than  taxes  grant- 
ed by  English  authority.  Turn  your  eyes 
to  those  popular  grants  from  whence  all 
great  supplies  are  come;  and  learn  to 
respect  that  only  source  of  public  wealth 
in  the  British  empire. 
0 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


My  next  example  is  Wales.  This  coun- 
try was  said  to  be  reduced  by  Henry  III. 
It  was  said  more  truly  to  be  so  by  Ed- 
ward I.  But  though  then  conquered,  it 
was  not  looked  upon  as  any  part  of  the 
realm  of  England.  Its  old  constitution, 
whatever  that  might  have  be«n,  was  de- 
stroyed; and  no  good  one  was  substituted 
in  its  place.  The  care  of  that  tract  was 
put  into ,  the  hands  of  lords  marchers, 
a  form  of  government  of  a  very  singular 
kind;  a  strange  heterogeneous  monster, 
something  between  hostility  and  govern- 
ment; perhaps  it  has  a  sort  of  resem- 
blance, according  to  the  modes  of  those 
times,  to  that  of  commander-in-chief  at 
present,  to  whom  all  civil  power  is  grant- 
ed as  secondar3\  The  manners  of  the 
Welsh  nation  followed  the  genius  of  the 
government;  the  people  were  ferocious, 
restive,  savage,  and  uncultivated;  some- 
times composed,  never  pacified.  Wales, 
within  itself,  was  in  perpetual  disorder; 
and  it  kept  the  frontier  of  Englahd  in  per- 
petual alarm.  Benefits  from  it  to  the  state 
there  were  none.  Wales  was  only  kno^\^l 
to  England  by  incursion  and  invasion. 

Sir,  during  that  state  of  things  Parlia- 
ment was  not  idle.  They  attempted  to 
subdue  the  fierce  spirit  of  the  Welsh  by 
all  sorts  of  rigorous  laws.  They  prohib- 
ited by  statute  the  sending  all  sorts  of 
arms  into  Wales,  as  you  prohibit  by  proc- 
lamation (with  something  more  of  doubt 
on  the  legality)  the  sending  arms  to 
America.  They  disarmed-  the  Welsh  by 
statute,  as  you  attempted  (but  still  with 
more  question  on  the  legality)  to  disarm 
New  England  by  an  instruction.  They 
made  an  act  to  drag  offenders  from  Wales 
to  England  for  trial,  as  you  have  done 
(but  with  more  hardship)  with  regard  to 
America.  By  another  act,  where  one  of 
the  parties  was  an  Englishman,  they  or- 
dained that  his  trial  should  be  always 
by  English.  They  made  acts  to  restrain 
trade,  as  you  do ;  and  prevented  the 
Welsh  from  the  use  of  fairs  and  markets, 
as  you  do  the  Americans  from  fisheries 
and  foreign  ports.  In  short,  when  the 
statute-book  was  not  quite  so  much  swell- 
ed as  it  is  now,  you  find  no  less  than 
fifteen  acts  of  penal  regulation  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Wales. 

Here  we  rub  our  hands.  A  fine  body 
of  precedents  for  the  authority  of  Parlia- 

4: 


ment  and  the  use  of  it!  I  admit  it  fully; 
and  pray  add  likewise  to  these  prece- 
dents that  all  the  while  Wales  rid  this 
kingdom  like  an  incubus;  that  it  was  an 
unprofitable  and  oppressive  burthen;  and 
that  an  Englishman  travelling  in  that 
country  could  not  go  six  yards  from  the 
high-road  without  being  murdered. 

The  march  of  the  human  mind  is 
slow.  Sir,  it  was  not,  until  after  200 
years,  discovered  that  by  an  eternal  law 
Providence  had  decreed  vexation  to  vio- 
lence, and  poverty  to  rapine.  Your  an- 
cestors did,  however,  at  length  open  their 
eyes  to  the  ill  husbandry  of  injustice. 
They  found  that  the  tyranny  of  a  free 
people  could  of  all  tyrannies  the  least 
be  endured;  and  that  laws  made  against 
a  whole  nation  were  not  the  most  effectual 
methods  for  securing  its  obedience.  Ac- 
cordingly, in  the  twenty-seven  years  of 
Henry  VIII.  the  course  was  entirely  alter- 
ed. With  a  preamble  stating  the  entire 
and  perfect  rights  of  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land, it  gave  to  the  Welsh  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  English  subjects.  A 
political  order  was  established;  the  mili- 
tary power  gave  way  to  the  civil;  the 
marches  were  turned  into  counties.  But 
that  a  nation  should  have  a  right  to  Eng- 
lish liberties,  and  yet  no  share  at  all  in 
the  fundamental  security  of  these  liber- 
ties, the  grant  of  their  own  property, 
seemed  a  thing  so  incongruous  that,  eight 
years  after — that  is,  in  the  thirty-fifth 
of  that  reign — a  complete  and  not  ill- 
proportioned  representation  by  counties 
and  boroughs  was  bestowed  upon  Wales  by 
act  of  Parliament.  From  this  moment,  as 
by  a  charm,  the  tumult  subsided,  obedience 
Avas  restored,  peace,  order,  and  civiliza- 
tion followed  in  the  train  of  liberty. 
When  the  day-star  of  the  English  con- 
stitution had  arisen  in  their  hearts,  all 
Avas  harmony  within  and  without. 

Simul  ana  nautis 

Stella  refiilsit, 
Defluit  saxis    agitatus   humor; 
Concidunt   venti,    fugiuntque    nuies, 
Et  minax    {quod  sic  voluere)    ponto 

Unda  recumMt. 

(Soon  as  gleam 
Their  stars  at  sea, 

The   lash'd    spray   trickles   from   the   steep, 
The   wind   sinks   down,    the   storm-cloud   flies, 
The  threatening  billow  on  the  deep 
Obedient  lies.) 
1 


BUKKE,  EDMUND 


The  veiy  same  year  the  county  palatine 
of  Chester  received  the  same  relief  from 
its  oppression,  and  the  same  remedy  to  its 
disorders.  J3efore  this  time  Chester  was 
little  less  distempered  than  Wales.  The 
inhabitants,  without  rights  themselves, 
were  the  fittest  to  destroy  the  rights  of 
others;  and  from  thence  Richard  II. 
drew  the  standing  army  of  archers,  with 
which  for  a  time  he  oppressed  England. 
The  people  of  Chester  applied  to  Parlia- 
ment in  a  petition  penned  as  I  shall  read 
to  you: 

"  To  the  king  our  sovereign  lord,  in 
most  humble  wise  shown  unto  your  ex- 
cellent Majesty,  the  inhabitants  of  your 
Grace's  county  palatine  of  Chester;  That 
where  the  said  county  palatine  of  Chester 
is  and  hath  been  always  hitherto  exemjit, 
excluded  and  separated  out  and  from  your 
high  court  of  Parliament,  to  have  any 
knights  and  burgesses  within  the  said 
court;  by  reason  whereof  the  said  inhabi- 
tants have  hitherto  sustained  manifold 
disherisons,  losses,  and  damages,  as  well 
in  their  lands,  goods,  and  bodies,  as  in 
the  good,  civil,  and  politic  governance  and 
maintenance  of  the  commonwealth  of 
their  said  country:  (2)  And  forasmuch 
as  the  said  inhabitants  have  always  hith- 
erto been  found  by  the  acts  and  statutes 
made  and  ordained  by  your  said  High- 
ness, and  your  most  noble  progenitors,  by 
authority  of  the  said  court,  as  far  forth 
as  other  countries,  cities,  and  boroughs 
have  been,  that  have  had  their  knights  and 
burgesses  within  your  said  court  of  Par- 
liament, and  yet  have  had  neither  knight 
nor  burgess  there  for  the  said  county 
palatine ;  the  said  inhabitants,  for  lack 
thereof,  have  been  oftentimes  touched  and 
grieved  with  acts  and  statutes  made  with- 
in the  said  court,  as  well  derogatory  unto 
the  most  ancient  jurisdictions,  liberties, 
and  privileges  of  your  said  county  pala- 
tine, as  prejudicial  unto  the  common- 
wealth, quietness,  rest,  and  peace  of  your 
Grace's  most  bounden  subjects  inhabiting 
within  the  same." 

What  did  Parliament  with  this  auda- 
cious address?  Reject  it  as  a  libel?  Treat 
it  as  an  affront  to  government?  Spurn 
it  as  a  deroffation  from  the  rights  of  leg- 
islation? Did  they  toss  it  over  the  table? 
Did  they  burn  it  by  the  hands  of  the  com- 
mon   hangman?     They    took    the    petition 


of  grievance,  all  rugged  as  it  was,  with- 
out softening  or  temperament,  unpurged 
of  the  original  bitterness  and  indignation 
of  complaint;  they  made  it  the  very  pre- 
amble of  their  act  of  redress;  and  con- 
secrated its  principle  to  all  ages  in  the 
sanctuary  of  legislation. 

Here  is  my  third  example.  It  was  at- 
tended with  the  success  of  the  two  former. 
Chester,  civilized  as  well  as  Wales,  has 
demonstrated  that  freedom,  and  not  servi- 
tude, is  the  cure  of  anarchy;  as  religion, 
and  not  atheism,  is  the  true  remedy  for 
superstition.  Sir,  this  pattern  of  Chester 
was  followed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
with  regard  to  the  county  palatine  of  Dur- 
ham, which  is  my  fourth  example.  This 
county  had  long  lain  out  of  the  pale  of 
free  legislation. 

So  scrupulously  was  the  example  of 
Chester  followed,  that  the  style  of  the 
preamble  is  nearly  the  same  with  that  of 
the  Chester  act;  and,  without  affecting 
the  abstract  extent  of  the  authority  of 
Parliament,  it  recognizes  the  equity  of  not 
suffering  any  considerable  district,  in 
which  the  British  subjects  may  act  as  a 
body,  to  be  taxed  without  their  own  voice 
in  the  grant. 

Now  if  the  doctrines  of  policy  contained 
in  these  preambles,  and  the  force  of  these 
examples  in  the  acts  of  Parliament,  avail 
anything,  wiiat  can  be  said  against  apply- 
ing thom  with  regard  to  America?  Are 
not  the  people  of  America  as  much  Eng- 
lishmen as  the  Welsh?  The  preamble  of 
the  act  of  Henry  VIII.  says,  the  Welsh 
s])eak  a  language  no  way  resembling  that 
of  his  Majesty's  English  subjects.  Are 
the  Americans  not  as  numerous?  If  we 
may  trust  the  learned  and  accurate  Judge 
Harrington's  account  of  North  Wales,  and 
take  that  as  a  standard  to  measure  the 
rest,  there  is  no  comparison.  The  people 
cannot  amount  to  above  200,000 ;  not  a 
tenth  part  of  the  number  in  the  colonies. 
Is  America  in  rebellion?  Wales  was  hard- 
ly ever  free  from  it.  Have  you  attempted 
to  govern  America  by  penal  statutes? 
You  made  fifteen  to  Wales.  But  your 
legislative  authority  is  perfect  with  re- 
gard to  America ;  was  it  less  perfect  in 
Wales,  Chester,  and  Durham?  Bnt  Amer- 
ica is  virtually  represented.  What!  does 
the  electric  force  of  virtual  renresentation 
more  easily  pass  over  the  Atlantic,  than 


472 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


pervade  Wales,  which  lies  in  your  neigh- 
borhood; or  than  Chester  and  Durham, 
surrounded  by  abundance  of  representa- 
tion that  is  actual  and  palpable?  But, 
sir,  your  ancestors  thought  this  sort  of 
virtual  representation,  however  ample,  to 
be  totally  insufficient  for  the  freedom  of 
the  inhabitants  of  territories  that  are  so 
near,  and  comparatively  so  inconsiderable. 
How  then  can  I  think  it  sufficient  for 
those  which  are  infinitely  greater,  and 
infinitely  more  remote? 

You  will  now,  sir,  perhaps  imagine, 
tliat  I  am  on  the  point  of  proposing  to 
you  a  scheme  for  a  representation  of  the 
colonies  in  Parliament.  Perhaps  I  might 
be  inclined  to  entertain  some  such 
thought ;  but  a  great  flood  stops  me  in  my 
course.  Opposuit  natura  (Nature  has 
barred  the  way).  I  cannot  remove  the 
eternal  barriers  of  the  creation.  The 
thing,  in  that  mode,  I  do  not  know  to  be 
possible.  As  I  meddle  with  no  theory,  I 
do  not  absolutely  assert  the  impractica- 
bility of  such  a  representation.  But  I  do 
not  see  my  way  to  do  it ;  and  those  who 
have  been  more  confident  have  not  been 
more  successful.  However,  the  arm  of 
public  benevolence  is  not  shortened ;  and 
there  are  often  several  means  to  the  same 
end.  What  nature  has  disjoined  in  one 
way,  wisdom  may  unite  in  another.  When 
we  cannot  give  the  benefit  as  we  would 
wish,  let  us  not  refuse  it  altogether.  If 
we  cannot  give  the  principle,  let  us  find  a 
substitute.  But  how?  Where?  What 
substitute  ? 

Fortunately,  I  am  not  obliged  for  the 
wayc  and  means  of  this  substitute  to  tax 
my  own  unproductive  invention.  I  am  not 
even  obliged  to  go  to  the  rich  treasury 
of  the  fertile  framers  of  imaginary  com- 
monwealths; not  to  the  Republic  of  Plato; 
not  to  the  Utopia  of  More;  not  to  the 
Oceana  of  Harrington.  It  is  before  me, 
it  is  at  my  feet,  and  the  rude  swain 
treads  daily  on  it  with  his  clouted  shoon. 
I  only  wish  you  to  recognize,  for  the 
tlieory,  the  ancient  eonstitiitional  policy 
of  this  kingdom  with  regard  to  representa- 
tion, as  that  policy  has  been  declared  in 
acts  of  Parliament;  and, as  to  the  practice, 
to  return  to  that  mode  which  an  uniform 
experience  has  marked  out  to  you,  as  best; 
and  in  which  you  walked  with  security, 
advantage,  and  honour,  until  the  year  1763. 


My  resolutions,  therefore,  mean  to  estab- 
lish the  equity  and  justice  of  a  taxation 
of  America,  by  grant,  and  not  by  imposi- 
tion. To  mark  the  legal  competency  of 
the  colony  assemblies  for  the  support  of 
their  government  in  peace,  and  for  public 
aids  in  time  of  war.  To  acknowledge  that 
this  legal  competency  has  had  a  dutiful 
and  beneficial  exercise;  and  that  experi- 
ence has  shown  the  benefit  of  their  grants, 
and  the  futility  of  parliamentary  taxation 
as  a  method  of  supply. 

These  solid  truths  compose  six  funda- 
mental propositions.  There  are  three 
more  resolutions  corollary  to  these.  If 
you  admit  the  first  set,  you  can  hardly  re- 
ject the  others.  But  if  you  admit  the 
first,  I  shall  be  far  from  solicitous  whether 
you  accept  or  refuse  the  last.  I  think 
these  six  massive  pillars  will  be  of 
strength  sufficient  to  support  the  temple 
of  British  concord.  I  have  no  more  doubt 
than  I  entertain  of  my  existence,  that, 
if  you  admitted  these,  you  would  com- 
mand an  immediate  peace;  and,  with  but 
tolerable  future  management,  a  lasting 
obedience  in  America.  I  am  not  arrogant 
in  this  confident  assurance.  The  proposi- 
tions are  all  mere  matters  of  fact;  and  if 
tliey  are  such  facts  as  draw  irresistible 
conclusions  even  in  the  stating,  this  is  the 
power  of  truth,  and  not  any  mismanage- 
ment of  mine. 

Sir,  I  shall  open  the  whole  plan  to 
you,  together  with  such  observations  on 
the  motions  as  may  tend  to  illustrate 
them  where  they  may  want  explanation. 
The  first  is  a  resolution  "  That  the  colo- 
nies and  plantations  of  Great  Britain  in 
North  America-,  consisting  of  fourteen  sep- 
arate governments,  and  containing  2,000,- 
000  and  upwards  of  free  inhabitants,  have 
not  had  the  liberty  and  privilege  of 
electing  and  sending  any  knights  and  bur- 
gesses, or  others,  to  represent  them  in  the 
high  court  of  Parliament."  This  is  a 
plain  matter  of  fact,  necessary  to  be  laid 
down,  and  (excepting  the  description)  it 
is  laid  down  in  the  language  of  the  consti- 
tution; it  is  taken  nearly  verbatim  from 
acts  of  Parliament. 

The  second  is  like  unto  the  first — • 
"  That  the  said  colonies  and  plantations 
have  been  liable  to,  and  bounden  by,  sev- 
eral subsidies,  payments,  rates,  and  taxes, 
given  and  granted  by  Parliament,  though 


473 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


the  said  colonies  and  plantations  have  not 
their  knights  and  burgesses,  in  the  said 
high  court  of  Parliament,  of  their  own 
election,  to  represent  the  condition  of  their 
country;  by  lack  whereof  they  have  been 
oftentimes  touched  and  grieved  by  subsi- 
dies given,  granted,  and  assented  to,  in 
the  said  court,  in  a  manner  prejudicial 
to  the  commonwealth,  quietness,  rest,  and 
peace  of  the  subjects  inhabiting  within  the 
same." 

Is  this  description  too  hot,  or  too  cold, 
too  strong,  or  too  weakV  Does  it  arrogate 
too  much  to  the  supreme  legislature  ? 
Does  it  lean  too  much  to  the  claims  of  the 
people?  If  it  runs  into  any  of  these  er- 
rors, the  fault  is  not  mine.  It  is  the  lan- 
guage of  your  own  ancient  acts  of  Parlia- 
ment. 

Noil    mens    hie    sermo,    sed    quae    praecepit 

Ofellus, 
Rusticus,  ahnormis  sapiens. 

[Ofellus  shall  set  forth 
('Twas  he  that  taught  me  it,  a  shrewd  clear 

wit, 
Though    country-spun,    and    for    the    schools 

unfit).] 

It  is  the  genuine  produce  of  the  an- 
cient, rustic,  manly,  home-bred  sense  of 
this  country.  I  did  not  care  to  rub  off 
a  particle  of  the  venerable  rust  that  rather 
adorns  and  preserves,  than  destroys,  the 
metal.  It  would  be  a  profanation  to 
touch  with  a  tool  the  stones  which  con- 
struct the  sacred  altar  of  peace.  I  would 
not  violate  with  modern  polish  the  in- 
genuous and  noble  roughness  of  these 
truly  constitutional  materials.  Above  all 
things,  I  was  resolved  not  to  be  guilty 
of  tampering,  the  odious  vice  of  restless 
and  unstable  minds.  I  put  my  foot  in  the 
tracks  of  our  forefathers,  where  I  can 
neither  wander  nor  stumble.  Determining 
to  fix  articles  of  peace,  I  was  resolved  not 
to  be  wise  beyond  what  was  written;  I 
was  resolved  to  use  nothing  else  than  the 
form  of  sound  words ;  to  let  others  abound 
in  their  own  sense;  and  carefully  to  ab- 
stain from  all  expressions  of  our  own. 
What  the  law  has  said,  I  say.  In  all 
things  else  I  am  silent.  I  have  no  organ 
but  for  her  words.  This,  if  it  be  not  in- 
genious, I  am  sure  is  safe. 

There  are,  indeed,  words  expressive  of 
grievance  in  this  second  resolution,  which 

47 


those  who  are  rosolved  always  to  be  in  the 
right  will  deny  to  contain  matter  of  fact, 
as  ajjplied  to  the  present  case;  although 
Parliament  thought  them  true,  with  re- 
gard to  the  counties  of  Chester  and  Dur- 
ham. They  will  deny  that  the  Americans 
were  ever  "  touched  and  grieved  "  with  the 
taxes.  If  they  consider  nothing  in  taxes 
but  their  weight  as  pecuniary  imposi- 
tions, there  might  be  some  pretence  for 
this  denial.  But  men  may  be  sorely 
touched  and  deeply  grieved  in  their  priv- 
ileges, as  well  as  in  their  purses.  Men 
may  lose  little  in  property  by  the  act 
which  takes  away  all  their  freedom. 
When  a  man  is  robbed  of  a  trifle  on  the 
highway,  it  is  not  the  twopence  lost  that 
constitutes  the  capital  outrage.  This  is 
not  confined  to  privileges.  Even  ancient 
indulgences  withdrawn,  without  offence 
on  the  part  of  those  who  enjoyed  such  fa- 
vours, operate  as  grievances.  But  were  the 
Americans  then  not  touched  and  grieved 
by  the  taxes,  in  some  measures,  merely  as 
taxes?  If  so,  why  were  they  almost  all 
either  wholly  repealed  or  exceedingly  re- 
duced? Were  they  not  touched  and  grieved 
even  by  the  regulating  duties  of  the  sixth 
of  George  II.?  Else  why  were  the  du- 
ties first  reduced  to  one-third  in  1764, 
and  afterwards  to  a  third  of  that  third 
in  the  year  1766?  Were  they  not  touched 
and  grieved  by  the  stamp  act?  I  shall 
say  they  were,  until  that  tax  is  revived. 
Were  they  not  touched  and  grieved  by  the 
duties  of  1767,  which  were  likewise  re- 
pealed, and  which  Lord  Hillsborough  tells 
you  (for  the  ministry)  were  laid  contrary 
to  the  ti'ue  principle  of  commerce?  Is 
not  the  assurance  given  by  that  noble  per- 
son to  the  colonies  of  a  resolution  to  lay 
no  more  taxes  on  them,  an  admission  that 
taxes  would  touch  and  grieve  them?  Is 
not  the  resolution  of  the  noble  lord  in  the 
blue  riband,  now  standing  on  your  jour- 
nals, the  strongest  of  all  proofs  that  par- 
liamentary subsidies  really  touched  and 
grieved  them  ?  Else  why  all  these  changes, 
modifications,  repeals,  assurances,  and  res- 
olutions ? 

The  next  proposition  is — "  That,  from 
the  distance  of  the  said  colonies,  and  from 
other  circumstances,  no  method  hath 
hitherto  been  devised  for  procuring  a  rep- 
resentation in  Parliament  for  the  said 
colonies."  This  is  an  assertion  of  a  fact. 
4 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


I  go  no  further  on  the  paper ;  though, 
in  my  private  judgment,  an  useful  rep- 
resentation is  impossible;  I  am  sure  it 
is  not  desired  by  them;  nor  ought  it  per- 
haps by  us;  but  I  abstain  from  opinions. 

The  fourth  resolution  is  this — "  That 
each  of  the  said  colonies  hath  within 
itself  a  body,  chosen  in  part,  or  in  the 
whole,  by  the  freemen,  freeholders,  or 
other  free  inhabitants  thereof,  commonly 
called  the  General  Assembly,  or  General 
Court;  with  powers  legally  to  raise,  levy, 
and  assess,  according  to  the  several  usages 
of  such  colonies,  duties  and  taxes  towards 
defraying  all  sorts  of  public  services." 

This  competence  in  the  colony  assemblies 
is  certain.  It  is  proved  by  the  whole  tenor 
of  their  acts  of  supply  in  all  the  assem- 
blies, in  which  the  constant  style  of  grant- 
ing is,  "an  aid  to  his  Majesty";  and  acts 
granting  to  the  crown  have  regularly  for 
nearly  a  century  passed  the  public  offices 
without  dispute.  Those  who  have  been 
pleased  paradoxically  to  deny  this  right, 
holding  that  none  but  the  British  Parlia- 
ment can  grant  to  the  crown,  are  wished 
to  look  to  what  is  done,  not  only  in  the 
colonies,  but  in  Ireland,  in  one  uniform, 
unbroken  tenor  every  session.  Sir,  I  am 
surprised  that  this  doctrine  should  come 
from  some  of  the  law  servants  of  the 
crown.  I  say,  that  if  the  crown  could  be 
responsible,  his  Majesty — but  certainly 
the  ministers,  and  even  these  law  officers 
themselves,  through  whose  hands  the  acts 
pass  biennially  in  Ireland,  or  annually  in 
the  colonies,  are  in  an  habitual  course  of 
committing  impeachable  offences.  What 
habitual  offenders  have  been  lords  of  the 
council,  all  secretaries  of  state,  all  first 
lords  of  trade,  all  attornies,  and  all  so- 
licitors general !  However,  they  are  safe ; 
as  no  one  impeaches  them;  and  there  is 
no  ground  of  charge  against  them,  except 
in  their  own  unfounded  theories. 

The  fifth  resolution  is  also  a  resolu- 
tion of  fact — "  That  the  said  general  as- 
semblies, general  courts,  or  other  bodies 
legally  qualified  as  aforesaid  have  at  sun- 
dry times  freely  granted  several  large 
subsidies  and  public  aids  for  his  Majesty's 
service,  according  to  their  abilities,  when 
required  thereto  by  letter  from  one  of  his 
Majesty's  principal  secretaries  of  state; 
and  that  their  rights  to  grant  the  same, 
and  their   cheerfulness   and   sufficiency   in 


the  said  grants,  have  been  at  sundry  times 
acknowledged  by  Parliament."  To  say 
nothing  of  their  great  expenses  in  the  Ind- 
ian wars;  and  not  to  take  their  exertions 
in  foreign  ones,  so  high  as  the  supplies 
in  the  year  1695;  not  to  go  back  to  their 
public  contributions  in  the  year  1710;  I 
shall  begin  to  travel  only  where  the  jour- 
nals give  me  light;  resolving  to  deal  in 
nothing  but  fact,  authenticated  by  Parlia- 
mentary record;  and  to  build  myself 
wholly  on  that  solid  basis. 

On  the  4th  of  April,  1748,  a  committee 
of  this  House  came  to  the  following  reso- 
lution : 

"  Resolved,  That  it  is  the  opinion  of 
this  committee,  that  it  is  just  and  reason- 
able that  the  several  provinces  and  col- 
onies of  Massachusetts  Bay,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Connecticut,  and  Phode  Island  be 
reimbursed  the  expenses  that  they  have 
been  at  in  taking  and  securing  to  the 
Crown  of  Great  Britain  the  Island  of 
Cape  Breton  and  its  dependencies." 

These  expenses  were  immense  for  such 
colonies.  They  were  above  £200,000  ster- 
ling; money  first  raised  and  advanced  on 
their  public  credit. 

On  the  28th  of  January,  1756,  a  mes- 
sage from  the  king  came  to  us,  to  this 
effect:  "  His  Majesty,  being  sensible  of  the 
zeal  and  vigour  with  which  his  faithful 
subjects  of  certain  colonies  in  North 
America  have  exerted  themselves  in  de- 
fence of  his  Majesty's  just  rights  and 
possessions,  recommends  it  to  this  House 
to  take  the  same  into  their  consideration, 
and  to  enable  his  Majesty  to  give  them 
such  assistance  as  may  be  a  proper  reward 
and  encouragement." 

On  the  3d  of  February,  1756,  the  House 
came  to  a  suitable  resolution,  expressed  in 
words  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  the 
message;  but  with  the  further  addition, 
that  the  money  then  voted  was  as  an  en- 
couragement  to  the  colonies  to  exert  them- 
selves with  vigour.  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  go  through  all  the  testimonies 
which  your  own  records  have  given  to  the 
truth  of  my  resolutions;  I  will  only  refer 
you  to  the  places  in  the  journals: 

Vol.  xxvii.— 16th  and  19th  May,  1757. 

Vol.  xxviii.  —  June  1st,  1758  —  April 
2Cth  and  30th,  1759— March  26th  and 
31st,  and  April  28th,  1760— Jan.  9th  and 
20th,  1761. 


475 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


Vol.  XXIX.— Jan.  22(i  and  26th,  1762— 
March  14th  and  17th,  1763. 

Sir,  here  is  the  repeated  acknowledg- 
ment of  Parliament,  that  the  colonies  not 
only  gave,  but  gave  to  satiety.  This  na- 
tion has  formally  acknowledged  two 
things;  first,  that  the  colonies  had  gone 
beyond  their  abilities.  Parliament  having 
thought  it  necessary  to  reimburse  them; 
secondly,  that  they  had  acted  legally  and 
laudably  in  their  grants  of  money,  and 
their  maintenance  of  troops,  since  the  com- 
pensation is  expressly  given  as  reward  and 
encouragement.  Reward  is  not  bestowed 
for  acts  that  are  unlawful ;  and  encour- 
agement is  not  held  out  to  things  that  de- 
serve reprehension.  My  resolution  there- 
fore does  nothing  more  than  collect  into 
one  proposition,  what  is  scattered  through 
your  journals.  I  give  you  nothing  but 
your  own;  and  you  cannot  refuse  in  the 
gross,  what  you  have  so  often  acknowl- 
edged in  detail.  The  admission  of  this, 
■which  will  be  so  honourable  to  them  and 
to  you,  will,  indeed,  be  mortal  to  all  the 
miserable  stories,  by  which  the  passions 
of  the  misguided  people  have  been  engaged 
in  an  unhappy  system.  The  people  heard, 
indeed,  from  the  beginning  of  these  dis- 
putes, one  thing  continually  dinned  in 
their  ears,  that  reason  and  justice  de- 
manded, that  the  Americans,  who  paid  no 
taxes,  should  be  compelled  to  contribute. 
How  did  that  fact,  of  their  paying  noth- 
ing, stand,  when  the  taxing  system  be- 
gan? When  Mr.  Grenville  began  to  form 
his  system  of  American  revenue,  he  stated 
in  this  House,  that  the  colonies  vi^ere 
then  in  debt  £2,600,000  sterling  money; 
and  was  of  opinion  they  would  discharge 
that  debt  in  four  years.  On  this  state, 
those  untaxed  people  were  actually  sub- 
ject to  the  payment  of  taxes  to  the  amount 
of  £650,000  a  year.  In  fact,  however,  Mr. 
Grenville  was  mistaken.  The  funds  given 
for  sinking  the  old  debt  did  not  prove 
quite  so  ample  as  both  the  colonies  and 
he  expected.  The  calculation  was  too  san- 
guine; the  reduction  was  not  completed 
till  some  years  after,  and  at  diiTerent  times 
in  different  colonies.  However,  the  taxes 
after  the  war  continued  too  great  to  bear 
any  addition,  with  prudence  or  propriety; 
and  when  the  burthens  imposed  in  con- 
sequence of  former  requisitions  were  dis- 
charged, our  tone  became  too  high  to  re- 


sqrt  again  to  requisition.  No  colony,  since 
that  time,  ever  has  had  any  requisition 
whatsoever  made  to  it. 

We  see  the  sense  of  the  crown,  and  the 
sense  of  Parliament,  on  the  productive 
nature  of  a  revenue  by  grant.  Now  search 
the  same  journals  for  the  produce  of  the 
revenue  by  imposition: — Where  is  it? — let 
us  know  the  volume  and  the  page — what  is 
the  gross,  what  is  the  net  produce?— 
to  what  service  is  it  applied? — how 
have  you  appropriated  its  surplus? — 
What,  can  none  of  the  many  skilful  index- 
makers  that  we  are  now  employing,  find 
any  trace  of  it?  Well,  let  them  and  that 
rest  together.  But  are  the  journals,  which 
say  nothing  of  the  revenue,  as  silent  on  the 
discontent?  Oh  no!  a  child  may  find  it. 
It  is  the  melancholy  burthen  and  blot  of 
every  page. 

I  think  then  I  am,  from  those  journals, 
justified  in  the  sixth  and  last  resolution, 
which  is — "  That  it  hath  been  found  by 
experience,  that  the  manner  of  granting 
the  said  supplies  and  aids,  by  the  said 
general  assemblies,  hath  been  more  agree- 
able to  the  said  colonies,  and  more  bene- 
ficial, and  conductive  to  the  public  ser- 
vice, than  the  mode  of  giving  and  granting 
aids  in  Parliament,  to  be  raised  and  paid 
in  the  said  colonies."  This  makes  the 
whole  of  the  fundamental  part  of  the 
plan.  The  conclusion  is  irresistible.  You 
cannot  say,  that  you  were  driven  by  any 
necessity  to  an  exercise  of  the  utmost 
rights  of  legislature.  You  cannot  assert, 
that  you  took  on  yourselves  the  task  of 
imposing  colony  taxes,  from  the  want  of 
another  legal  body,  that  is  competent  to 
the  purpose  of  supplying  the  exigencies 
of  the  state  without  wounding  the  preju- 
dices of  the  people.  Neither  is  it  true  that 
the  body  so  qualified,  and  having  that 
competence,  had  neglected  the  duty. 

The  question  now,  on  all  this  accumu- 
lated matter,  is: — w^hether  you  will 
choose  to  abide  by  a  profitable  experience, 
or  a  mischievous  theory;  whether  you 
choose  to  build  on  imagination,  or  fact; 
whether  you  prefer  enjoyment,  or  hope; 
satisfaction  in  your  subjects,  or  discon- 
tent? 

If  these  propositions  were  accepted,  ev- 
erything which  has  been  made  to  enforce  a 
contrary  system,  must,  I  take  it  for  grant- 
ed,  fall   along  with  it.     On  that  ground. 


476 


BUEKE,  EDMUND 


I  have  drawn  the  following  resolution, 
which,  when  it  comes  to  be  moved,  will 
naturally  be  divided  in  a  proper  manner: 
"  That  it  may  be  praper  to  repeal  an  act, 
made  in  the  seventh  year  of  the  reign 
of  his  present  Majesty,  intituled.  An  act 
for  granting  certain  duties  in  the  British 
colonies  and  plantations  in  America ;  for 
allowing  a  drawback  of  the  duties  of  cus- 
toms upon  the  exportation  from  this  king- 
dom, of  coffee  and  cocoa-nuts  of  the  prod- 
uce of  the  said  colonies  and  plantations ; 
for  discontinuing  the  drawbacks  payable 
on  China  earthenware  exported  to  Amer- 
ica; and  for  more  effectually  preventing 
the  clandestine  running  of  goods  in  the 
said  colonies  and  plantations. — And  that 
it  may  be  proper  to  repeal  an  act,  made  in 
the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  his 
present  Majesty,  intituled.  An  act  to  dis- 
continue, in  such  manner,  and  for  such 
time,  as  are  therein  mentioned,  the  land- 
ing and  discharging,  lading  or  shipping, 
of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,  at  the 
town  and  within  the  harbour  of  Boston,  in 
the  province  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in 
North  America. — And  that  it  may  be 
proper  to  repeal  an  act,  made  in  the  four- 
teenth year  of  the  reign  of  his  present 
Majesty,  intituled.  An  act  for  the  im- 
partial administration  of  justice,  in  the 
cases  of  persons  questioned  for  any  acts 
done  by  them,  in  the  execution  of  the  law, 
or  for  the  suppression  of  riots  and  tu- 
mults, in  the  province  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  in  New  England. — And  that  it  may 
be  proper  to  repeal  an  act,  made  in  the 
fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  his  present 
Majesty,  intituled,  An  act  for  the  better 
regulating  the  government  of  the  province 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,  in  New  England. — 
And,  also,  that  it  may  be  proper  to  explain 
and  amend  an  act,  made  in  the  thirty- fifth 
year  of  the  reign  of  King  Henry  Vllf., 
intituled.  An  act  for  the  trial  of  treasons 
committed  out  of  the  king's  dominions." 

I  wish,  sir,  to  repeal  the  Boston  Port 
Bill,  because  ( independently  of  the  danger- 
ous precedent  of  suspending  the  rights  of 
the  subject  during  the  king's  pleasure) 
it  was  passed,  as  I  apprehended,  with  less 
regularity,  and  on  more  partial  principles, 
than  it  ought.  The  corporation  of  Bos- 
ton was  not  heard  before  it  was  condemn- 
ed. Other  towns,  full  as  giiilty  as  she 
was,    have   not   had    their    ports    blocked 


up.  Even  the  restraining  bill  of  the  pres- 
ent session  does  not  go  to  the  length  of 
the  Boston  Port  Act.  The  same  idea  of 
prudence,  which  induced  you  not  to  ex- 
tend equal  punishment  to  equal  guilt,  even 
when  you  were  punishing,  induced  me,  who 
mean  not  to  chastise,  but  to  reconcile,  to 
be  satisfied  with  the  punishment  already 
partially  inflicted. 

Ideas  of  prudence  and  accommodation 
to  circumstances  prevent  you  from  taking 
away  the  charters  of  Connecticut  and 
Ilhode  Island,  as  you  have  taken  away  that 
of  Massachusetts  colony,  though  the  crown 
has  far  less  power  in  the  two  former 
provinces  than  it  enjoys  in  the  latter;  and 
though  the  abuses  have  been  full  as  great, 
and  as  flagrant,  in  the  exempted  as  in  the 
punished.  The  same  reasons  of  prudence 
and  accommodation  have  weight  with  me 
in  restoring  the  charter  of  Massachusetts 
Bay.  Besides,  sir,  the  act  which  changes 
the  charter  of  Massachusetts  is  in  many 
particulars  so  exceptionable,  that  if  I  did 
not  wish  absolutely  to  repeal,  I  would  by 
all  means  desire  to  alter  it;  as  several  of 
its  provisions  tend  to  the  subversion  of  all 
public  and  private  justice.  Such,  among 
others,  is  the  power  in  the  governor  to 
change  the  sheriff  at  his  pleasure;  and  to 
make  a  new  returning  officer  for  every 
special  cause.  It  is  shameful  to  behold  such 
a  regulation  standing  among  English  laws. 

The  act  for  bringing  persons  accused  of 
committing  murder  under  the  orders  of 
government  to  England  for  trial  is  but 
temporary.  That  act  has  calculated  the 
probable  duration  of  our  quarrel  with  the 
colonies;  and  is  accommodated  to  that 
supposed  duration.  T  would  hasten  the 
happy  moment  of  reconcilation ;  and 
therefore  must,  on  my  principle,  get  rid 
of  that  most  justly  obnoxious  act. 

The  act  of  Henry  VIII.,  for  the  trial  of 
treasons,  I  do  not  mean  to  take  away,  but 
to  confine  it  to  its  proper  bounds  and 
original  intention ;  to  make  it  expressly 
for  trial  of  treasons  (and  the  greatest 
treasons  may  be  committed)  in  places 
where  the  jurisdiction  of  the  crown  does 
not  extend. 

Having  guarded  the  privileges  of  local 
legislature,  I  would  next  secure  to  the 
colonies  a  fair  and  unbiassed  judicature; 
for  which  purpose,  sir,  I  propose  the  fol- 
lowing resolution:     "That,  from  the  time 


477 


BUBKE,  EDMUND 


when  the  general  assembly  or  general 
court  of  any  colony  or  plantation  in 
North  America,  shall  have  appointed  by 
act  of  assembly,  duly  confirmed,  a  settled 
salary  to  the  offices  of  the  chief-justice 
and  other  judges  of  the  superior  courts, 
it  may  be  proper  that  the  chief-justice  and 
other  judges  of  the  superior  courts  of 
such  colony,  shall  hold  his  and  their  office 
and  offices  during  their  good  behaviour ; 
and  shall  not  be  removed  therefrom,  but 
when  the  said  removal  shall  be  adjudged 
by  his  Majesty  in  council,  upon  a  hearing 
on  complaint  from  the  general  assembly, 
or  on  complaint  from  the  governor,  or 
council,  or  the  house  of  representatives 
severally,  or  of  the  colony  in  which  the 
said  chief-justice  and  other  judges  have 
exercised  the  said  offices." 

The  next  resolution  relates  to  the  courts 
of  admiralty. 

It  is  this: — "That  it  may  be  proper  to 
regulate  the  courts  of  admiralty,  or  vice- 
admiralty,  authorized  by  the  fifteenth 
chapter  of  the  fourth  of  George  III.,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  same  more 
commodious  to  those  who  sue,  or  are  sued. 
in  the  said  courts,  and  to  provide  for  the 
more  decent  maintenance  of  the  judges  in 
the  same." 

These  courts  I  do  not  wish  to  take 
away;  they  are  in  themselves  proper  es- 
tablishments. This  court  is  one  of  the 
capital  securities  of  the  act  of  naviga- 
tion. The  extent  of  its  jurisdiction,  in- 
deed, has  been  increased;  but  this  is  al- 
together as  proper,  and  is  indeed  on  many 
accounts  more  eligible,  where  new  powers 
were  wanted,  than  a  court  absolutely 
new.  But  courts  incommodiously  situated, 
in  effect,  deny  justice ;  and  a  court,  par- 
taking in  the  fruits  of  its  own  condemna- 
tion, is  a  robber.  The  congress  complain, 
and  complain  justly,  of  this  grievance. 

There  are  three  consequential  proposi- 
tions. I  have  thought  of  two  or  three 
more;  but  they  come  rather  too  near  de- 
tail, and  to  the  province  of  executive  gov- 
ernment ;  which  I  wish  Parliament  always 
to  superintend,  never  to  assume.  If  the 
first  six  are  granted,  congruity  will  carry 
the  latter  three.  If  not,  the  things  that 
remain  unrepealed  will  be,  I  hope,  rather 
unseemly  encumbrances  on  the  building, 
than  very  materially  detrimental  to  its 
strength  and  stability. 

47 


Here,  sir,  I  should  close;  but  I  plainly 
perceive  some  objections  remain,  which  I 
ought,  if  possible,  to  remove.  The  first 
will  be,  that,  in  resorting  to  the  doctrine 
of  our  ancestors,  as  contained  in  the  pre- 
amble to  the  Chester  act,  I  prove  too 
much;  that  the  grievance  from  a  want  of 
representation,  stated  in  that  preamble, 
goes  to  the  whole  of  legislation  as  well  as 
to  taxation.  And  that  the  colonies, 
grounding  themselves  upon  that  doctrine, 
will  apply  it  to  all  parts  of  legislative  au- 
thority. 

To  this  objection,  with  all  possible  def- 
erence and  humility,  and  wishing  as  lit- 
tle as  any  man  living  to  impair  the  small- 
est particle  of  our  supreme  authority,  I 
answer,  that  the  words  are  the  words  of 
Parliament,  and  not  mine;  and  that  all 
false  and  inconclusive  inferences,  drawn 
from  them,  are  not  mine;  for  I  heartily 
disclaim  any  such  inference.  I  have 
chosen  the  words  of  an  act  of  Parliament, 
which  Mr.  Grenville,  surely  a  tolerably 
zealous  and  very  judicious  advocate  for 
the  sovereignty  of  Parliament,  formally 
moved  to  have  read  at  your  table  in  con- 
firmation of  his  tenets.  It  is  true,  that 
Lord  Chatham  considered  these  preambles 
as  declaring  strongly  in  favour  of  his 
opinions.  He  was  a  no  less  powerful 
advocate  for  the  privileges  of  the  Ameri- 
cans. Ought  I  not  from  hence  to  pre- 
sume, that  these  preambles  are  as  favour- 
able as  possible  to  both,  when  properly 
understood;  favourable  both  to  the  rights 
of  Parliament,  and  to  the  privileges  of  the 
dependencies  of  this  crown?  But,  sir,  the 
object  of  grievance  in  my  resolution  I  have 
not  taken  from  the  Chester,  but  from  the 
Durham  act,  which  confines  the  hardship 
of  want  of  representation  to  the  case  of 
subsidies;  and  which  therefore  falls  in 
exa-ctly  with  the  case  of  the  colonies.  But 
whether  the  unrepresented  countries  were 
de  jure  (in  law),  or  de  facto  (in  fact), 
bound,  the  preambles  do  not  accurately 
distinguish;  nor  indeed  was  it  necessary; 
for,  whether  de  jure,  or  de  facto,  the  legis- 
lature thought  the  exercise  of  the  power 
of  taxing,  as  of  right,  or  as  of  fact  with- 
out right,  equally  a  grievance,  and  equally 
oppressive. 

I  do  not  know  that  the  colonies  haA^e,  in 
any  general  way.  or  in  any  cool  hour,  gone 
much  beyond  the  demand  of  immunity  in 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


relation  to  taxes.  It  is  not  fair  to  judge 
of  the  temper  or  dispositions  of  any  man, 
or  any  set  of  men,  when  they  are  com- 
posed and  at  rest,  from  their  conduct,  or 
their  expressions,  in  a  state  of  disturb- 
ance and  irritation.  It  is  besides  a  very 
great  mistake  to  imagine,  that  mankind 
follow  up  practically  any  speculative 
principle,  either  of  government  or  of  free- 
dom, as  far  as  it  will  go  in  argument  and 
logical  illation.  We  Englishmen  stop 
very  short  of  the  principles  upon  which 
we  support  any  given  part  of  our  consti- 
tution; or  even  the  whole  of  it  together. 
I  could  easily,  if  I  had  not  already  tired 
you,  give  you  a  very  striking  and  convinc- 
ing instance  of  it.  This  is  nothing  but 
what  is  natural  and  proper.  All  govern- 
ment, indeed  every  human  benefit  and  en- 
joyment, every  virtue,  and  every  prudent 
act,  is  founded  on  compromise  and  barter. 
We  balance  inconveniences;  we  give  and 
take;  we  remit  some  rights  that  we  may 
enjoy  others;  and  we  choose  rather  to  be 
happy  citizens  than  subtile  disputants. 
As  we  must  give  away  some  natural  lib- 
erty, to  enjoy  civil  advantages;  so  we 
must  sacrifice  some  civil  liberties  for  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  com- 
munion and  fellowship  of  a  great  empire. 
But,  in  all  fair  dealings,  the  thing  bought 
must  bear  some  proportion  to  the  purchase 
paid.  None  will  barter  away  the  immedi- 
ate jewel  of  his  soul.  Though  a  great 
house  is  apt  to  make  slaves  haughty,  yet 
it  is  purchasing  a  part  of  the  artificial  im- 
portance of  a  great  empire  too  dear,  to 
pay  for  it  all  essential  rights,  and  all  the 
intrinsic  dignity  of  human  nature.  None 
of  us  who  would  not  risk  his  life  rather 
than  fall  under  a  government  purely  ar- 
bitrary. But  although  there  are  some 
amongst  us  who  think  our  constitution 
wants  many  improvements  to  make  it  a 
complete  system  of  liberty,  perhaps  none 
who  are  of  that  opinion  would  think  it 
right  to  aim  at  such  improvement,  by  dis- 
turbing his  country,  and  risking  every- 
thing that  is  dear  to  him.  In  every  ardu- 
ous enterprise,  we  consider  what  we  are 
to  lose  as  well  as  what  we  are  to  gain; 
and  the  more  and  better  stake  of  liberty 
every  people  possess,  the  less  they  will 
hazard  to  make  it  more.  These  are  the 
cords  of  man.  Man  acts  from  adequate 
motives  relative  to  his  interest;   and  not 


on  metaphysical  speculations.  Aristotle, 
the  great  master  of  reasoning,  cautions 
us,  and  with  great  weight  and  propriety, 
against  this  species  of  delusive  geometri- 
cal accuracy  in  moral  arguments,  as  the 
most  fallacious  of  all  sophistry. 

The  Americans  will  have  no  interest 
contrary  to  the  grandeur  and  glory  of 
England,  when  they  are  not  oppressed 
by  the  weight  of  it;  and  they  will  rather 
be  inclined  to  respect  the  acts  of  a  super- 
intending legislature,  when  they  see  them 
the  acts  of  that  power,  which  is  itself  the 
security,  not  the  rival,  of  their  secondary 
importance.  In  this  assurance,  my  mind 
most  perfectly  acquiesces;  and  I  confess, 
I  feel  not  the  least  alarm  from  the  dis- 
contents which  are  to  arise  from  putting 
people  at  their  ease;  nor  do  I  apprehend 
the  destruction  of  this  empire,  from  giv- 
ing, by  an  act  of  free  grace  and  indul- 
gence, to  2,000,000  of  my  fellow-citizens 
some  share  of  those  rights,  upon  which  I 
have  always  been  taught  to  value  myself. 

It  is  said,  indeed,  that  this  power  of 
granting,  vested  in  American  assemblies, 
would  dissolve  the  unity  of  the  empire; 
which  was  preserved  entire,  although 
Wales,  and  Chester,  and  Durham  were 
added  to  it.  Truly,  Mr.  Speaker,  I  do 
not  know  what  this  unity  means ;  nor  has 
it  ever  been  heard  of,  that  I  know,  in  the 
constitutional  policy  of  this  country.  The 
very  idea  of  subordination  of  parts,  ex- 
cludes this  notion  of  simple  and  undivided 
unity.  England  is  the  head;  but  she  is 
not  the  head  and  members  too.  Ireland  has 
ever  had  from  the  beginning  a  separate, 
but  not  an  independent,  legislature; 
which,  far  from  distracting,  promoted  the 
union  of  the  whole.  Everything  was  sweet- 
ly and  harmoniously  disposed  through 
both  islands  for  the  conservation  of  Eng- 
lish dominion,  and  the  communication  of 
English  liberties.  I  do  not  see  that  the 
same  principles  might  not  be  carried  into 
twenty  islands,  and  with  the  same  good 
effect.  This  is  my  model  with  regard  to 
America,  as  far  as  the  internal  circum- 
stances of  the  two  countries  are  the  same. 
I  know  no  other  unity  of  this  empire,  than 
I  can  draw  from  its  example  during  these 
periods,  when  it  seemed  to  my  poor  un- 
derstanding more  united  than  it  is  now, 
or  than  it  is  likely  to  be  by  the  present 
methods. 


479 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


But  since  I  speak  of  these  methods,  I 
recollect,  Mr.  Speaker,  almost  too  late,  that 
I  promised,  before  I  finished,  to  say  some- 
thing of  the  proposition  of  the  noble  lord 
on  the  floor,  which  has  been  so  lately  re- 
ceived, and  stands  on  your  journals.  I 
must  be  deeply  concerned,  whenever  it  is 
my  misfortune  to  continue  a  difference 
with  the  majority  of  this  House.  But  as 
the  reasons  for  that  diiference  are  my 
apology  for  thus  troubling  you,  suffer  me 
to  state  them  in  a  very  few  words.  I 
shall  compress  them  into  as  small  a  body 
as  I  possibly  can,  having  already  debated 
that  matter  at  large,  when  the  question 
was  before  the  committee. 

First,  then,  I  cannot  admit  that  proposi- 
tion of  a  ransom  by  auction;  because  it 
is  a  mere  project.  It  is  a  thing  new;  un- 
heard of;  supported  by  no  experience; 
justified  by  no  analogy;  without  example 
of  our  ancestors,  or  root  in  the  constitu- 
tion. 

It  is  neither  regular  parliamentary 
taxation,  nor  colony  grant.  Experimen- 
tiini  in  corpore  vili  (Try  experiments 
only  upon  what  is  of  no  value) — is  a  good 
rule,  which  will  ever  make  me  adverse  to 
any  trial  of  experiments  on  what  is  cer- 
tainly the  most  valuable  of  all  subjects, 
the  peace  of  this  empire. 

Secondly,  it  is  an  experiment  which 
must  be  fatal  in  the  end  to  our  constitu- 
tion. For  what  is  it  but  a  scheme  for 
taxing  the  colonies  in  the  antechamber 
of  the  noble  lord  and  his  successors?  To 
settle  the  quotas  and  proportions  in  this 
House,  is  clearly  impossible.  You,  sir, 
may  flatter  yourself  you  shall  sit  a  state 
auctioneer  with  your  hammer  in  your 
hand,  and  knock  down  to  each  colony  as 
it  bids.  But  to  settle  (on  the  plan  laid 
down  by  the  noble  lord)  the  true  propor- 
tional payment  for  four  or  five  and  twenty 
governments  according  to  the  absolute  and 
relative  wealth  and  burthen,  is  a  wild 
and  chimerical  notion.  This  new  taxa- 
tion must,  therefore,  come  in  by  the  back- 
door of  the  constitution.  Each  quota  must 
be  brought  to  this  House  ready  formed; 
you  can  neither  add  nor  alter.  You  must 
register  it.  You  can  do  nothing  further. 
For  on  what  grounds  can  you  deliberate 
either  before  or  after  the  proposition? 
You  cannot  hear  the  counsel  for  all  these 
provinces,    quarrelling,    each    on    its    own 


quantity  of  payment,  and  its  proportion  to 
others.  If  you  should  attempt  it,  the  com- 
mittee of  provincial  ways  and  means,  or 
by  whatever  other  name  it  will  delight  to 
be  called,  must  swallow  up  all  the  time 
of  Parliament. 

Thirdly,  it  does  not  give  satisfaction  to 
the  complaint  of  the  colonies.  They  com- 
plain that  they  are  taxed  without  their 
consent;  you  answer,  that  you  will  fix  the 
sum  at  which  they  shall  be  taxed.  That  is, 
you  give  them  the  very  grievance  for  the 
remedy.  You  tell  them,  indeed,  that  you 
will  leave  the  mode  to  themselves.  I  really 
beg  pardon;  it  gives  me  pain  to  men- 
tion it;  but  you  must  be  sensible  that  you 
will  not  perform  this  part  of  the  com- 
pact. For,  suppose  the  colonies  were  to 
lay  the  duties  which  furnished  their  con- 
tingent, upon  the  importation  of  your 
manufactures;  you  know  you  would 
never  suffer  such  a  tax  to  be  laid.  You 
know,  too,  that  you  would  not  suffer 
many  other  modes  of  taxation.  So  that, 
when  you  come  to  explain  yourself,  it 
will  be  found,  that  you  will  neither  leave 
to  themselves  the  quantum  nor  the  mode; 
nor  indeed  anything.  The  whole  is  de- 
lusion from  one  end  to  the  other. 

Fourthly,  this  method  of  ransom  by 
auction,  unless  it  be  universally  accepted, 
will  plunge  you  into  great  and  inex- 
tricable difficulties.  In  what  year  of  our 
Lord  are  the  jsroportions  of  payments  to 
be  settled?  To  say  nothing  of  the  impos- 
sibility that  colony  agents  should  have 
general  powers  of  taxing  the  colonies  at 
their  discretion,  consider,  I  implore  you, 
that  the  communication  by  special  mes- 
sages and  orders  between  these  agents  and 
their  constituents  on  each  variation  of 
the  case,  when  the  parties  come  to  con- 
tend together,  and  to  dispute  on  their  rela- 
tive proportions,  will  be  a  matter  of  delaj', 
perplexity,  and  confusion,  that  never  can 
have  an  end. 

If  all  the  colonies  do  not  appear  at  the 
outcry,  what  is  the  condition  of  those 
assemblies,  who  oft'er  by  themselves  or 
their  agents,  to  tax  themselves  up  to  your 
ideas  of  their  proportion?  The  refractory 
colonies,  who  refuse  all  composition,  will 
remain  taxed  only  to  your  old  impositions, 
which,  however  grievous  in  principle,  are 
trifling  as  to  production.  The  obedient 
colonies  in  this  scheme  are  heavily  taxed; 


480 


BURKE,  EDMUND 

the  refractory  remain  unburthened.  What  new  restraining  laws,  new  acts  for  drag- 
will  you  do  ?  Will  you  lay  new  and  ging  men  to  England  for  trial.  You  must 
heavier  taxes  by  Parliament  on  the  dis-  send  out  new  fleets,  new  armies.  All  is 
obedient?  Pray  consider  in  what  way  to  begin  again.  From  this  day  forward 
you  can  do  it.  You  are  perfectly  con-  the  empire  is  never  to  know  an  hour  of 
vinced,  that,  in  the  way  of  taxing,  you  tranquillity.  An  intestine  fire  will  be 
can  do  nothing  but  at  the  ports.  Now,  kept  alive  in  the  bowels  of  the  colonies, 
suppose  it  is  Virginia  that  refuses  to  ap-  which  one  time  or  other  must  consume 
pear  at  your  auction,  while  Maryland  and  this  whole  empire.  I  allow,  indeed,  that 
North  Carolina  bid  handsomely  for  their  the  empire  of  Germany  raises  her  revenue 
ransom,  and  are  taxed  to  your  quota,  how  and  her  troops  by  the  quotas  and  con- 
will  you  put  these  colonies  on  a  par?  tingents;  but  the  revenue  of  the  empire, 
Will  you  tax  the  tobacco  of  Virginia?  If  and  the  army  of  the  empire,  is  the  worst 
you  do,  you  give  its  death-wound  to  your  revenue  and  the  worst  army  in  the  world. 
English  revenue  at  home,  and  to  one  of  Instead  of  a  standing  revenue,  you  will 
the  greatest  articles  of  your  own  foreign  therefore  have  a  perpetual  quarrel.  In- 
trade.  If  you  tax  the  import  of  that  re-  deed,  the  noble  lord  who  proposed  this 
bellious  colony,  what  do  you  tax  but  your  project  of  a  ransom  by  auction,  seemed 
own  manufactures  or  the  goods  of  some  himself  to  be  of  that  opinion.  His  proj- 
other  obedient  and  already  well-taxed  col-  ect  was  rather  designed  for  breaking  the 
ony?  Who  has  said  one  word  on  this  laby-  union  of  the  colonies,  than  for  establish- 
rinth  of  detail,  which  bewilders  you  more  ing  a  revenue.  He  confessed,  he  appre- 
and  more  as  you  enter  into  it?  Who  bended  that  his  proposal  would  not  be  to 
has  presented,  who  can  present,  you  with  their  taste.  I  say,  this  scheme  of  dis- 
a  clue,  to  lead  you  out  of  it?  I  think,  union  seems  to  be  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sir,  it  is  impossible,  that  you  should  not  project;  for  I  will  not  suspect  that  the 
recollect  that  the  colony  bounds  are  so  noble  lord  meant  nothing  but  merely  to  de- 
implicated  in  one  another  (you  know  it  lude  the  nation  by  an  airy  phantom  which 
by  your  other  experiments  in  the  bill  for  he  never  intended  to  realize.  But  what- 
prohibiting  the  New  England  fishery),  ever  his  views  may  be,  as  I  propose  the 
that  you  can  lay  no  possible  restraints  peace  and  union  of  the  colonies  as  the  very 
on  almost  any  of  them  which  may  not  be  foundation  of  my  plan,  it  cannot  accord 
presently  eluded,  if  you  do  not  confound  with  one  whose  foundation  is  perpetual 
the  innocent  with  the  guilty  and  burthen  discord. 

those  whom,  upon  every  principle,  you  Compare  the  two.  This  I  offer  to  give 
ought  to  exonerate.  He  must  be  grossly  you  is  plain  and  simple.  The  other  full 
ignorant  of  America,  who  thinks  that,  of  perplexed  and  intricate  mazes.  This 
without  falling  into  this  confusion  of  all  is  mild;  that  harsh.  This  is  found  by 
rules  of  equity  and  policy,  you  can  restrain  experience  effectual  for  its  purposes ;  the 
any  single  colony,  especially  Virginia  and  other  is  a  new  project.  This  is  universal; 
Maryland,  the  central  and  most  important  the  other  calculated  for  certain  colonies 
of  them  all.  only-  This  is  immediate  in  its  concilia- 
Let  it  also  be  considered,  that,  either  in  tory  operation;  the  other  remote,  con- 
the  present  confusion  you  settle  a  per-  tingent,  full  of  hazard.  Mine  is  what 
manent  contingent,  which  will  and  must  be  becomes  the  dignity  of  a  ruling  people, 
trifling;  and  then  you  have  no  effectual  gratuitous,  unconditional,  and  not  held 
revenue:  or  you  change  the  quota  at  every  out  as  a  matter  of  bargain  and  sale.  I 
exigency;  and  then  on  every  new  reparti-  have  done  my  duty  in  proposing  it  to  jou. 
tion  you  will  have  a  new  quarrel.  I  have,  indeed,  tired  you  by  a  long  dis- 
Reflect,  besides,  that  when  you  have  course;  but  this  is  the  misfortune  of  those 
fixed  a  quota  for  every  colony,  you  have  to  whose  influence  nothing  will  be  con- 
not  provided  for  prompt  and  punctual  ceded,  and  who  must  win  every  inch 
payment.  Suppose  one,  two,  five,  ten  of  their  ground  by  argument.  You  have 
years'  arrears.  You  cannot  issue  a  treas-  heard  me  with  goodness.  May  you  de- 
ury  extent  against  the  failing  colony,  cide  with  wisdom !  For  my  part,  I  feel 
You  must  make  new  Boston  Port  Bills,  my  mind  greatly  disburthened  by  what  I 
I.— 2  H                                                         481 


BURKE,  EDMUND 


have  done  to-day.  I  have  been  the  less 
fearful  of  trying  your  patience  because 
on  this  subject  I  mean  to  spare  it  alto- 
gether in  future.  I  have  this  comfort, 
that  in  every  stage  of  the  American  af- 
fairs, I  have  steadily  opposed  the  measures 
that  have  produced  the  confusion,  and 
may  bring  on  the  destruction,  of  this  em- 
pire. I  now  go  so  far  as  to  risk  a  pro- 
posal of  my  own.  If  I  cannot  give  peace 
to  my  country,  I  give  it  to  my  conscience. 
But  what  (says  the  financier)  is  peace 
without  money?  Your  plan  gives  us  no 
revenue.  No!  But  it  does;  for  it  se- 
cures to  the  subject  the  power  of  refusal; 
the  first  of  all  revenues.  Experience  is  a 
cheat,  and  fact  a  liar,  if  this  power  in  the 
subject  of  proportioning  his  grant,  or  of 
not  granting  at  all,  has  not  been  found 
the  richest  mine  of  revenue  ever  discov- 
ered by  the  skill  or  by  the  fortune  of  man. 
It  does  not,  indeed,  vote  you  £152,750:11: 
2%ths,  nor  any  other  paltry  limited  sum. 
But  it  gives  you  the  strong-box  itself, 
the  fund,  the  bank,  from  whence  only 
revenues  can  arise  amongst  a  people  sen- 
sible of  freedom:  Posita  luditur  area  (The 
chest  is  staked ) .  Cannot  you  in  England, 
cannot  you-  at  this  time  of  day,  cannot 
you,  a  House  of  Commons,  trust  to  the 
principle  which  has  raised  so  mighty  a 
I'evenue,  and  accumulated  a  debt  of  near 
140  millions  in  this  country?  Is  this 
principle  to  be  true  in  England  and  false 
everywhere  else?  Is  it  not  true  in  Ire- 
land? Has  it  not  hitherto  been  true  in 
the  colonies?  Why  should  you  presume, 
that,  in  any  country,  a  body  duly  con- 
stituted for  any  function,  will  neglect  to 
perform  its  duty,  and  abdicate  its  trvist? 
Such  a  presumption  would  go  against  all 
governments  in  all  modes.  But,  in  truth, 
this  dread  of  penury  of  supply  from  a 
free  assembly,  has  no  foundation  in  nat- 
ure. For  first  observe  that,  besides  the 
desire  which  all  men  have  naturally  of 
supporting  the  honour  of  their  own  gov- 
ernment, that  sense  of  dignity,  and  that 
security  to  property,  which  ever  attends 
freedom,  has  a  tendency  to  increase  the 
stock  of  the  free  community.  Most  may 
be  taken  where  most  is  accumulated.  And 
what  is  the  soil  or  climate  where  experi- 
ence has  not  uniformly  proved  that  the 
voluntary  flow  of  heaped-up  plenty,  burst- 
ing from  the  weight  of  its  own  rich  luxu- 

48 


riance,  has  ever  run  with  a  more  copious 
stream  of  revenue,  than  could  be  squeezed 
from  the  dry  husks  of  oppressed  indigence, 
by  the  straining  of  all  the  politic  ma- 
chinery in  the  world. 

Next  we  know,  that  parties  must  ever 
exist  in  a  free  country.  We  know  too,  that 
the  emulations  of  such  parties,  their  con- 
tradictions, their  reciprocal  necessities, 
their  hopes,  and  their  fears,  must  send 
them  all  in  their  turns  to  him  that  holds 
the  balance  of  the  state.  The  parties  are 
the  gamesters;  but  government  keeps  the 
table,  and  is  sure  to  be  the  winner  in  the 
end.  When  this  game  is  played,  I  really 
think  it  is  more  to  be  feared  that  the  peo- 
ple will  be  exhausted,  than  that  govern- 
ment will  not  be  supplied.  Whereas, 
whatever  is  got  by  acts  of  absolute  power 
ill-obeyed  because  odious,  or  by  contracts 
ill  kept  because  constrained,  will  be  nar- 
row, feeble,  iincertain,  and  precarious. 
"  Ease  would  retract  vows  made  in  pain 
as  violent  and  void." 

I,  for  one,  protest  against  compound- 
ing for  a  limited  sum,  the  immense,  ever 
growing,  eternal  debt,  which  is  due  to 
generous  government  from  protected  free- 
dom. And  so  may  I  speed  in  the  great 
object  I  propose  to  you,  as  I  think  it 
would  not  only  be  an  act  of  injustice,  but 
Avould  be  the  worst  economy  in  the  world, 
to  compel  the  colonies  to  a  sum  certain, 
either  in  the  Avay  of  ransom,  or  in  the  way 
of  compulsory  compact. 

But  to  clear  up  my  ideas  on  this  sub- 
ject— a  revenue  from  America  transmitted 
hither — do  not  delude  yourselves — you 
never  can  receive  it — no,  not  a  shilling. 
We  have  experienced  that  from  remote 
countries  it  is  not  to  be  expected.  If,  Avhen 
you  attempted  to  extract  revenue  from 
Bengal,  you  were  obliged  to  return  in  loan 
what  you  had  taken  in  imposition,  what 
can  you  expect  from  North  America?  For 
certainly,  if  ever  there  was  a  country 
qualified  to  produce  wealth,  it  is  India; 
or  an  institution  fit  for  the  transmission, 
it  is  the  East  India  Company.  America 
has  none  of  these  aptitudes.  If  America 
gives  you  taxable  objects,  on  which  you 
lay  your  duties  here,  and  gives  you,  at 
the  same  time,  a  surplus  by  a  foreign  sale 
of  her  commodities  to  pay  the  duties  on 
these  objects,  which  you  tax  at  home,  she 
has  performed  her  part  to  the  British  rev- 


BUBKE,  EDMUND 


enue.  But  with  regard  to  her  own  inter- 
nal establishments,  she  may,  I  doubt  not 
she  will,  contribute  in  moderation.  I  say 
moderation,  for  she  ought  not  to  be  per- 
mitted to  exhaust  herself.  She  ought  to 
be  reserved  to  a  war ;  the  weight  of  which, 
with  the  enemies  that  we  are  most  likely 
to  have,  must  be  considered  in  her  quarter 
of  the  globe.  There  she  may  serve  you, 
and  serve  you  essentially. 

For  that  service,  for  all  service,  whether 
of  revenue,  trade,  or  empire,  my  trust  is 
in  her  interest  in  the  British  constitu- 
tion. My  hold  of  the  colonies  is  in  the 
close  aflfection  which  grows  from  common 
names,  from  kindred  blood,  from  similar 
privileges,  and  equal  protection.  These 
are  ties,  which,  though  light  as  air,  are 
as  strong  as  links  of  iron.  Let  the  colo- 
nies always  keep  the  idea  of  their  civil 
rights  associated  with  your  government; 
they  will  cling  and  grapple  to  you;  and  no 
force  under  heaven  will  be  of  power  to 
tear  them  from  their  allegiance.  But 
let  it  be  once  understood  that  your  gov- 
ernment may  be  one  thing,  and  their  priv- 
ileges another ;  that  these  two  things  may 
exist  without  any  mutual  relation;  the 
cement  is  gone;  and  everything  hastens  to 
decay  and  dissolution.  As  long  as  you 
have  the  wisdom  to  keep  the  sovereign  au- 
thority of  this  country  as  tl^e  sanctuary 
of  liberty,  the  sacred  temple  consecrated 
to  our  common  faith,  wherever  the  chosen 
race  and  sons  of  England  worship  free- 
dom, they  will  turn  their  faces  towards 
you.  The  more  they  multiply,  the  more 
friends  you  will  have;  the  more  ardent- 
ly they  love  liberty,  the  more  perfect  will 
be  their  obedience.  Slavery  they  can  have 
anywhere.  It  is  a  weed  that  grows  in  ev- 
ery soil.  They  may  have  it  from  Spain, 
they  may  have  it  from  Prussia.  But,  until 
you  become  lost  to  all  feeling  of  your  true 
interest  and  your  natural  dignity,  free- 
dom they  can  have  from  none  but  you. 
This  is  the  commodity  of  price,  of  which 
you  have  the  monopoly.  This  is  the  true 
act  of  navigation,  which  binds  to  you  the 
commerce  of  the  colonies,  and  through 
them  secures  to  you  the  wealth  of  the 
world.  Deny  them  this  participation  of 
freedom,  and  you  break  that  sole  bond, 
which  originally  made,  and  must  still  pre- 
serve, the  unity  of  the  empire.  Do  not 
entertain  so  weak  an  imagination,  as  that 

48 


your  registers  and  your  bonds,  your  affi- 
davits and  your  sufferances,  your  cockets 
and  your  clearances,  are  what  form  the 
great  securities  of  your  commerce.  Do 
not  dream  that  your  letters  of  office,  and 
your  instructions,  and  your  suspending 
clauses,  are  the  things  that  hold  together 
the  great  contexture  of  the  mysterious 
whole.  These  things  do  not  make  your 
government.  Dead  instruments,  passive 
tools  as  they  are.  it  is  the  spirit  of  the 
English  communion  that  gives  all  their 
life  and  efficacy  to  them.  It  is  the  spirit 
of  the  English  constitution,  which,  infused 
through  the  mighty  mass,  pervades,  feeds, 
unites,  invigorates,  vivifies  every  part  of 
the  empire,  even  down  to  the  minutest 
member.  Is  it  not  the  same  virtue  which 
does  everything  for  us  here  in  England? 
Do  you  imagine,  then,  that  it  is  the  land 
tax  act  which  raises  your  revenue?  that 
it  is  the  annual  vote  in  the  committee  of 
supply  which  gives  you  your  army?  or 
that  it  is  the  mutiny  bill  which  inspires 
it  with  bravery  and  discipline?  No!  sure- 
ly no !  It  is  the  love,  of  the  people ;  it 
is  their  attachment  to  their  government, 
from  the  sense  of  the  deep  stake  they  have 
in  such  a  glorious  institution  which  gives 
you  your  army  and  your  navy,  and  in- 
fuses into  both  that  liberal  obedience, 
without  which  your  army  Avould  be  a  base 
rabble,  and  your  navy  nothing  but  rotten 
timber. 

All  this,  I  know  well  enough,  will  sound 
wild  and  chimerical  to  the  profane  herd 
of  those  vulgar  and  mechanical  politi- 
cians, who  have  no  place  among  us;  a 
sort  of  people  who  think  that  nothing  ex- 
ists but  what  is  gross  and  material ;  and 
who,  therefore,  far  from  being  qualified 
to  be  directors  of  the  great  movement  of 
empire,  are  not  fit  to  turn  a  wheel  in  the 
machine.  But  to  men  truly  initiated  and 
rightly  taught,  these  ruling  and  master 
principles,  which,  in  the  existence,  are  in 
truth  everything,  and  all  in  all.  Mag- 
nanimity in  politics  is  not  seldom  the 
truest  wisdom;  and  a  great  empire  and 
little  minds  go  ill  together.  If  we  are 
conscious  of  our  situation,  and  glow  with 
zeal  to  fill  our  place  as  becomes  our  sta- 
tion and  ourselves,  we  ought  to  auspicate 
all  our  public  proceedings  on  America 
with  the  old  warning  of  the  church,  Sur- 
sum  corda!  (Lift  up  your  hearts).  We 
3 


BURKE— BURLINGAME 


ought  to  elevate  our  minds  to  the  great- 
ness of  that  trust  to  which  the  order  of 
Providence  has  called  us.  By  adverting 
to  the  dignity  of  this  high  calling,  our 
ancestors  have  turned  a  savage  wilderness 
into  a  glorious  empire;  and  have  made  the 
most  extensive  and  the  only  honourable 
conquests,  not  by  destroying,  but  by  pro- 
moting the  wealth,  the  number,  the  hap- 
piness of  the  human  race.  Let  us  get  an 
American  revenue  as  we  have  got  an 
American  empire.  English  privileges  have 
made  it  all  that  it  is;  English  privileges 
alone  will  make  it  all  that  it  can  be. 

In  full  confidence  of  this  unalterable 
truth,  I  now  (quod  felix  faustumque  sit) 
[and  may  it  be  lucky  and  fortvmate]  lay 
the  first  stone  of  the  temple  of  peace;  and 
I  move  you: 

"  That  the  colonies  and  plantations  of 
Great  Britain  in  North  America,  consist- 
ing of  fourteen  separate  governments,  and 
■  containing  2,000,000  and  upwards  of  free 
inhabitants,  have  not  had  the  liberty 
and  privilege  of  electing  and  sending  any 
knights  and  burgesses  or  others,  to  repre- 
sent them  in  the  high  court  of  Parlia- 
ment." 

Burke,  Thomas,  governor,  born  in 
Ireland  about  1747;  went  to  Virginia  when 
seventeen  years  old,  and  in  time  engaged 
in  the  practice  of  medicine.  Then  he 
studied  law,  and  in  1774  moved  to  Hills- 
boro.  He  had  written  against  the  stamp 
a,ct  and  other  obnoxious  measures,  and  he 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  politics  in 
North  Carolina.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Provincial  Congress  in  177G;  was  en- 
gaged a  short  time  in  the  army,  and  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  December, 
1776,  until  early  in  1781,  when  he  was 
chosen  governor  of  the  State.  In  Septem- 
ber of  that  year  he  was  seized  by 
Tories,  and  kept  a  prisoner  on  James  Isl- 
and, near  Charleston,  four  months;  after 
which  he  was  reg-ularly  exchanged,  re- 
sumed his  duties  of  governor,  but  soon  re- 
tired to  private  life.  He  died  in  Hills- 
boro,  N.  C,  Dec.  2,  1783. 

Burley,  Bennett  G.,  naval  oflScer; 
served  in  the  Confederate  navy.  On  Sept. 
19, 1864, with  other  Confederates,  he  seized 
the  Philo  Parsons,  a  steamer  on  Lake  Erie, 
and  afterwards  another  steamer,  the  Isl- 
and Queen,  with  which  his  party  intended 
to    capture    the    United    States    gunboat 


Michigan  and  release  the  Confederate 
prisoners  on  Johnson's  Island;  but  the 
Michigan  captured  the  whole  party.  The 
Island  Queen  was  sunk  and  the  Philo 
Parsons  abandoned.  Burley  was  placed 
on  trial  for  extradition,  and  after  con- 
siderable diplomatic  correspondence  with 
the  British  government  was  surrendered 
to  the  United  States  authorities  for  pun- 
ib:hment.  The  Confederate  government, 
under  the  plea  of  belligerent  rights,  en- 
deavored to  secure  his  release  or  exchange, 
but  without  success. 

Burlingame,  Anson,  diplomatist;  born 
in  New  Berlin,  Chenango  co.,  N.  Y.,  Nov. 
14,  1820.  His  father,  a  farmer,  rem.oved 
to  Seneca  county,  Ohio,  when  Anson  was 
three  years  of  age.  Ten  years  later  the 
family  were  in  Michigan.  Anson  entered 
the  University  of  Michigan  in  1837,  and 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1846.  He 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  Boston,  and 
subsequently  became  an  active  member  of 
the  Free  Soil  Party  (q.  v.),  acquiring  a 
wide  reputation  as  an  effective  speaker. 
In  1849-50  he  was  in  Europe.  In  1852 
he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Senate,  and  became  an  active  sup- 
porter of  the  American  party  in  1854, 
by  which  he  was  elected  to  Congress  the 
same  year.  Mr.  Burlingame  assisted  in 
the  formation  of  the  Republican  party 
in  1855-56;  and  he  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  ablest  debaters  in  Congress  on  that 
side  of  the  House.  Severely  criticising 
I'reston  S.  Brooks  for  his  attack  upon 
Charles  Sumner  (q.  v.),  the  South  Caro- 
linian challenged  him  to  fight  a  duel.  He 
promptly  accepted  the  challenge,  proposed 
rifles  as  the  weapons,  and  Navy  Island, 
just  above  Niagara  Falls,  as  the  place  of 
conflict.  Brooks  declined  to  go  there,  and 
the  matter  was  dropped.  In  March,  1861, 
President  Lincoln  appointed  Mr.  Burlin- 
game minister  to  Austria.  He  having 
spoken  in  favor  of  Hungarian  indepen- 
dence, the  Austrian  government  refused  to 
receive  him,  and  he  Avas  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  China.  There  he  carried  forward 
important  negotiations;  and  when,  in 
1867,  he  announced  to  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment his  intention  of  returning  home. 
Prince  Kung,  the  regent  of  the  empire, 
offered  to  appoint  him  special  ambassa- 
dor to  the  United  States  and  the  great 
European    powers,    for    the    purpose    of 


484 


BURLINGTON    HEIGHTS— BURNS 


framing  treaties  of  amity  with  those  na- 
tions. This  high  honor  Mr.  Burlingame 
accepted;  and  at  the  head  of  a  retinue 
of  Chinese  officials,  he  arrived  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  in  March,  1868.  From  his  own 
country  ilr.  Burlingame  proceeded  on  his 
mission  to  England,  France,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Holland,  and  Prussia.  He  was 
well  received,  and  he  negotiated  treaties 
with  all  but  France.  He  had  just  entered 
upon  negotiations  at  St.  Petersburg,  early 
in  1870,  when  he  died  of  pneumonia  after 
an  illness  of  only  a  few  days,  Feb.  23, 
1870. 

Burlington  Heights,  Expedition  to. 
The  British  maintained  for  some  time  a 
fortified  camp  at  Burlington  Heights,  at 
the  western  end  of  Lake  Ontario.  There 
they  made  a  depository  of  stores;  and  to 
capture  these  an  expedition,  composed  of 
300  land  troops,  under  Col.  Winfield  Scott, 
borne  by  the  fleet  of  Commodore  Chauncey, 
left  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  River,  July 
28,  1813.  The  usual  feeble  guard  over  the 
stores  had  just  been  reinforced.  Con- 
vinced that  their  forces  were  insufficient 
to  seize  the  prizes,  Scott  and  Chauncey 
concluded  to  attack  York,  from  which  the 
British  reinforcements  had  just  been  sent. 
The  fleet  bore  the  troops  across  the  lake, 
and  entered  the  harbor  of  York  on  July 
31.  Scott  landed  his  troops  without  oppo- 
sition; took  possession  of  the  place;  burn- 
ed the  barracks,  public  storehouses  and 
stores,  and  eleven  transports;  destroyed 
five  pieces  of  cannon,  and  bore  away  as 
spoils  one  heavy  gun  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  flour.  They  found  in  York 
(Toronto)  the  sick  and  wounded  of 
Boerstler's  command  captured  at  the  Bea- 
ver Dajis  iq.  v.). 

Burnet,  William,  colonial  governor; 
horn  at  The  Hague,  Holland,  in  March, 
1688,  when  William  of  Orange  (after- 
wards William  III.  of  England)  became 
his  godfather  at  baptism;  was  a  son  of 
Bishop  Burnet;  became  engaged  in  the 
South  Sea  speculations,  which  involved 
him  pecuniarily,  and,  to  retrieve  his  fort- 
une, he  received  the  appointment  of  gov- 
ernor of  the  colonies  of  New  York  and 
New  Jersey.  He  arrived  in  New  York  in 
September,  1720.  Becoming  unpopular 
there,  he  was  transferred  to  the  govern- 
ments of  Massachusetts  and  New  Hamp- 
shire.   He  arrived  at  Boston  in  July,  1728, 


and  was  received  with  unusual  pomp. 
This  show  he  urged  in  his  speech  as  a 
proof  of  their  ability  to  give  a  liberal  sup- 
port to  his  government,  and  acquainted 
them  Avith  the  King's  instructions  to  him 
to  insist  upon  an  established  salary,  and 
his  intention  to  adhere  to  it.  The  Assem- 
bly at  once  took  an  attitude  of  opposition 
to  the  governor.  They  voted  him  £1,700 
to  enable  him  to  manage  public  affairs, 
and  to  defray  his  expenses  in  going  there. 
The  governor  declared  himself  dissatisfied, 
and  would  not  consent  to  their  resolve, 
as  it  was  "  contrary  to  his  Majesty's  in- 
structions." The  Assembly  appealed  to 
their  charter,  granted  by  King  William, 
and  refused  to  vote  a  fixed  salary.  A 
spirited  contest  in  writing  ensued.  In 
one  of  his  communications  the  governor 
threatened  the  colony  with  the  loss  of  their 
charter.  They  remained  firm,  "  because," 
they  said,  "  it  is  the  undoubted  right  of 
all  Englishmen,  by  Magna  Charta,  to  raise 
and  dispose  of  money  for  the  public  ser- 
vice of  their  own  free  accord,  without 
compulsion."  At  a  town  meeting  in  Bos- 
ton, during  the  controversy,  a  unanimous 
declaration  was  made  that  the  people  of 
the  town  were  opposed  to  settling  a  fixed 
salary  on  the  governor.  That  official  then 
adjourned  the  legislature  to  Salem,  re- 
marking, in  his  message  for  that  purpose, 
that  the  interposition  of  towns  was  "  a 
needless  and  officious  step,  better  adapted 
to  the  republic  of  Holland  than  to  a  Brit- 
ish constitution."  The  Assembly  adhered 
to  their  determination,  and  the  governor 
was  compelled  to  yield.  In  person  he  was 
very  commanding;  frank  in  manner,  and 
of  ready  wit.     He  died  Sept.  7,  1729. 

Burns,  Anthony,  negro  slave;  was 
seized  in  Boston,  as  a  fugitive  slave.  May 
27,  1854.  After  a  judicial  hearing  he  was 
remanded  to  slavery  and  was  taken  to  the 
wharf  and  shipped  South  under  a  strong 
guard  to  prevent  his  rescue  by  anti-sla- 
very sympathizers.  The  event  created 
great  excitement,  and  subsequently  his 
freedom  was  purchased  by  a  subscription 
raised  in  Boston,  and  after  his  release  he 
settled  in  Canada. 

Burns,  John,  military  officer;  born  in 
Burlington,  N.  J.,  Sept.  5,  1793;  served 
in  the  War  of  1812-15,  taking  part  in  the 
engagements  at  Plattsburg,  Queenston, 
and  Lundy's  Lane.     He  endeavored  to  en- 


485 


BURNSIDE— BURNT    COBN    CREEK 


list  for  the  Mexican  War,  but  being  re-  Peninsula,  and  was  active  and  skilful  as 
jected  on  account  of  his  age  went  with  a  corps  commander  in  many  of  the  most 
the  army  as  a  teamster.  In  1863,  when  important  military  events  of  the  war. 
the  Confederate  scouts  entered  Gettys-  General  Burnside  served  in  the  campaign 
burg,  he  joined  a  party  to  oppose  them,  in  Maryland  under  McClellan,  and  was  in 
but  was  turned  back  by  the  National  cav-  the  battles  at  South  Mountain  and  Antie- 
alry.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  sub-  tam.  On  Nov.  7,  1862,  he  superseded 
sequent  battle  of  Gettysburg,  and  when  McClellan  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
the  report  of  his  participation  reached  the  Potomac.  Failing  of  success  in  his  at- 
Northern  States  it  aroused  much  interest  tack  upon  Lee  at  Fredericksburg  (Decem- 
and  he  was  hailed  as  the  "hero  of  Gettys-  ber,  1862),  he  resigned,  and  was  succeeded 
burg."  He  died  in  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  Feb.  by  General  Hooker  in  January,  1863.  As- 
7,  1872.  signed  to  the  command  of  the  Department 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett,  military  of  the  Ohio  in  May,  he  was  active  there  in 
officer;  born  in  Liberty,  Ind.,  May  23,  suppressing  the  disloyal  elements  in  that 
1824;  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  region.  In  the  fall  he  freed  eastern  Ten- 
1847,  and,  as  a  member  of  a  corps  of  ar-  nessee  of  Confederate  domination,  where  he 
tillery,  accompanied  General  Patterson  to  fought  Longstreet.  He  was  in  command 
Mexico  the  same  year.  Afterwards  he  of  his  old  corps  (the  9th)  in  Grant's  cam- 
was  in  charge  of  a  squadron  of  cavalry  in  paign  against  Richmond  in  1864-65,  where 
New  Mexico;  was  quartermaster  of  the  he  performed  important  work.  He  re- 
Mexican  Boundary  Commission  in  1850-  signed  April  15,  1865.  In  1866  he  was 
51;  resigned  in  1853;  established  a  manu-  elected  governor  of  Rhode  Island,  and  was 
factory  of  breech-loading  rifles  (his  own  twice  re-elected.  Being  in  Europe  in  the 
invention)  in  Rhode  Island;  and  was  an  fall  of  1870,  he  was  admitted  within  the 
officer    of    the    Illinois    Central    Railroad    German   and   French   lines   around   Paris, 

and  ineffectually  endeavored  to  mediate 
between  the  belligerents.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1875,  and 
v/as  re-elected  in  1880.  He  died  in  Bris- 
tol, R.  L,  Sept.  3,  1881. 

Burnt  Corn  Creek,  Battle  of.  Peter 
McQueen,  a  half-blood  Creek  Indian  of 
Tallahassee,  was  a  fiery  leader  among  the 
war  party  of  that  nation,  wherein  civil 
war  was  raging  in  the  spring  of  1813. 
This  war  Tecumseh  had  stirred  up,  and 
the  wholer  Creek  nation  had  become  a 
seething  caldron  of  passion.  A  British 
squadron  in  the  Gulf  held  friendly  inter- 
course with  the  Spanish  authorities  at 
Pensacola.  To  that  port  McQueen  and 
300  followers,  with  pack-horses,  went  to 
get  supplies  and  convey  them  to  the  war 
party  in  the  interior.  That  party  was 
inimical  to  the  white  people  settled  in 
Company  when  the  Civil  War  began.  He  that  nation,  and  it  was  the  duty  of  the 
went  into  that  conflict  as  colonel  of  the  military  in  that  region  to  protect  the 
1st  Rhode  Island  Volunteers.  For  good  latter.  This  protection  was  not  furnished, 
service  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  he  was  and  the  white  inhabitants  and  the  peace 
made  (Aug.  6,  1861)  major-general  of  party  among  the  Creeks  prepared  to  de- 
volunteers.  He  commanded  the  expedi-  fend  themselves.  Col.  James  Caller  called 
tion  that  captured  Roanoke  Island  out  the  militia  to  intercept  McQueen. 
{q.  V.)  in  February,  1862;  also  Newbern  There  was  a  prompt  response,  and  Caller 
and  Beaufort.  He  was  called  to  Virginia  set  out  with  a  few  followers.  He  marched 
after   the   close   of   the   campaign   on   the    towards  the  Florida  frontier,  joined  on  the 

486 


AMBROSE  EVERETT  BURNSIDE. 


BURR 


way  by  the  famous  borderer  Capt.  Samuel  the  military  family  of  that  officer  as  his 
Dale  and  fifty  men,  who  were  engaged  in  aide-de-camp,  with  the  rank  of  captain, 
the  construction  of  a  fort.  He  was  now  Offended  because  cheeked  by  Montgomery  in 
joined  by  others  from  Tensaw  Lake  and  his  offieiousness,  he  left  his  staff  and  joined 
Little  River  under  various  leaders.  Caller's  Arnold's.  On  the  night  of  the  assault  on 
command  now  numbered  about  180  men,  in  Quebec  (Dec.  30  and  31,  1775)  he  was  with 
small  companies,  well  mounted  on  good  Montgomery,  and,  when  the  latter  was 
frontier  horses,  and  provided  with  rifles  and  killed  in  that  assault,  he  bore  his  body  on 
shot-guns.  Setting  out  on  the  main  route  his  back  from  the  field.  He  left  the 
for  Pensacola  on  the  morning  of  July  27 
(1813),  they  found  McQueen  encamped 
upon  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  windings 
of  Burnt  Corn  Creek.  It  was  resolved  to 
attack  him.  McQueen  and  his  party  were 
surprised,  but  they  fought  desperately  a 
few  minutes,  and  then  fled  towards  the 
creek.  The  tide  then  turned.  McQueen 
and  his  Indians  arose  from  an  ambush 
with  horrid  yells  and  fell  upon  less  than 
100  of  Caller's  men.  Dale  was  severely 
wounded;  but  kept  on  fighting.  Over- 
whelming numbers  at  length  compelled 
Caller's  force  to  retreat.  They  fled  in  dis- 
order, many  of  them  leaving  their  horses 
behind  them.  Victory  rested  with  the 
hostile  Creeks.  Only  two  of  Caller's  com- 
mand were  killed  and  fifteen  wounded. 
The  battle  of  Burnt  Corn  Creek  was  the 
first  in  the  Creek  war,  a  conflict  which 
ruined  that  nation.     See  Creek  Indians. 

Burr,  Aaron,  educator;  born  in  Fair- 
field, Conn.,  Jan.  4,  1716;  was  of  German 
descent;    graduated    at    Yale    College    in 

1735;  and  ordained  by  the  presbytery  army  in  Canada,  and  joined  the  military 
of  east  Jersey  in  1737.  He  became  family  of  Washington,  at  New  York,  in 
pastor  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  where  he  was  May,  1776,  with  the  rank  of  major.  Dis- 
chiefly  instrumental  in  founding  the  Col-  satisfied  with  that  position,  he  left  it  in 
lege  of  New  Jersey  (now  Princeton  Uni-  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  and  took  a  simi- 
versity),  and  was  elected  its  president  in  lar  position  on  General  Putnam's  staff. 
1748.  In  1752  he  married  a  daughter  of  He  was  active  in  the  events  connected 
Jonathan  Edwards,  the  metaphysician.  In  with  the  defence  and  abandonment  of  the 
1754  he  accompanied  Whitefield  to  Boston,  city  of  New  York  in  1776;  and  in  1777 
He  died  Sept.  24,  1757.  he 'became  lieutenant-colonel  of  Malcolm's 

Burr,  Aaron,  Vice  -  President  of  the  regiment.  Burr  distinguished  himself  in 
United  States;  born  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  Feb.  the  battle  of  Monmouth  in  1778,  where  he 
6,  1756;  a  son  of  Rev.  Aaron  Burr,  Presi-  commanded  a  brigade  in  Stirling's  division, 
dent  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  and  During  the  winter  of  1778-79  he  was  sta- 
of  a  daughter  of  the  eminent  theologian,  tioned  in  Westchester  county,  N.  Y.  For 
Jonathan  Edwards.  When  nineteen  years  a  short  time  he  was  in  command  of  the 
of  age,  he  entered  the  Continental  army,  post  at  West  Point,  but,  on  account  of  ill- 
at  Cambridge,  as  a  private  soldier,  and  health,  he  left  the  army  in  March,  1779. 
as  such  accompanied  Arnold  in  his  expe-  Burr  was  a  born  intriguer,  and  was  nat- 
dition  to  Quebec.  From  the  line  of  that  Tirally  drawn  towards  Lee  and  Gates.' and 
expedition,  in  the  wilderness,  Arnold  became  a  partisan  in  their  schemes  for  in- 
sent  him  with  despatches  to  General  Mont-  juring  the  reputation  of  Washington.  He 
gomery,    at    Montreal,    where   he    entered    had   been   detected   by  the  commander-in- 

487 


AARON   BDRR. 


BURR,    AARON 


chief  in  immoralities,  and  ever  afterwards 
he  affected  to  despise  the  military  charac- 
ter of  Washington.  He  began  to  practise 
law  at  Albany  in  1782,  but  removed  to 
New  York  the  next  year.  Entering  the 
arena  of  politics,  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  New  York  legislature  in  1784,  and 
again  in  1798.  In  1789  he  was  appointed 
attorney-general  of  the  State,  and  com- 
missioner of  Revolutionary  claims  in  1791. 
A  member  of  the  United  States  Senate 
from  1791  till  1797,  Burr  was  a  conspicu- 
ous Democratic  leader  in  that  body;  and 
in  the  Presidential  election  in  1800  he  and 
Thomas  Jefferson  had  an  equal  number 
of  votes  in  the  electoral  college.  The  House 
of  Representatives  decided  the  choice  in 
favor  of  Jefferson  on  the  thirty-sixth  bal- 
lot, and  Burr  became  Vice-President.  In 
July,  1804,  he  killed  Alexander  Hamilton 
in  a  duel ;  and  the  next  year  he  undertook 
his  mad  and  mysterious  enterprise  in  the 
West,  which  resulted  in  his  trial  for 
treason. 

In  March,  1805,  Burr's  term  of  office  as 
Vice-President  ended,  and  he  descended 
to  private  life  an  utterly  ruined  man.  But 
his  ambition  and  his  love  of  intrigue  were 
as  strong  as  ever,  and  he  conceived  schemes 
for  personal  aggrandizement  and  pecuni- 
ary gain.  It  Avas  the  general  belief,  at 
that  time,  in  the  United  States,  that  the 
Spanish  inhabitants  of  Louisiana  would 
not  quietly  submit  to  our  government. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  belief,  and  the 
restlessness  of  many  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  he  con- 
ceived some  daring  schemes  (none  fully 
developed)  of  military  operations  in  that 
region,  which  he  attempted  to  carry  out 
immediately  after  he  left  office.  With 
several  nominal  objects  in  view,  Burr 
started  for  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  com- 
pany with  General  Wilkinson,  who  went 
to  take  possession  of  his  office  of  governor 
of  the  Louisiana  Territory,  to  which  he 
had  been  appointed.  At  Pittsburg  Burr 
started  in  a  vessel  called  an  "  ark,"  in 
which  were  fitted  up  conveniences  for  a 
long  voyage.  Wilkinson  was  not  ready, 
and  the  impatient  Burr  proceeded  without 
him.  He  stopped  at  Blennerhassett's  Isl- 
and, nearly  opposite  Marietta,  then  in- 
habited by  a  wealthy  and  accomplished 
Irish  gentleman  of  that  name,  who  had 
created  there  a  paradise  for  himself   (see 


Blennerhassett,  HarmajV  ) .  He  had  a 
pleasant  mansion,  enriched  by  books, 
adorned  with  paintings,  enlivened  by 
music,  and  presided  over  by  a  lovely  and 
accomplished  wife.  Burr  laid  before  Blen- 
nerhassett  a  brilliant  vision  of  wealth 
and  power,  in  a  scheme  of  conquest  or 
revolution,  Avhich  captivated  him  and  fired 
the  ambition  that  lay  in  the  bosom  of 
his  wife.  They  engaged  in  Burr's  scheme, 
whatever  it  may  have  been,  with  ardor. 

After  remaining  there  some  time.  Burr 
pressed  forward,  and  at  Louisville  over- 
took Matthew  Lyon  {q.  v.)  ,with  whom  he 
had  voyaged  in  company  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  journey.  He  accompanied  Lyon  to 
his  home  on  the  Cumberland  River,  whence 
he  journeyed  to  Nashville  on  horseback; 
had  a  public  reception  (May  28,  1805), 
in  which  Andrew  Jackson  participated; 
and,  furnished  with  a  boat  by  that  gentle- 
man, returned  to  Lyon's.  Then  he  resumed 
his  voyage  in  his  own  "  ark,"  and  met 
Wilkinson  at  Fort  Massac,  nearly  oppo- 
site the  mouth  of  the  Cumberland.  Some 
soldiers  were  about  to  depart  thence  for 
New  Orleans,  and  Wilkinson  procured  a 
barge  from  one  of  the  officers  for  Burr's 
accommodation  in  a  voyage  to  that  city. 
There  he  found  the  inhabitants  in  a  state 
of  great  excitement.  The  introduction  of 
English  forms  of  law  proceedings,  and 
the  slight  participation  of  the  people  in 
public  affairs,  had  produced  much  discon- 
tent, especially  among  the  Creoles  and 
old  settlers.  Even  the  new  American  im- 
migrants were  divided  by  bitter  political 
and  private  feuds.  Burr  remained  only  a 
short  time,  when  he  reascended  the  Mis- 
sissippi to  Natchez,  whence  he  travelled 
through  the  wilderness,  along  an  Indian 
trail  or  bridle-path,  450  miles,  to  Nash- 
ville, w^here  he  was  entertained  for  a  week 
by  Jackson  early  in  August.  After  spend- 
ing a  few  weeks  there.  Burr  made  his  way 
through  the  Indian  Territory  to  St.  Louis, 
where  he  again  met  W^ilkinson,  that  being 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  Louisiana 
Territory.  Then,  for  the  first  time,  he 
threw  out  hints  to  Wilkinson  of  his  splen- 
did scheme  of  conquest  in  the  Southwest, 
which  he  spoke  of  as  being  favored  by  the 
United  States  government.  At  the  same 
time  he  complained  of  the  government  as 
imbecile,  and  the  people  of  the  West  as 
ready  for  revolt.    He  made  no  explanation 


488 


BURR,    AARON 


to  Wilkinson  of  the  nature  of  his  scheme, 
and  that  officei",  suspicious  of  Burr's  de- 
signs, wrote  to  his  friend  Robert  Smith, 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  advising  the  gov- 
ernment to  keep  a  watch  upon  his  move- 
ments. 

Burr  went  from  St.  Louis  to  Vincennes 
with  a  letter  from  Matt.  Lyon  to  Governor 
Harrison,  in  which  he  urged  the  latter  to 
use  his  influence  to  get  Burr  elected  to 
Congress  from  that  district.  Thence  Burr 
went  eastward,  stopping  at  Cincinnati, 
Chillicothe,  and  Marietta,  everywhere  con- 
versing with  leading  men,  to  whom  he 
gave  only  attractive  hints  of  a  brilliant 
scheme  in  hand.  He  spent  that  winter 
and  the  following  spring  and  summer  in 
Philadelphia  and  Washington,  engaged  in 
his  mysterious  projects.  There  he  more 
clearly  developed  his  scheme,  which  seemed 
to  have  a  twofold  character — the  conquest 
of  Mexico  from  the  Spaniards  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  independent  monarchy, 
and  the  revolutionizing  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  separating  that  region  from  the 
rest  of  the  Union,  and  forming  an  inde- 
pendent republic,  with  its  seat  of  govern- 
ment at  New  Orleans.  If  the  first-men- 
tioned scheme  should  be  carried  out.  Burr 
aspired  to  be  king;  if  the  latter,  he  was 
to  be  president  of  his  new  republic.  Tow- 
ards the  end  of  stmimer  (August,  1806) 
Burr  departed  on  a  second  Western  tour. 
For  a  year  a  vague  suspicion  prevailed 
throughout  the  country  that  Burr  was  en- 
gaged in  a  scheme  for  revolutionizing 
Mexico — an  idea  agreeable  to  the  Western 
people  because  of  the  existing  difficulties 
with  Spain.  It  was  believed,  too  (for  so 
Burr  had  continually  hinted),  that  such 
a  scheme  was  secretly  favored  by  the 
government.  Under  this  impression 
Burr's  project  received  the  countenance 
of  several  leading  men  in  the  Western 
country.  One  of  the  first  things  which 
Burr  did  after  his  arrival  in  Kentucky 
was  to  purchase  an  interest  in  a  claim  to 
a  large  tract  of  land  on  the  Washita 
River,  under  a  Spanish  grant  to  the  Bai'on 
de  Bastrop.  The  negotiation  was  car- 
ried on  through  Edward  Livingston  at 
New  Orleans.  The  avowal  of  an  intention 
to  settle  on  these  lands  might  cover  up  a 
far  different  design.  Blennerhassett  now 
joined  Burr  actively  in  his  enterprise.  To- 
gether they  built,  with  the  money  of  the 


former,  fifteen  boats  on  the  Muskingum 
River;  and  negotiations  were  set  on  foot 
with  an  Ohio  senator  to  furnish  supplies 
for  an  army  in  the  West  and  the  purchase 
of  two  gunboats  he  was  building  for  the 
government.  A  mercantile  house  at  Mari- 
etta, in  which  Blennerhassett  had  been  a 
partner,  was  authorized  to  purchase  pro- 
visions, and  a  kiln  was  erected  on  Blen- 
nerhassett Island  for  drying  corn  to  fit  it 
for  shipment.  Young  men  enlisted  in  con- 
siderable numbers  for  an  expedition  down 
the  Mississippi,  about  which  only  mys- 
terious hints  were  given. 

Meanwhile  Wilkinson  had  arrived  at 
Natchitoches  to  repel,  with  500  or  600 
troops,  a  Spanish  invasion  of  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Orleans  from  Texas.  There  a 
young  man  appeared  in  camp  with  a  let- 
ter of  introduction  from  Jonathan  Day- 
ton, of  New  Jersey,  to  Colonel  Cushing,  the 
senior  officer  next  to  Wilkinson.  He  also 
slipped,  unobserved,  a  letter  into  Wilkin- 
son's hand,  from  Burr,  which  was  a  for- 
mal letter  of  introduction.  It  contained 
a  letter  from  Burr,  principally  written  in 
cipher.  Circumstances  seem  to  show  that 
Wilkinson  was  at  this  time  privy  to,  if 
not  actually  engaged  in,  Burr's  scheme. 
The  cipher  letter  informed  Wilkinson  that 
he  (Burr)  had  arranged  for  troops  under 
different  pretexts  at  different  points,  who 
would  rendezvous  on  the  Ohio  by  Nov. 
1 ;  that  the  protection  of  England 
had  been  secured;  that  Truxton  had  gone 
to  Jamaica  to  arrange  with  the  English 
admiral ;  that  an  English  fleet  would  meet 
on  the  Mississippi;  that  the  navy  of  the 
United  States  was  ready  to  join ;  that  final 
orders  had  been  given  to  his  friends  and 
followers ;  that  Wilkinson  should  be  sec- 
ond to  Burr  only;  that  the  people  of  the 
country  to  which  they  were  going  were 
ready  to  receive  them ;  and  that  their 
agents  with  Burr  had  stated  that,  if  pro- 
tected in  their  religion,  and  not  subject- 
ed to  a  foreign  government,  all  would  be 
settled  in  three  weeks.  The  plan  was  to 
move  detachments  of  volunteers  rapidly 
from  Louisville  in  November,  meet  Wil- 
kinson at  Natchez  in  December,  and  then 
to  determine  whether  to  seize  Baton  Rouge 
(then  in  possession  of  the  Spaniards  as 
a  part  of  west  Florida)  or  pass  on.  En- 
closed in  the  same  packet  Avas  a  letter, 
also    in    cipher,    from    Jonathan    Dayton, 


489 


BURR,    AARON 


telling  Wilkinson  he  would  surely  be  dis- 
placed at  the  next  meeting  of  Congress, 
and  added,  "  You  are  not  a  man  to  de- 
spair, or  even  to  despond,  especially  when 
such  prospects  offer  in  another  quarter. 
Are  you  ready?  Are  your  numerous  as- 
sociates ready?  Wealth  and  glory!  Lou- 
isiana and  Mexico! — Dayton." 

The  correspondence,  in  cipher  and  other- 
wise, between  Wilkinson  and  Burr  for 
several  months  previously  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  former  was,  at  that 
time,  engaged  in  Burr's  scheme,  and  that 
the  latter  relied  upon  him.  Intimations 
in  the  letters  of  a  design  to  seize  newly 
acquired  Louisiana  startled  Wilkinson, 
and  he  resolved  to  make  the  best  terms 
he  could  with  the  Spanish  commander  on 
the  Sabine  and  hasten  back  to  New  Or- 
leans to  defend  it  against  any  scheme  of 
conquest  there  which  Burr  might  con- 
template or  attempt.  This  design  he  com- 
municated to  Gushing,  and  obtained  from 
the  bearer  of  the  letters  such  information 
as  excited  his  alarm  to  a  high  pitch.  The 
young  man  (named  Swartwout)  stated 
that  he  and  another  (named  Ogden)  had 
been  sent  by  Burr  from  Philadelphia;  that 
they  had  carried  despatches  from  .Burr  to 
General  Adair,  of  Kentucky,  who  was  a 
party  to  the  scheme ;  that  they  hastened 
towards  St.  Louis  in  search  of  Wilkinson, 
but  learned  at  Kaskaskia  that  he  had  de- 
scended the  river;  that  they  followed  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Red  River,  when  Ogden 
went  on  to  New  Orleans  with  despatches  to 
Burr's  friends  there,  and  he  (Swartwout) 
had  hastened  to  Wilkinson's  headquarters. 
He  said  Burr  was  supported  by  a  numer- 
ous and  powerful  association,  extending 
from  New  York  to  New  Orleans;  that 
several  thousand  men  were  prepared  for 
an  expedition  against  the  Mexican  prov- 
inces; that  the  Territory  of  Orleans  would 
be  revolutionized — for  which  the  inhabi- 
tants were  quite  ready ;  that  he  supposed 
some  "  seizing "  would  be  necessary  at 
New  Orleans,  and  a  forced  "  transfer  "  of 
the  bank ;  that  an  expedition  was  to  land 
at  Vera  Cruz  and  march  thence  to  the 
Mexican  capital ;  that  naval  protection 
would  be  furnished  by  Great  Britain; 
and  that  Truxton  and  other  officers  of 
the  navy,  disgusted  with  the  conduct  of 
the  government,  would  join  in  the  enter- 
prise. 


After  gathering  all  the  information  pos- 
sible, Wilkinson  sent,  by  express,  two  let- 
ters to  President  Jefferson — one  official, 
the  other  confidential,  in  which,  without 
mentioning  any  names,  he  gave  a  general 
outline  of  the  proposed  expedition;  and 
then  pushed  forward  to  the  Sabine.  He 
sent  orders  to  the  commanding  officer  at 
New  Orleans  to  put  that  place  in  the  best 
possible  condition  for  defence,  and  to  se- 
cure, if  possible,  by  contract,  a  train  of 
artillery  there  belonging  to  the  French. 
Having  made  a  satisfactory  arrangement 
with  the  Spanish  commander,  Wilkinson 
hastened  back  to  Natchitoches,  where  he 
received  a  letter  from  St.  Louis  informing 
him  that  a  plan  to  revolutionize  the 
Western  country  was  about  to  explode ; 
and  that  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Orleans  Territory  had.  com- 
bined to  declare  themselves  independent 
on  Nov.  15.  Wilkinson,  alarmed,  or- 
dered Gushing  to  hasten  down  with  the 
troops,  while  he  sped  to  Natchez;  whence 
he  sent  a  second  special  messenger  to 
the  President  with  duplicates  of  his  for- 
mer letters,  and  another  declaring  that 
a.  conspiracy  really  existed;  and  author- 
ized the  messenger  to  mention  the  names 
of  Burr,  Dayton,  Truxton,  and  others  as 
apparently  engaged  in  the  enterprise.  He 
informed  Governor  Claiborne,  of  the  Or- 
leans Territory,  that  his  government  was 
menaced  by  a  secret  plot,  and  took  other 
measures  for  its  defence.  At  New  Orleans 
W'ilkinson  procured  a  meeting  of  the  mer- 
chants, to  whom  he  and  Governor  Clai- 
borne made  an  exposition  of  Burr's  suspect- 
ed projects.  BoUman,  an  agent  of  Burr 
there,  with  Swartwout  and  Ogden,  were 
arrested,  and  the  militia  of  the  Territory 
were  placed  at  Wilkinson's  disposal.  Great 
excitement  now  prevailed  on  the  lower 
Mississippi  and  on  the  Ohio  and  its  tribu- 
taries. A  series  of  articles,  inspired,  no 
doubt,  if  not  written,  by  Burr,  had  ap- 
peared in  an  Ohio  newspaper,  signed 
"  Querist,"  arguing  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  separation  of  the  Western  States  from 
the  Union.  Similar  articles  had  appeared 
in  a  Democratic  paper  at  Pittsburg.  In 
Kentucky  were  many  uneasy  aspirants  for 
political  power,  and  an  old  story  of  Span- 
ish influence  there — through  pensioners 
upon  the  bounty  of  Spain — was  revived. 
Burr's  enterprise  became  associated  in  the 


490 


BURR,    AARON 


public  mind  with  the  old  Spanish  plot; 
and  Burr  and  his  confederates,  offended 
by  what  they  deemed  Wilkinson's  treach- 
ery to  their  cause,  associated  him  with 
the  Spanish  intriguers.  These  hints, 
reaching  the  lower  Mississippi,  embar- 
rassed Wilkinson;  for  it  was  intimated 
that  he  was  also  connected  with  the 
schemes  of  Burr.  General  Jackson — who 
had  favored  Burr's  schemes  so  long  as 
they  looked  only  towards  a  seizure  of 
Spanish  provinces — alarmed  by  evidences 
that  he  had  wicked  designs  against 
the  Union,  wrote  to  Governor  Claiborne 
(with  the  impression  that  Wilkinson  was 
associated  with  Burr ) ,  warning  him  to  be- 
ware of  the  designs  of  that  officer  and 
the  ex- Vice-President.  "  I  hate  the  Dons," 
Jackson  wrote  (Nov.  12,  1806)  ;  "  I  would 
delight  to  see  Mexico  reduced;  but  I 
Avould  die  in  the  last  ditch  before  I  would 
see  the  Union  disunited." 

Daviess,  United  States  district  attorney 
for  Kentucky,  watched  Burr,  and  finally 
applied  to  the  court  for  process  for  his 
arrest.  Burr  was  summoned  before  a 
grand  jury  (Nov.  25),  but,  the  attorney 
failing  to  get  such  witnesses  as  he  desired, 
the  jury  not  only  failed  to  find  a  bill,  but 
declared  their  belief  that  Burr  intended 
nothing  against  the  integrity  of  the  Union. 
This  triumph  for  Burr  was  celebrated  by 
a  ball  at  Frankfort.  Meanwhile  the 
President  of  the  United  States  had  com- 
missioned Graham,  secretary  of  the  Or- 
leans Territory,  to  investigate  the  reports 
about  Burr,  and,  if  well  founded,  to  take 
steps  to  cut  short  his  career.  On  Nov.  27 
the  President  issued  a  proclamation  that 
he  had  been  informed  of  an  unlawful 
scheme  set  on  foot  for  invading  the  Span- 
ish dominions;  warning  citizens  of  the 
United  States  not  to  engage  in  it;  and 
directing  all  in  authority  to  endeavor  to 
suppress  it.  Before  this  Graham  had 
drawn  from  Blennerhassett  facts  of  great 
importance  (for  the  latter  took  the  sec- 
retary to  be  one  of  Burr's  confidants) ,  and 
applied  to  the  governor  of  Ohio  for  the 
seizure  of  the  boats  on  the  Muskingum. 
The  legislature,  then  in  session,  granted 
the  request.  A  few  days  afterwards  sev- 
eral boats,  in  charge  of  Colonel  Tyler, 
filled  with  men,  descended  the  Ohio  to 
Blennerhassett's  Island.  Blennerhassett, 
informed   of   the   seizure   of  his  boats   on 

49 


the  Muskingum,  and  that  a  body  of  militia 
was  coming  to  seize  those  at  the  island, 
hastily  embarked  (Dec.  13)  with  a  few  of 
his  followers,  and  descended  the  river  in 
Tyler's  flotilla.  The  next  day  a  mob  of 
militia  took  possession  of  the  island,  deso- 
lated it,  and  even  insulted  Mrs.  Blenner- 
hassett, who  succeeded  in  obtaining  an 
open  boat  and  following  her  husband  down 
the  river. 

The  legislature  of  Kentucky  speedily 
passed  a  similar  act  for  seizures  to  that 
of  Ohio.  Tyler,  however,  had  already 
passed  Louisville.  They  were  joined  by 
Burr,  and  the  flotilla  passed  out  into  the 
Mississippi  and  stopped  at  Chickasaw 
Bluffs  (now  Memphis),  where  Burr  at- 
tempted to  seduce  the  garrison  into  his 
service.  Burr  now  first  heard  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  legislature  of  the  Orleans  Ter- 
ritory, before  which  Wilkinson  had  laid 
his  exposure  of  the  schemes.  Perceiving 
what  he  might  expect  at  New  Orleans,  and 
fearful  that  the  authorities  of  Mississippi 
might  arrest  him  at  once.  Burr  passed  to 
the  west  side  of  the  river,  out  of  their 
jurisdiction,  where  he  formed  a  camp,  30 
miles  above  Natchez.  Under  the  procla- 
mation of  the  President,  a  militia  force 
was  raised  to  arrest  Burr.  He  made  an 
unconditional  surrender  to  the  civil  au- 
thority, and  agreed  that  his  boats  should 
be  searched  and  all  arms  taken.  Before 
this  was  accomplished  his  cases  of  arms 
were  cast  into  the  river ;  and  as  no  evi- 
dence of  any  hostile  intention  was  found, 
a  belief  prevailed  that  he  was  innocent  of 
any  of  the  designs  alleged  against  him. 
Burr  was  brought  before  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  Territory,  and  was  not  only 
not  indicted  by  the  grand  jury,  but  they 
presented  charges  against  the  governor 
for  calling  out  the  militia  to  arrest  him. 
Burr  spoke  bitterly  of  Wilkinson  as  a 
traitor,  and,  fearing  to  fall  into  his  hands, 
he  resolved  to  disband  his  men  and  fly. 
He  told  them  to  sell  what  provisions  they 
had,  and,  if  they  chose,  to  settle  on  his 
Washita  lands.  They  dispersed  through 
the  Mississippi  Territory,  and  furnished 
an  abundant  supply  of  school-masters, 
singing-masters,  dancing-masters,  and  doc- 
tors. A  reward  was  offered  for  the  capt- 
ure of  Burr,  and  he  was  arrested  (Feb. 
19,  1807)  by  the  Register  of  the  Land- 
oflice,  assisted  by  Lieut,  (afterwards 
1 


BUBR—BUEBOWS 


Maj. -Gen.)  Edmund  P.  Gaines,  near 
Fort  Stoddart,  on  the  Tombigbee  River, 
in  eastern  Mississippi.  An  indictment 
for  high  treason  was  found  against  Burr 
by  a  grand  jury  for  the  District  of 
Virginia.  He  was  charged  with  levying 
war,  by  the  collection  of  armed  men  at 
Blennerhassett's  Island,  within  the  do- 
minion of  Virginia.  He  was  also  charged 
with  concocting  a  scheme  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  national  authority  in  the 
Western  States  and  Territories.  On  these 
charges  he  was  tried  and  acquitted. 

After  his  acquittal  Burr  went  to  England 
and  sought  to  engage  that  or  some  other 
European  government  in  his  project  for 
revolutionizing  Mexico.  Pressed  by  his 
creditors,  he  lived  a  miserable  life,  in 
poverty,  in  Lorfdon  and  Paris.  Becoming 
subject  to  suspicion  in  London  as  a  French 
spy,  he  was  driven  from  the  country,  and 
took  refuge  in  Paris.  Finally,  after  long 
solicitations,  he  obtained  leave  to  return, 
and  appeared  in  New  York  in  1812,  Avhere 
he  resumed  the  practice  of  law;  but  he 
lived  in  comparative  poverty  and  obscurity 
until  1834,  when,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
eight,  he  married  Madame  Jumel,  a 
wealthy  woman  in  New  York,  with  whom 
he  lived  only  a  short  time,  when  they  were 
separated.    Burr's  first  wife  was  Mrs.  Pre- 


lina.  She  left  Charleston  (1812)  in  a 
vessel  to  visit  her  father  in  New  York, 
and  was  never  heard  of  afterwards.  Burr 
was  small  in  stature,  of  great  ability, 
and  fascinating  in  manners.  He  died  on 
Staten  Island,  Sept.  14,  1836. 

Burritt,  Elihu,  reformer;  born  in  New 
Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8,  1810.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  black- 
smith. In  order  to  read  the  Scriptures 
in  their  original  language,  he  learned 
CJreek  and  Hebrew,  and  read  these  with 
so  much  ease  that  he  continued  his  stud- 
ies and  mastered  many  other  languages. 
He  was  called  "  the  learned  blacksmith." 
He  became  a  reformer,  and  went  to  Eng- 
land in  1846,  where  he  formed  the  "  League 
of  Universal  Brotherhood,"  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  war,  slavery,  and  other  national 
evils.  He  was  appointed  United  States 
consul  at  Birmingham  in  1865,  and  re- 
turned home  in  1870.  He  died  in  New 
Britain,  March  9,  1879. 

Burrows,  William,  naval  officer;  born 
in  Kensington  (now  a  part  of  Philadel- 
phia), Oct.  6,  1785;  entered  the  navy,  as 
midshipman,  November,  1799;  and  served 
under  Preble  in  the  war  against  Tripoli. 
In  March,  1807,  he  was  promoted  to  lieu- 
tenant, and,  early  in  the  War  of  1812-15, 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  sloop-of- 


THE    BURROWS    MEDAL. 


vost,  the  Avidow  of  a  British  officer,  by  war  Enterprise.  On  Sunday,  Sept.  5,  1813, 
whom  he  had  a  daughter.  Theodosia.  She  he  fought  the  British  brig  Boxer,  with  the 
became  an  accomplished  woman,  and  the  Enterprise,  off  Portland,  Me.  The  Boxer 
wife  of  Governor  Allston,  of  South  Caro-    was   vanquished,   but   Burrows   was   slain. 

492 


BUSHYHEAD— BUTLER 


For   this   exploit,    Congress   voted   a   gold 
medal  to  his  nearest  male  relation. 

Bushyliead,  Jesse,  jurist;  was  a  self- 
educated  man;  became  greatly  honored  in 
the  Cherokee  Nation;  and  was  chief-jus- 
tice there  for  many  years.  He  died  in 
the  Cherokee  Nation,  July  17,  1844. 

Bute,  John  Stuart,  Earl  of,  states- 
man; born  in  Scotland  in  1713;  succeeded 
to  his  father's  titles  and  estates  when  he 
was  ten  years  of  age;  and,  in  1736,  mar- 
ried the  only  daughter  of  Lady  Mary 
Wortley  Montagu.  In  February,  1737,  he 
was  selected  one  of  the  sixteen  representa- 
tive peers  of  Scotland,  and  appointed  lord 
of  the  bedchamber  of  the  Prince  of  Wales 
in  1738.  The  beautiful  Princess  of  Wales 
gave  him  her  confidence  on  the  death  of 
her  husband  in  1751,  and  made  him  pre- 
ceptor of  her  son,  afterwards  King  George 
HI.  Over  that  youth  he  gained  great 
influence.  When  he  ascended  the  throne, 
in  1760,  George  promoted  Bute  to  a  privy 
councillor,  and,  afterwards,  a  secretary  of 
state;  and,  when  Pitt  and  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle  retired  from  the  cabinet,  Bute 
was  made  prime  minister.  He  soon  be- 
came unpopular,  chiefly  because  the  King 
had  discarded  the  great  Pitt,  and  pre- 
ferred this  Scotch  adventurer,  whose  bad 
advice  was  misleading  his  sovereign.  In- 
sinuations were  rife  about  the  too  inti- 
mate personal  relations  of  Bute  and  the 
young  King's  mother,  who,  it  was  believed, 
ruled  both  the  King  and  his  minister;  and 
a  placard  appeared  in  front  of  the  Royal 
Exchange,  in  large  letters,  "  No  petticoat 
government — no  Scotch  minister— no  Lord 
George  Sackville!"  Bute  was  vigorously 
attacked  by  John  Wilkes  in  his  'North 
Briton.  The  minister's  unpopularity  in- 
creased. Suspicions  of  his  being  bribed 
by  the  enemies  of  England  were  rife; 
and,  perceiving  a  rising  storm  that  threat- 
ened to  overwhelm  him  with  disgrace, 
Bute  suddenly  resigned  his  office  (April 
7,  1763),  but  nominated  his  successor.  He 
retired  to  private  life,  passing  his  time 
between  England  and  Scotland  in  the  en- 
joyment of  an  ample  fortune.  He  pub- 
lished, at  his  own  expense  ($50,000),  a 
work  on  botany,  in  9  volumes,  printing 
only  twelve  copies  to  make  the  work 
scarce.  He  died  in  London,  March  10,  1792. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  lawyer 
and  soldier;  born  in  Deerfield,  N.  H.,  Nov. 


5,  1818;  was  graduated  at  Waterville  Col- 
lege, Me.,  in  1838;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1841;  and  continued  the  practice 
until  1861,  with  a  high  reputation  as  a 
criminal  lawyer.  He  was  an  active  poli- 
tician  in   the   Democratic  party  until   its 


BKNJAMIX    FR-4N'KLIN   BnTLER. 

disruption  at  Charleston  in  I860:  and  he 
had  served  as  a  member  of  both  Houses 
of  the  Massachusetts  legislature.  As 
brigadier  -  general  of  militia  he  hastened 
towards  Washington,  on  the  call  of  the 
President,  with  troops,  in  April,  1861,  and 
landed  at  Annapolis.  He  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Department  of  Annapolis, 
which  included  Baltimore  {q.  v.).  At 
the  middle  of  May  he  was  made  major- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  Department  of  Virginia,  with 
headquarters  at  Fort  Monroe,  where  he 
held  as  contraband  all  fugitive  slaves.  In 
August  (1861),  an  expedition  which  he 
commanded  captured  forts  Hatteras  and 
Clarke;  and,  in  the  spring  of  1862,  he 
led  another  expedition  for  the  capture  of 
New  Orleans,  in  which  he  was  successful. 

In  New  Orleans  he  elicited  unbounded 
praise  from  loyal  people  because  of  his 
vigor  and  efficiency,  and  created  the  most 
intense  hatred  of  himself  personally 
among  the  Confederates  by  his  restrictive 
measures*.  On  his  arrival  he  seized  the 
fine  St.  Charles  Hotel,  and  made  it  his 
headquarters.  The  mayor  of  the  city, 
John  T.  Monroe,  took  an  attitude  of  de- 
fiance. He  refused  to  surrender  the  city, 
or  take  down  the  Louisiana  flag  from  the 


403 


BUTLER,     BENJAMIN     FRANKLIN 


city  hall.  The  editor  of  the  True  Delta 
refused  to  print  Butler's  proclamation  in 
hand-bill  form.  The  general  invited  the 
city  authorities  to  a  conference.  The 
mayor  at  first  refused  to  go,  but  finally 
went  to  the  St.  Charles,  with  Pierre  Soule 
(formerly  member  of  Congress)  and  other 
friends.  They  persisted  in  regarding 
Louisiana  as  an  independent  nation,  and 
the  National  troops  as  invaders  or  in- 
truders. An  immense  and  threatening 
mob  had  collected  in  the  streets  in  front 
of  the  St.  Charles.  Butler  had  placed 
troops  there  and  a  cannon  for  the  protec- 
tion of  headquarters.  The  commander 
sent  him  word  that  the  mob  was  pressing 
hard  upon  him.  "  Give  my  compliments 
to  General  Williams  "  ( the  commander ) , 
said  Butler ;  "  and  tell  him  if  he  finds  he 
cannot  control  the  mob  to  open  upon  them 
with  artillery."  The  mayor  and  his 
friends  sprang  to  their  feet,  exclaiming, 
"  Don't  do  that,  general ! "  "  Why  not, 
gentlemen?"  said  Butler;  "the  mob  must 
be  controlled.  We  can't  have  a  disturb- 
ance in  the  street."  The  mayor  went  to 
a  balcony,  informed  the  mob  of  the  gen- 
eral's order,  and  persuaded  them  to  dis- 
perse. Butler  read  a  proclamation  which 
he  had  prepared  to  Soule,  who  declared  it 
would  give  great  ofi'ence;  that  the  people 
were  not  conquered  and  would  never  sub- 
mit, and  uttered  a  threat  in  smooth  terms. 
To  this  Butler  replied:  "I  have  Jong 
been  accustomed  to  hear  threats  from 
Southern  gentlemen  in  political  conven- 
tions; but  let  me  assure  the  gentlemen 
present  that  the  time  for  tactics  of  that 
nature  has  passed,  never  to  return.  New 
Orleans  is  a  conquered  city.  If  not,  why 
are  we  here  ?  How  did  we  get  here  ?  Have 
you  opened  your  arms,  and  bid  us  wel- 
come? Are  we  here  by  your  consent? 
Would  you  or  would  you  not  expel  us  if 
you  could?  New  Orleans  has  been  con- 
quered by  the  forces  of  the  United  States, 
and,  by  the  laws  of  all  nations,  lies  sub- 
ject to  the  will  of  the  conqueror."  These 
utterances  indicated  the  course  General 
Butler  intended  to  pursue  in  New  Orleans 
and  in  the  Department  of  the  Gulf;  and, 
within  twenty  -  four  hours  after  he  had 
taken  possession  of  the  city,  there  was  a 
perfect  understanding  between  him  and 
the  people  of  their  mutual  relations.  But- 
ler,  at  the   same  time,   took  pains   to  re- 


move all  causes  for  unnecessary  irritation, 
and  removed  his  headquarters  from  the 
St.  Charles  to  a  private  residence. 

At  the  beginning  of  September,  18G2, 
Butler  was  satisfied  that  the  Confederates 
had  abandoned  all  ideas  of  attempting  to 
retake  New  Orleans,  so  he  proceeded  to 
"  repossess  "  some  of  the  rich  districts  of 
Louisiana.  He  sent  Gen.  Godfrey  Weitzel 
with  a  brigade  of  infantry,  with  artillery, 
and  Barnet's  cavalry,  late  in  October,  into 
the  region  of  the  district  of  La  Fourche, 
west  of  the  Mississippi.  On  Oct.  27  Weit- 
zel had  a  sharp  fight  at  Labadieville  with 
Confederates  under  General  McPheeters. 
They  were  on  both  sides  of  the  Bayou  La 
Fourche,  with  six  pieces  of  cannon.  These 
Weitzel  attacked  with  musketry  and  can- 
non. The  Confederates  ■  were  driven  and 
pursued  about  4  miles.  Weitzel  lost 
eighteen  killed  and  seventy-four  wounded. 
He  cajatured  268  prisoners  and  one  can- 
non. He  then  proceeded  to  open  commu- 
nication with  New  Orleans  by  the  bayou 
and  the  railway  connecting  Brashear  (af- 
terwards Morgan)  City  with  it.  The  whole 
country  was  abandoned,  and  the  troops 
were  received  with  joy  by  the  negroes. 
All  industrial  operations  there  were  par- 
alyzed, and  General  Butler,  as  a  state  pol- 
icy and  for  humane  purjjoses,  confiscated 
the  entire  property  of  the  district,  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  take  charge  of 
it,  and  set  the  negroes  to  work,  by  which 
they  were  subsisted  and  the  crops  saved. 
Two  congressional  districts  in  Louisiana 
were  thus  "  repossessed,"  and  the  loyal  cit- 
izens of  New  Orleans  elected  to  seats  in 
Congress  Benjamin  F.  Flanders  and  Mi- 
chael Hahn.  In  December,  1862,  General 
Butler  was  succeeded  by  Gen.  N.  P. 
Banks  [q.  v.).  in  command  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Gulf.  Late  in  1863,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  Department  of 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  his 
force  was  designated  the  Army  of  the 
James.  After  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
against  Fort  Fisher,  in  December,  1864, 
General  Butler  retired  to  his  residence  in 
Massachusetts.  He  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1866,  and  was  one  of  the  princi- 
pal managers  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  conducting  the  impeachment  of 
President  Johnson.  He  was  a  Republi- 
can Congressman  until  1875,  and  again  in 
1877-79.     In  1883  he  was  Democratic  gov- 


494 


BUTLER,  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 


ernor  of  Massachusetts,  and  in   1884  the    hold   that   rebellion   is   treason,   and   that 


People's  party  candidate  for  President. 
He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  11, 
1893. 

Farewell  Address  in  tfew  Orleans. — As 
before  stated,  General  Butler  was  super- 
seded by  General  Banks  in  December,  1862. 
The  latter  assumed  command  of  the  army 
and  Department  of  the  Gulf  on  the  16th, 
and  the  same  day  General  Butler  issued 
the  followinsr  address : 


Citizens  of  New  Orleans, — It  may  not 
be  inappropriate,  as  it  is  not  inopportune 
in  occasion,  that  there  should  be  address- 
ed to  you  a  few  words  at  parting,  by  one 
whose  name  is  to  be  hereafter  indissolubly 
connected  with  your  city.  I  shall  speak 
in  no  bitterness,  because  I  am  not  con- 
scious of  a  single  personal  animosity. 
Commanding  the  Army  of  the  Gulf,  I 
found  you  captured,  but  not  surrendered; 
conquered,  but  not  orderly;  relieved  from 
the  presence  of  an  army,  but  incapable  of 
taking  care  of  yourselves.  So  far  from 
it,  you  had  called  upon  a  foreign  legion 
to  protect  you  from  yourselves.  I  restored 
order,  punished  crime,  opened  commerce, 
brought  provisions  to  your  starving  peo- 
ple, reformed  your  currency,  and  gave  you 
quiet  protection,  such  as  you  had  not 
enjoyed  for  many  years.  While  doing 
this,  my  soldiers  were  subjected  to  oblo- 
quy, reproach,  and  insult.  And  now,  speak- 
ing to  you,  who  know  the  truth,  I  here 
declare  that  whoever  has  quietly  remain- 
ed about  his  business,  affording  neither  aid 
nor  comfort  to  the  enemies  of  the  United 
States,  has  never  been  interfered  with  by 
the  soldiers  of  the  United  States.  The 
men  who  had  assumed  to  govern  you  and 
to  defend  your  city  in  arms  having  fled, 
some  of  your  women  flouted  at  the  pres- 
ence of  those  who  came  to  protect  them. 
By  a  simple  order  (No.  28)  I  called  upon 
every  soldier  of  this  army  to  treat  the 
women  of  New  Orleans  as  a  gentleman 
should  deal  with  the  sex,  with  such  effect 
that  I  now  call  upon  the  just-minded 
ladies  of  New  Orleans  to  say  whether 
they  have  ever  enjoyed  so  complete  pro- 
tection and  calm  quiet  for  themselves  and 
their  families  as  since  the  advent  of  the 
United  States  troops.  The  enemies  of  my 
country,  unrepentant  and  implacable,  I 
have    treated    with    merited    severity.      I 


treason  persisted  in  is  death,  and  any  pun- 
ishment short  of  that  due  a  traitor  gives 
so  much  clear  gain  to  him  from  the  clem- 
ency of  the  government.  Upon  this  thesis 
have  I  administered  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  because  of  which  I  am  not 
unconscious  of  complaint.  I  do  not  feel 
that  I  have  erred  in  too  much  harshness, 
for  that  harshness  has  ever  been  exhibited 
to  disloyal  enemies  of  my  country,  and 
not  to  loyal  friends.  To  be  sure,  I  might 
have  regaled  you  with  the  amenities  of 
British  civilization,  and  yet  been  within 
the  supposed  rules  of  civilized  warfare. 
You  might  have  been  smoked  to  death 
in  caverns,  as  were  the  covenanters  of 
Scotland,  by  the  command  of  a  general 
of  the  royal  house  of  England;  or  roast- 
ed like  the  inhabitants  of  Algiers  during 
the  French  campaigns ;  your  wives  and 
daughters  might  have  been  given  over  to 
the  ravisher,  as  were  the  unfortunate 
dames  of  Spain  in  the  Peninsular  War;  or 
you  might  have  been  scalped  and  toma- 
hawked as  our  mothers  were  at  Wyoming, 
by  savage  allies  of  Great  Britain,  in  our 
own  Revolution ;  your  property  could  have 
been  turned  over  to  indiscriminate  "  loot," 
like  the  palace  of  the  Emperor  of  China ; 
works  of  art  which  adorned  your  buildings 
might  have  been  sent  away,  like  the  paint- 
ings of  the  Vatican ;  your  sons  might  have 
been  blown  from  the  mouths  of  cannon, 
like  the  Sepoys  of  Delhi ;  and  yet  all  this 
would  have  been  within  the  rules  of  civil- 
ized warfare,  as  practised  by  the  most 
polished  and  the  most  hypocritical  na- 
tions of  Europe.  For  such  acts  the  rec- 
ords of  the  doingg  of  some  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  your  city  towards  the  friends  of 
the  Union,  before  my  coming,  were  a  suffi- 
cient provocative  and  justification.  But 
I  have  not  so  conducted.  On  the  contrary, 
the  Avorst  punishment  inflicted,  except 
for  criminal  acts  punishable  by  every 
law,  has  been  banishment,  with  labor,  to 
a  barren  island,  where  I  encamped  my  own 
soldiers  before  marching  here.  It  is  true, 
I  have  levied  upon  the  wealthy  rebels,  and 
paid  out.  nearly  half  a  million  of  dollars 
to  feed  40,000  of  the  starving  poor  of  all 
nations  assembled  here,  made  so  by  this 
war.  I  saw  that  this  rebellion  was  a  war 
of  the  aristocrat  against  the  middling 
men;  of  the  rich  against  the  poor;  a  war 


495 


BUTLER 

of  the  land-owner  against  the  laborer;  empire  the  sun  ever  shone  upon — return 
that  it  was  a  struggle  for  the  retention  to  your  allegiance.  There  is  but  one  thing 
of  power  in  the  hands  of  the  few  against  that  stands  in  the  way.  There  is  but  one 
the  many;  and  I  found  no  conclusion  to  thing  that  this  hour  stands  between  you 
it  save  in  the  subjugation  of  the  few  and  and  the  government,  and  that  is  slavery, 
the  disenthrahnent  of  the  many.  I  there-  The  institution,  cursed  of  God,  which  has 
fore  felt  no  hesitation  in  taking  the  sub-  taken  its  last  refuge  here,  in  His  provi- 
stance  of  the  wealthy,  who  had  caused  the  dence  will  be  rooted  out  as  the  tares  from 
war,  to  feed  the  innocent  poor,  who  had  the  wheat,  although  the  wheat  be  torn  up 
suffered  by  the  war.  And  I  shall  now  leave  with  it.  I  have  given  much  thought  to 
you  with  the  proud  consciousness  that  I  this  subject.  I  came  among  you,  by  teach- 
earry  with  me  the  blessings  of  the  humble  ings,  by  habit  of  mind,  by  political  posi- 
and  loyal  under  the  roof  of  the  cottage  tion,  by  social  affinity,  inclined  to  sustain 
and  in  the  cabin  of  the  slave,  and  so  am  your  domestic  laws,  if  by  possibility  they 
quite  content  to  incur  the  sneers  of  the  might  be  with  safety  to  the  Union, 
salon  or  the  curses  of  the  rich.  I  found  Months  of  experience  and  of  observation 
you  trembling  at  the  terrors  of  servile  have  forced  the  conviction  that  the  exist- 
insurrection.  All  danger  of  this  I  have  ence  of  slavery  is  incompatible  with  the 
prevented  by  so  treating  the  slave  that  safety  either  of  yourselves  or  of  the 
he  had  no  cause  to  rebel.  I  found  the  Union.  As  the  system  has  gradually  gi'own 
dungeon,  the  chain,  and  the  lash  your  only  to  its  present  huge  dimensions,  it  were  best 
means  of  enforcing  obedience  in  your  ser-  if  it  could  be  gradually  removed,  but  it 
vants.  I  leave  them  peaceful,  laborious,  is  better,  far  better,  that  it  should  be, 
controlled  by  the  laws  of  kindness  and  taken  out  at  once  than  that  it  should 
justice.  I  have  demonstrated  that  the  longer  vitiate  the  social,  political,  and 
pestilence  can  be  kept  from  your  borders,  family  relations  of  your  country.  I  am 
I  have  added  a  million  of  dollars  to  your  speaking  with  no  philanthropic  views  as 
wealth  in  the  form  of  new  land  from  regards  the  slave,  but  simply  of  the  effect 
the  battue  of  the  Mississippi.  I  have  of  slavery  on  the  master.  See  for  your- 
cleansed  and  improved  your  streets,  ca-  selves.  Look  around  you  and  say  whether 
nals,  and  public  squares,  and  opened  new  this  saddening,  deadening  influence  has 
avenues  to  unoccupied  land.  I  have  given  not  all  but  destroyed  the  very  framework 
you  freedom  of  elections,  greater  than  you  of  your  society.  I  am  speaking  the  fare- 
have  ever  enjoyed  before.  I  have  caused  well  words  of  one  who  has  shown  his 
justice  to  be  administered  so  impartially  devotion  to  his  country  at  the  peril  of 
that  your  own  advocates  have  unanimous-  his  life  and  fortune,  who  in  these  words 
ly  complimented  the  judges  of  my  appoint-  can  have  neither  hope  nor  interest,  save 
ment.  You  have  seen,  therefore,  the  benefit  the  good  of  those  whom  he  addresses ;  and 
of  the  laws  and  justice  of  the  government  let  me  here  repeat,  with  all  the  solemnity 
against  which  you  have  rebelled.  Why,  of  an  appeal  to  Heaven  to  bear  me  wit- 
then,  will  you  not  all  return  to  your  al-  ness,  that  such  are  the  views  forced  upon 
legiance  to  that  government — not  with  me  by  experience.  Come,  then,  to  the  im- 
lip  service,  but  with  the  heart?  I  con-  conditional  support  of  the  government, 
jure  you,  if  yovi  desire  to  see  renewed  Take  into  your  own  hands  your  o\vn  in- 
prosperity,  giving  business  to  your  streets  stitutions:  remodel  them  according  to  the 
and  wharves — if  you  hope  to  see  your  city  laws  of  nations  and  of  God,  and  thus  at- 
become  again  the  mart  of  the  Western  tain  that  great  prosperity  assured  to  you 
world,  fed  by  its  rivers  for  more  than  by  geographical  position,  only  a  portion 
3,000  miles,  draining  the  commerce  of  a  of  which  was  heretofore  yours, 
country  greater  than  the  mind  of  man  Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  lawyer; 
hath  ever  conceived — return  to  your  al-  born  in  Kinderhook  Landing,  N.  Y.,  Dec. 
legiance.  If  you  desire  to  leave  to  your  17,  1795:  studied  law  with  Martin  Van 
children  the  inheritance  you  received  of  Buren  in  Hudson,  and  subsequently  be- 
your  fathers — a  stable  constitutional  gov-  came  his  partner.  In  1825  he  was  ap- 
ernment — if  you  desire  that  they  should  pointed  one  of  the  three  commissioners  to 
in  the  future  be  a  portion  of  the  greatest  revise  the  Statutes  of  New  York;  in  1833- 

496 


BUTLER 

38  was  Attorney  -  General  of  the   United  in    the    battle    of    Churubusco,    Aug.    22, 

States;  and  in  1836-37  was  acting  Secre-  1847. 

tary  of  War.    In  1837  he  became  Professor  Butler,  Richard,  military  officer;  born 

of  Law  in  the  University  of  the  City  of  in  Ireland;  cam6  to  America  before  1760; 

New  York.    He  was  the  author  of  Outlines  was   a  lieutenant-colonel  in   the   Pennsyl- 

of    the    Constitutional    History    of    New  vania  line  in  the  Continental  army,  and 

York.     He  died  in  Paris,  France,  Nov.  8,  also  of  Morgan's  rifle  corps  in  1777.     But- 

1858.  ler  served  throughout  the  war;  was  agent 

Butler,    John,    Tory    leader;    born    in  for   Indian   affairs  in  Ohio   in   1787;    and 

Connecticut;    was    in   official    communica-  was    with    St.     Clair    in    his    expedition 

tion   with   the   Johnsons   in   the   Mohawk  against   the    Indians,   late   in    1791,    com- 

Valley  before  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  manding  the  right  wing  of  his  army,  with 

was  colonel  of  a  militia  regiment  in  Try-  the   rank   of  major-general.      In   that   ex- 

on  county,   N.   Y.     In   1776  he  organized  pedition   he   was   killed   by   Indians   in    a 

a  band  of  motley  marauders — white  men  battle  in  Ohio,  Nov.  4,  1791. 

and  Indians,  the  former  painted  and  be-  Butler,  Thomas,  military  officer ;   born 

having  like  savages.     He  was  in  command  in  Pennsylvania   in   1754;    was  in  almost 

of  them  in  the  battle  of  Oriskany  (q.v.),  every    important    battle    in    the    Middle 

and    of     1,100    men    who     desolated    the  States  during  the  Revolution.    At  Brandj^- 

Wyoming  Valley  in  July,  1778.    He  fought  wine   and   at   Monmouth   he    received   the 

Sullivan    in    the    Indian    country    in    cen-  thanks   of   his    commanders    (Washington 

tral  New  York  in  1779,  and  accompanied  and   Wayne)    for    skill   and   bravery.      In 

Sir    John    Johnson    in    his    raid    on    the  1791  he  commanded  a  battalion  under  St. 

Schoharie    and    Mohawk     settlements     i'n  Clair,  and  was  twice  wounded  at  the  de- 

1780.     After  the  war  Butler  went  to  Can-  feat    of    that    leader,    where    his    brother 

ada,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  British  gov-  Richard    was    killed.      He    died    in    New 

ernment  with  places  of  emolument  and  a  Orleans,  Sept.  7,  1805. 

pension.      He    died    in    Niagara    in    1794.  Butler,  William,  military  officer;  born 

His   son,   Walter,   was   a   ferocious   Tory,  in  Prince  William  county,  Va.,  in   1759; 

and  was  killed  during  the  war.  graduated  at  the  South  Carolina   College 

Butler,  Matthew  Calbraith,  military  in  1779;   entered  the  Revolutionary  army 

officer;  born  in  Greenville,  S.  C,  March  8,  the    same    year;     served    under    Pulaski, 

1836;    educated    at    the    South    Carolina  Pickens,  and  Lee;  organized  a  regiment  of 

College;    admitted    to    the    bar    in    1857;  mounted    rangers;    rose    to    the    rank    of 

joined   the   Confederate   army   as    captain  brigadier  -  general ;    member    of    Congress, 

in  June,  1861,  reaching  the  rank  of  major-  1801-13.      He    died    in    Columbia,    S.    C, 

general.     At  the  battle  of  Brandy  Station  Nov.   15,  1821. 

he  lost  his  right  leg.     United  States  Sen-  Butler,  William  Orlando,  military  offi- 

ator,  1877-95.  cer;    born   in   Jessamine    county,   Ky.,    in 

Butler,  Pierce,  statesman;  born  in  Ire-  1791;   graduated  at  Transylvania  Univer- 

land,  July  11,  1744.     He  entered  the  Brit-  sity  in  1812;  in  the  War  of  1812  he  took 

ish    army    in    1761;    resigned    before    the  part  in  the  engagements  of  Raisin  River, 

Revolution,     and    settled    in    Charleston,  Pensacola,   and   New  Orleans;    major-gen- 

S.  C;   member  of  Congress,   1787,  and  of  eral  during  the  Mexican  War,  distinguish- 

the     Federal     Constitutional     Convention,  ing  himself  at  Monterey;   succeeded  Gen- 

where  he  supported  the  "  Virginia  "  plan ;  eral  Scott  in  the  command  of  the  army  in 

United  States  Senator,  1789-96  and  1802-  Mexico;    candidate    for    Vice-President   in 

4.    He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  15,  1822.  1848  on  the  ticket  with  General  Cass.     He 


Butler,  Pierce  Mason,  military  officer 
born  in  Edgefield,  S.  C,  April  11,  1798 
entered  the  United  States  army  in  1819 


died  in  Carrollton,  Ky.,  Aug.  6,  1880. 

Butler,  Zebulon,  military  officer;  born 
in  Lyme,  Conn.,  in  1731;  served  in  the 
resigned,  1829 ;  served  in  the  Seminole  French  and  Indian  War  and  in  the  expe- 
War;  governor  of  South  Carolina,  1838;  dition  to  Havana  in  1762,  when  he  became 
re-entered  the  army  in  1846  as  colonel  of  a  captain.  He  settled  in  the  Wyoming 
the  Palmetto  Regiment,  which  he  led  with  Valley,  Pa.,  in  1769,  and  was  there  when 
great   gallantry    at    Cerro    Gordo;    killed    the  valley  was  invaded  by  Tories  and  Ind- 

497 


H 


BUTTERFIELD— BYBD 

ians  undei-  Col.  John  Butler  in  1778.  In  jor-general  for  "gallant  and  meritorious 
defence  of  the  inhabitants  he  commanded  service,"  and  was  for  some  years  head  of 
the  feeble  force  there,  but  was  unable  to  the  sub-treasury  in  New  York  City.  He 
prevent  the  massacre  that  took  place,  died  in  Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.,  July  17,  1901. 
The  next  year  he  accompanied  Sullivan  Butterworth.,  Benjamin,  statesman; 
in  his  expedition  into  the  Indian  country  born  in  Warren  county,  0.,  Oct.  22,  1822; 
in  central  New  York,  and  served  during  educated  at  Ohio  University;  member  of 
the  remainder  of  the  war.  He  died  in  Congress,  1879-83;  1884-90  commissioner 
Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  July  28,  1795.  of   patents,    1883   and    1897.      He   died   in 

Butterfield,    Daniel,    military    officer;    Thomasville,  Ga.,  Jan.  16,  1898. 
born    in    Utica,    N.    Y.,    Oct.    31,     1831;        Butts,  Isaac,  journalist;  born  in  Wash- 
graduated  at  Union  College  in   1849;   be-    ington,   N.   Y.,  Jan.    11,    1816;    edited  the 

Rochester  Advertiser,  1845-49,  and  the 
Rochester  Union,  1857-64;  originated  the 
doctrine  of  ."'  Squatter  Sovereignty,"  or 
"  Popular  Sovereignty  " — that  the  people 
of  each  Territory  should  decide  the  ques- 
tion of  slavery  for  themselves.  He  died  in 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  20,  1874. 

Byrd,  William,  colonial  official;  born 
in  Westover,  Va.,  March  16,  1674.  In- 
heriting a  large  fortune,  and  acquiring  a 
good  education,  he  became  a  leader  in  the 
promotion  of  science  and  literature  in 
Virginia,  and  was  made  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London.  Long  receiver- 
general  of  the  revenue  in  Virginia,  he  was 
also  three  times  made  agent  of  that  colony 
in  England,  and  was  for  thirty  -  seven 
years  a  member,  and  finally  president, 
of  the  King's  council  of  the  colony.  He 
was  one  of  the  commissioners,  in  1728, 
for  running  the  boundary  -  line  between 
came  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  soon  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  He  made 
after  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War,  notes  of  his  operations  and  the  incidents 
and  took  part  in  campaigns  under  Gen-  thereof,  which  form  a  part  of  the  West- 
erals  McClellan,  Burnside,  Hooker,  and  over  Manuscripts,  published  by  Edmund 
Pope.  He  was  Hooker's  chief-of-staff  at  Ruffin  in  1841.  In  1733  he  laid  out  the 
the  battle  of  Lookout  Mountain.  At  the  cities  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  Va. 
close   of   the    war    he   was   brevetted   ma-    He  died  Aug.  26,  1744. 

498 


DANIEL    BUTTERFIELD. 


/ 


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